ELECTRIC RESISTANCE WELDING

0. INTRODUCTION:
Electric resistance welding is an important and widely applied
non-fusion welding process. This write-up covers the basic principles
of various resistance welding processes, effects of the parameters,
applications of these processes and the equipments needed for them.
When a high electric current is passed through a small area of
two butting metal surfaces, heat is generated at the interface.
Heat generated H = I2 X R2 X t
Where
I - current passed
R - resistance of the interface
t - time of application of current.
When the interface attains a coalescent state, a huge pressure
is applied to the heated interface to form the weld joint. Sheets,
tubes, wires or even rods can be welded using various resistance
welding processes. The parameters viz., current, time of application
of current, pressure, duration of pressure applied and electrodes
depend on the process used, materials to be welded, thickness of the
job and also the application to which the welded joint is put in.
1.0 RESISTANCE WELDINGPROCESSES.
The following five are the main types of resistance welding,
1. Spot welding
2. Seam welding
3. Proiection weldina
4. Upset butt welding
5. Flash butt welding

Resistance heating also forms a part of the heal input in stud

welding and percussion welding.
1.1 SPOT WELDING :
1.1.1 PROCESS:
In this type of welding, after proper cleaning of the surfaces, the
metals to be welded are kept one above the other and two copper
electrodes are kept on both sides of the plates, as shown in (Fig.1).
The weld cycle consists of four periods as shown in the (Fig.2).
a) SQUEEZE TIME:
A pressure is applied to the electrodes and maintained for a
particular interval before further operations start and this time is
called squeeze time.
b) WELD TIME:
This is the period during which the weld current is applied. The
duration of application of current is always measured in terms of the
number of cycles; each cycle corresponds to 20 ms.
(1/Linefrequency). The pressure is also maintained during this time.
c) HOLD TIME:
After the passage of current is cut off, the pressure has to be
maintained for a brief interval of time so that the heated metal
solidifies and forms a weld nugget. This period is called hold time.
d) OFF-TIMF :
This is the time for which we have to wait at the end of the spot
welding before starting any other welding operation on the materials.
Usually resistance welding is carried out at line frequency (50
Hz) but for some applications high frequency (450 KHz) resistance
welding is also employed.
1.1.2. EFFECT OF THE PARAMETERS..

The passage of more current than what is required causes the

following defects.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

Weld expulsion
Cavitation
Weld cracking
Reduced mechanical properties
Electrode embedment in the surface

On the other hand, less current results in :

i.
Requirement of oversized electrodes.
ii.
Reduction in the weld properties.
iii.
Unfused interface.
HIGHER PRESSURE CAUSES..
A. Lowering of contact resistance and hence less heat generated.
B. High distortion as against the following defects due to 'less
pressure..
i. Pitting
ii. Reduction in electrode life.
C. Expulsion of metal from within the weld along with more weld time
results in :
i. Boiling
ii. Porosity
iii. Plastic contact surfaces
iv. Growth of nugget upto electrode faces.
The uniformity of the weld depends on the cleanliness of the surface.
Rough estimates of parameters are given by hand-books for different
materials and thicknesses. Based on these values trials can be
conducted on the welding machine available in order to fix the exact
parameters, as the parameters vary slightly from machine to machine
in the case of resistance welding.
When two plates of two different thickness are to be welded, the weld
nugget grows towards the thicker side.

When two plates of different electrical conductivities are resistance

welded, the weld nugget grows towards the higher resistivity side. In
the above two cases, the upper and lower electrodes of different
diameters, are to be chosen.
1.1.3. STRENGTH OF SPOT WELDING:
Because spot welding has generally replaced riveting in many
applications, it is reasonable to compare these two processes for
strength. Often, riveted joints are designed on the basis d = 1.2 t,
where 'd' is the rivet diameter and 't' is the sheet thickness. In a
riveted joint, the holes for the plate weakens the plate. With a spot
welded joint, the weld is integral with the plate so that the only
weakening occuring is that due to the softening effect of the welding
heal. Higher efficiencies can therefore be achieved in welding. Since
weld diameter is so closely related to electrode tip diameter, the later
maybe quoted for spot welding and the electrode diameter d is made
equal to t. d2 = (0.1 + 2t ) is another empirical formula used in the
case of plates which are not very thick or thin. It is important to
recognize when considering the strength of a spot weld that in a
sheet metal the weld is rarely, if ever, stressed solely in shear
because of distortion which take place round the weld under load.
Under these conditions the ductility of the parent metal at the
periphery of the metal can have a dominating influence. A useful
indication of weld ductility is obtained by taking the ratio of crosssection strength (ft) and shear strength (fs). This ductility ratio ft/fs
approaches 1 for maximum ductility and approaches 0 where
extreme brittleness is present.
1.1.4. HEAT DISTRIBUTION IN SPOTWELDING:
Besides the resistance at the interface, there are six other
resistances through which the same welding current is passed.
They are:
i.
ii.
iii.

Resistance of the upper electrode R1

Resistance of the upper electrode metal contact - R2
Resistance of the top metal - R3

iv.
v.
vi.

Resistance of the bottom metal - R4

Resistance of the metal - bottom electrode contact R5
Resistance of the bottom electrode- R6

Therefore, some amount of heat is generated in these regions also

(equal to 12 x R x t).
The effective heat that is utilized is that due to the resistance at the
metal metal interface only, the others being losses.
Among the above six resistance, R2 and R5 are high compared to
the other four. These two can be minimized by properly choosing the
electrode pressure and cleaning the surface well.
The heat distribution in spot welding is as shown in (Fig.3)
1.1.5. SPOT WELDING OFDIFFERENT METALS:
Though mild steel is the metal most commonly used, any prime
metal or alloy can be successfully spot welded provided that machine
with suitable capacity and control gear is employed. Three points to
be borne in mind while employing resistance spot welding.
i. The capacity of the machine will vary according to, the electrical
conductivity of the material.
ii. Unstable alloys should always be welded as rapidly as possible.
iii. Welds in materials whose properties are much affected by
changes of temperature, can frequently be improved by subsequent
heat treatment.
1.1.5.1 LOW CARBON STEEL:
Normally, mild steel can be spot welded from the thinnest
gauges to a maximum of two pieces of 12mm thickness. The
restriction on the upper side is derived from the fact that with heavier
material it is very difficult to concentrate the heat and the pressure at
the point of the weld. If rust or scale is present, the time of welding
may have to be considerably increased in some cases, the
mechanical pressure and the electrical power may also have to be
increased by 25% or even 50%.

1.1.5.2 STAINLESS STEEL :

Stainless steel is having lower thermal conductivity compared
to mild steel.
Therefore, it requires less heat input. But, stainless steel losses about
50% its tensile strength if heated above 700 800 oC, and if it is
maintained at this temperature for more than an extremely short
duration, this material losses its corrosion-resisting properties. From
these factors, the following requirements can be derived for spot
welding of stainless steels.
i.
ii.
iii.

Short welding time in order to limit the area of metal heated.

Very good cooling.
Increase in mechanical and electrical power input by 50% to
1 00%.

1.1.5.3 NICKEL AND MONEL METAL :

While spot welding these materials, the settings are to be
property maintained. Welding time, in this case, is only 50% of the
time for spot welding mild steel sheets of the same thicknesses. The
mechanical pressure applied for spot welding of these metals is only
half of that required for mild steel because the metal will get damaged
if subjected to stresses in the heated condition. Also, adequate
support has to be given while welding. Upto 6mm sheets can be
welded.
1.1.5.4 COPPER:
Resistance welding copper is perhaps the most difficult case
owing to the high electrical and thermal conductivities of copper. If is
not possible to obtain sufficient heat from the resistance of the metal
or the joint and is therefore necessary to increase the resistance
between the outer surface of the sheets and the tips. This can be
realised by employing high resistant electrodes and low mechanical
pressure. The heat at the joint is produced by conduction from
outside. It is extremely difficult to spot weld copper strips thicker than
1.5mm.

1.1.5.5 ALUMINIUM AND ITS ALLOYS.

High currents and shorter welding times are necessary for
these materials. Special cleaning of the surface is warranted in order
to remove the oxide film if high quality welds are required. The
material is first degreased with trichloroethylene, pickled by dipping in
a suitable etching solution, washed and dried.
Here, the upper limit is 6mm thickness plate.

1.1.5.6 COATED STEELS-TERNEPLATE GALVANISED IRON ETC.

To prevent the electrodes sticking to the sheets, better cooled,
shallow domed tips should be employed; at regular intervals the
electrodes are to be cleaned with emery cloth. 25% greater electrical
power and shorter welding time are to be used because there is a
danger of the coating material penetrating the sheet and causing
brittle welds if the current is left on too long. The mechanical pressure
and the electrode materials are the same as for mild steel.
1.1.6 APPLICATION OF SPOTWELDING:
As described earlier, spot welding can be employed for Al, Cu,
Ni and Mg alloys. It is not advisable to spot weld steels with carbon
content greater than 0.25% unless post weld heat treatment facilities
are available and possible. Spot welding is used in aircraft industry,
automobile industry, rail car industry, instrument industry and for
making attachment braces, bracket pads, clips and sheet metal parts
like cases, covers, bases and trays.
1.1.7 STITCH WELDING:
Here, a series of overlapping spot welds are made with the spot
welding machine using the conventional electrode tip. Both water
tight and gas tight joints can be made using this process. With this
process, welds of same quality as that by using seam welding can be
attained. This is more advantageous than seam welding in the sense
that it can be used with irregular and awkward type jobs, where a
wheel-type electrode cannot enter. The stitch welding is much slower
than seam welding.

1.1.8 MASH STITCH WELDING:

An overlap of about 1.15mm is kept and then the plates are
squeezed flash by application of pressure at hot condition. This
process is illustrated in Fig.4(a).
Mash stitch welding is used in the fabrication of truss doors,
filler cap, one piece blanks etc. Special electrodes are designed for
the shape of the jobs.
1.1.9. SERIES WELDING:
When it is convenient to approach the work from one side only
with the electrodes or where numbers of spots have to be made at
the same time, a series welding technique is employed, as illustrated
in Fig. 4(b).
1.2 SEAM WELDING:
1.2.1. PROCESS:
Seam welding is different from spot welding by the fact that
roller type electrode are used in the former case. The principle and
process of welding are the same as those for spot welding. Usually in
seam welding, the rollers are rotated over the job as the welding
proceeds. Interrupted supply of electrical power is preferred to the
smooth supply because :
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

Heat control is very good.

The seam cools under pressure at definite intervals.
Better control of flashes or burns caused by adverse
conditions of the materials is obtained.
Distortion of the job because of the over heating of materials
adjacent to the weld is less.
The weld will have less surface disturbance.

If the spots in seam welding are not overlapping, then that process
is termed as roller spot welding. Other seam welding processes are
lap seam welding, butt seam welding, mesh seam welding and high
frequency seam welding.

1.2.2. SHUNTING EFFECT:

This is illustrated in Fig.5. As seam welding (or even roller spot
welding or stitch welding) proceeds, a large fraction of the applied
current will try to pass through the already welded portion, thus
reducing the heating in the portion to be welded.
One way of overcoming this is to increase the current.
Sometimes external heating (like high frequency heating) is employed
which take care of this effect. Owing to this effect, usually seam
welding machines are bigger than spot welding machines meant for
handling the same job.
1.2.3. SELETION OF PARAMETERS:
The selection of parameters for seam welding depends mainly
on:
i.
ii.
iii.

Weld nugget size which is related to weld strength.

Probability of porosity
Designed surface condition of the finished weld.

The selection is usually done by first assuming a welding speed

and electrode force. Then, suitable current is arrived at by trial and
error, till satisfactory weld is obtained. Guidelines for the selection can
be obtained from the hand books.
To achieve a leak tight seam, the overlap should be 15% to 20% of
the nugget length, the penetration must be in range of 30% to 80%.
The effects of various parameters viz., current, electrode force, time
and preweld cleaning are the same as lin spot welding. The edges of
the electrodes are trimmed after their usage for a particular period.
This can be done in a lathe. In some welding machines, forming
rollers are fitted for this purpose.
1.2.4 SEAM WELDING OF DIFFERENTMETALS:
Seam welding can be satisfactorily applied to low carbon steel,
high carbon steel, low alloy steel and stainless steel. Aluminium,

Magnesium and Nickel alloys can also be seam welded. Seam

welding of copper and copper alloys is not recommended.
1.2.5 APPLICATIONS OF SEAMWELDING:
Lap seam welding is used for the manufacture of cans, buckets
and water tanks and for welding thin wailed large diameter pipes.
Mash seam welding is used in barrels, fridge, and cabinets
where flash butt welding appearance is required. Foil butt welding is
used for large panels. Resistance butt welding is used for large
panels. Resistance butt welding is employed for making ERW tubes.
Here, the shunting effect is taken care of by high frequency heating.
High frequency seam welding is suitable for finned tubes and
other tubings.
1.3 PROJECTION WELDING :
1.3.1 PROCESS :
Projection welding is similar to spot welding but for the fact the
welding takes place at the projections on the surface of the metals
and flat shaped electrodes are employed. The projection present
in the material to be welded can be used for localisation of spot
heating. In most cases, a projection is created at the required
place by pressing, milling or turning. When a current is passed,
the projection gets heated up (the heating being dependent on the
dimensions of the projection). The projection is squeezed by the
application of electrode force. Projection can be round, oval,
oblong, square or any convenient shape.
1.5 FLASH BUTT WELDING :
1.5.1 PROCESS:

The two pieces to be welded are pressed against each other

applying a pressure. To whatever finish the faces are machined, there
will be some protuberances which cause contacts as shown in Fig.7.
Because of the bridges present, when a high welding current is
passed, a high current density results at the contact surface. The
bridges get heated up to molten conditions since one work piece is
slowly advancing towards the other. After the faces attain a plastic
stage upsetting pressure is applied. The molten metal and some of
the impurities associated with it are expelled. Depending on the
material and contact area preheating and post-heating may be
warranted.
A flash butt welding cycle is illustrated in the Fig.10
A typical Flash butt welding sequence will comprise the following
steps.
Load machine - clamp work apply preheating force - preheat
Release preheat force to separate work pieces -Contact parts lightly
for flashing, apply welding voltage - Flash at high voltage -Flash at
normal voltage - Cut off welding current - pass up set current - Upset
- Cutoff upset current - Reclamp and post - heat- pinch off and shear
die operation - unclarnp work - Return platen and unload.
1.5.2 FLASHING:
The phenomenon of flashing is of extreme importance in
achieving satisfactory welds. Flashing can begin only after a molten
bridge has been formed somewhere along the interface. If the parts fit
accurately, difficulty in initiating the process may be experienced and
it may be necessary to level the butting surfaces to give local contact.
This procedure is much different from that for resistance pressure
welding where a good fit is desirable to exclude the atmosphere and
prevent surface contamination. In flash welding surface
contamination is removed in the spatter during flashing and molten
metal is expelled in the final upset or for going operation.
Once a molten bridge has been formed it is set in motion over the
interface by the electro/dynamic forces resulting from the distortion of
the current path through the work pieces. While it traverses over

interface at a speed of 10 cm/s. More heat is generated in the bridge

by the joule effect and is lost to the colder metal at each end.
Assuming the bridge does not freeze, it will be broken in one of two
ways. It may either explode because of the combined influence of
overheating and the pinch effect or it may race to the edge of the
work piece where it becomes extended in the form of an arc between
the work faces until it ruptures. In either event, much of the metal
contained in the bridge is propelled out of the joint as spatter.
Because there is inevitably considerable inductance in the secondary
circuit, the collapse of the electrical field at rupture results in a voltage
surge which is capable of initiating an arc, although the open circuit
voltage cannot sustain it and it is rapidly extinguished. Considerable
heat is generated in these brief arcing periods which accounts for the
efficiency of the process compared with resistance butt welding.
1.5.3. ADVANTAGE OF FLASH BUTT WELDING:
Higher weld strength - Higher production rate - Better heat
concentration simple weld surface preparation wide range of metal
welded including dissimilar metals - cleaner weld because of the
impurities being thrown out - consistency of weld results. Economy,
easy and simple weld control - Greater degree of flexibility using
preselected programme.
1.5.4. EFFECT OF PARAMETERS INFLASH BUTT WELDING..
1.5.4.1 FLASHING FEED RATE:
If excessive, there is a probability of the parts freezing together
without welding. If this is insufficient, intermittent flashing will occur
resulting in insufficient heating in the material.
1.5.4.2 FLASHING TIME:
If excessive, the material becomes too plastic to upset properly.
If this time is less, the plasticity attained is not sufficient.
1.5.4.3 FLASHING CURRENT:
If this is more than required, excessive flash is found in the
weld : deep craters are formed causing pockets and inclusions in

weld. If otherwise, there is a tendency for the materials to freeze.,

lack of plasticity is also caused.
1.5.4.4 UPSETTING CURRENT:
Too much of this parameter, causes burning of oxidation of the
material even to the extent of blowing out metal. Excessive
deformation also results. On the contrary too less of upsetting current
results in longitudinal cracking through weld area : inclusions and
voids are not properly forced out of weld.
1.5.4.5 UPSETTING FORCE:
Excess of upsetting force causes the flow lines of the material
to bend perpendicular to the welded job axis. As a consequence, poor
weld results in. If upsetting force is inadequate, oxides, inclusions and
voids can be found in the weld; cast metal may be retained in the
weld.
1.5.5 APPLICATIONS OF FLASHBUTT WELDING:
Solid and tubular structural assembly gears and rings (in
aeronautical industry) wheel rings, side rails, chain links (in
automobile industry) drill to shank welding, economizer and super
heater tubes in boilers welding of billets and slabs - strip mill tube
and pipe manufacture.
2.0 EQUIPMENT FOR RESISTANCE WELDING :
2.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATION :
2.1.1 GENERAL CONSTITUENTS OF RESISTANCE WELDING
EQUIPMENT :
The equipment for resistance welding is different from that for
arc welding for the following reasons :
Resistance welding machines are complicated and very costly.
Automation and controls are more in these. Many resistance welding
equipments are custom - built. The machines can be operated with
single phase of three phase mains. The equipment may be direct energy or stored energy machines. All the resistancewelding

machines require a low voltage,high current output (current of the

order ofthousand to lakhs of amperes).
Four main constituents are:
1. Eleetheal Power sou"2. Mechanical system3. Control equipment4.
Feeding system.
2.1.2. SINGLE PHASE VS THREEPHASE MACHINES:
The resistance welding machines can beconnected either across
44OV mains(across two lines). or three phase mains.Among the
three phase machines,frequency converter and rectifier systems
are the two main categories. (Fig.9) givesthe line diagrams of single
phase and threephase machines.
Single phase machines are simpler, less
costly and cheaper than three phaseequipments. Maintenance and
installationare easier wdh single phase machines. Thesingle phase
machines having the samecapacfty as the three phase
machines,possess the same performancecapabildies. The power
factor is lower (40to 50%) in the former case, but a high KVAdemand
is required for a brief period.Unless the loads are properly
recalculatedand properly redistributed and designed,heavy flickers (cyclic and non-eyraicvoftage reductions) will resufts. Though thetotal
load is not much, fixed charges arehigh (because of trend by service,
powerfactor, wnnected load). Because of the
frzwili"nru in tha en@nnfinml thpower factor in the case of three phasemachines is.85% or more.
They are notgenerally suitable for welding of thin metalor weld times
of three cycles or less isrequired. Three phase transformersgenerally
have not been applied to multipleelectrode or multiple
transformermachinessince balancing is otherwise
@ ie in those cases.
POSSID

2.1.3 STORE[) ENERGY EQUIPMENTS:

Energy ran be stored and further utilisedfor welding.
One method of storing energy is in
capacitors electrostatically. Such machineswere introduced during the
World War 11. InIndia also they are now beingmanufactured. Energy
can be storedelectro-chemically in batteries. In Japan, acircuit
(Fig.13) has been developed toutilise car batteries for this puwse.
Other modes of ston'n?,energy are(i) in a magnetic circuft r a reactor)
electromagnetically and
mechanically (Fly wheel).

(ii)

in

rotatingapparatus

electro

2.1.4. CONTROLS FOR RESISTANCEWELDING MACHINES:

The main controls required for a resistancewelding machine are :
i. lnftiation and termination of the current.
ii. Controlling the rnagndude of the current.iii. Timing and controlling
the mechanical
operations of the welding machine.
Three main categories of controls are:
a. Welding contactors
b. timing and sequence controllers andc nthpr rnntrnlq Qnd rpat
ilqtnm
2.1.4.1 : VVeidijig control is fitted ill tileprimary circuit of the welding
transformer.The coiiiactoi-s iiiay be mechanical (lootpedal) magnetic
(electromagnetic) orelectronic. ol wiiich electronic coritactorsare the
most useful and reliable.Theelectronic contacts may be
ignitroiis,.thyratroris or SCR'S. We have to go in forignition tubes ii the
primary currentexceeds 40A.

2.1.4.2 : Time and sequence controls canbe pneumatic, R-G

controlled,
motorised
ofdigital.
Synchronous
and
non
synchronouscontrois are two main possibilities. Non-synchronous
controls provide variations oftiming aria current input to the
machinefrom closing and opening of the weldingconiac,,or at ransom
points on the waveform. On the other hand, synchronouscontro@s
provide switching at the sameelectrical angle each time. Nonsynchronous controls are accurate for weldtimes of 20 cycles or
longer.
2.1.4.3 HF-AT CONTROL:
The major adjustment of the weldingcurrent is done by tap changing
For fineintermediate current control, electronic heatcontrol is used.
lgnitron tubes with SCR or thyratron firingis employed.
2.1.4.4 UPSLOPE CONTROL:
Upsiope perviiits the welding current to beincreased over several
cycles from a lowvalue to ttiat Peeded for welding, instead ofhaving
the full welding current appliedilistalitly. Tilis clitylitiates ttle expulsion
ofmetal (splashing). This is used at highcutierit values arid for.
weldiijg scally stock--@ -- -A@
2.1.4.5 DOWNSLOPE CONTROL:
This permits the welding current to decaygradually to a low value,
instead of endingsuddenly, and it helps to produce goodwelds in
some types of beat treatablemetals by lengthening the cooiifig
steels(less than 0.15% carbon). The slopecontrols ace illustrated in
(Fig. 1 1).
2.1.4.6 CURRENT AND VOLTAGFREGULATORS:
Electronic current regulators are used tomaintain a constant welding
current undersevere conditions by compensating forwelding current
variations
or
toaci
enangesresulting
from
insertion
of
magneticmaterials into the throat ot the Yveiaingmachine. Current
regulators providefeedback control of the pnase shift network
(contactor) based on the primarycurrent. Normally these regulators

maintainthe welding current within +7% of thepreset, operating value,

when there aredisturbances which can c.;@use 20%change. The
response time is usuaiiyabout 3 cycles for these devices; so
thesecircuits will be effective only where theweld time exceeds 6
cycles. The voltageregulator is more useful in the case ofseam
welding, where shunting effect ispronounced.
2.1.4.7 PREHEAT AND POSTHF-ATCONTROL:
These controls are important for flash buttwelding. The joint is first
heated up in oneor more stages by applying pressure to thejoint and
then separating it before the weldteinperatui.e is reached. Ttiis may
berepeated several times, depending on thetype of work and ttic
capacity of tticmachine in relation to the size of the Joint.
roiiers and there is a provision for relativemovement between the
electrodes and thejob.
2.2.7.1. CONSTITUENTS OF SF-AMWELDING MACHINE
The essential elements of a seam weldingmachine are..
1. Main frame containing weldingtransformer and tap switch.
li. Welding head consisting of the cylinderand head slide mechanism.
iii.Welding wheels, bearings and thesecondary connections to
thetransformer.
Generally seam welding equipment utilizesa direct acting air cylinder
for pressureapplication. Either the connection from thehead to the
piston rod is adjustable or anadjustable stroke cylinder is provided
fortaking care of electrode wear.
2.2.7.2. iNTERMiTTENT MOTION..
Most seam welding machine requirementsare met by the use of
continuous drive.However, In cases where heavy work partsare to be
welded or more than a singleweld pulse is required (for example,
whereK is necessary to apply preheat andquench and temper times

or long-wemtimes) intermittent motion must be used inorder to retain

electrode force over theweld nugget while the weld is beingcotnpieted. Continuous motion wouldresult in premature release of
electrodeforce and therefore cause cracking,porosity and
unacceptable welds. The work
travels between the electrodes the distancerequired for each
succeeding weldincrement. The work stops during the
quench and temper time where it is notrequired to move the job. The
portablewelding head is moved by rnotor-drivenwheels and air
cylinder mechanism-provides the electrode force.
Standard seam welding machines areclassified by throat depth.
2.2.7.4. DRIVING MECHANISM:i. KNURL OR FRICTION DRIVE:
This has either the upper or lower
electrode (@oi both) driven by a frictionwheel on the periphery of the
electrode. Aconstant speed is maintained regardless ofthe electrode
diameter.
ii. GEAR DRIVE
The speed decreases as the electrodewears. For seam welding of
the containerswith small diameter, this drive is effective.
2.2.7.5. SPECIAL SEAM WELDINGMACHINES
In some applications special fixtures areemployed. An example for
this is thewelding of shock absorber reserved tubecaps. Travelling
electrode and travelingfmure machines are also available. Inwelding,
in order to overcome the tincontamination of the electrodes,
separateelectrode wire is to be fed through groovesprovided on the
roller; here this wire isconsumable.
By adopting this interrupted or prencaiingprocess, ft is possible to
increase themaximum capacity of the machine, as thepreheating
operations reduce the final KVAneeded to raise the joint to

weldtemperature. In sophisticated flash buttwelding machines, the

preheating isdigitally controlled and ignftrons in thecircuit, for each
preheal cycle, the lime forwhich the jobs are in contact, the timetaken
for retraction of one job, the time forwhich the jobs are allowed to cool
and thetime for bringing the jobs together can beindependently set
with the thumb-wheel
switches. The nufflbef Of Pfebeal Cycles
can also be selected. The Fig.(12) showsthe preheat and postheat
cycles.
2.1.5 MEASUREMENTS..
Measurement of the parameters areimportant while fddng the
parameters ortesting a machine. Resistance weldinginstrumentation
system which record thevarious parameters simultaneously
withrespect to time are now available in themarket. Also, instruments
for accuratemeasurement of the secondary current,pressure, the
deflection of the electrodes,vibration of the electrodes for
hugeresistance welding machines are availablein Indian market. The
resistance weldinginstcunnentation system developed by WRIcan
measure secondary current and weldlime for spotiprojection
weldingapplications.
The primary current can be measuredusing current transformers
connected topointer stop type ammeters or storageoscilloscopes.
The primary voltage or secondary voltagecan be readily measured
using an ordinaryvoftmeter (r)referabiv oointer stor) tvne@. If a
wattmeter is also Included in the circuit
(primary) the power factor can becalculated.
Time can be conveniently measured usingstop watches in seam or
flash welding. Inspot welding, cycle counters are used. Inmany
sophisticated machines, e.Mbratedtirnefs with displays are used in
theirsequential control circuits.

Pressure is measured using strain gaugesbut location of these

require ingenuity onthe part of the operator. Now a days,pressure
transducers which are providedwith flanges for connecting in the fluid
lineare available for upto 800 kg/ern,'. Staticelectrode force can be
measured by meansof deflection gauges. This force can becalculated
from the pressure by muftiplyingit with the area of cross section of
theelectrode surface. The load cell developedby WRI can measure
the load directlybetween the electrodes for spot/projectionwe rig
machines.
2.1.6. PROTECTION..
A circuit breaker can be provided (thisequipment can be rated for
interruptedcapacity) which will cater to a number ofresistance welding
machines. The codesare o strictly followed while laying outthese
equipments to ensure safety.
2.2. SPOT, SEAM AND PROJECTIONWELDING MACHINES..
A simplified representation of a spot, seamor projection welding
machine is shown in(Fig.8). Generally a machine comprises ofa
welding transformer, tap switch and thesecon ary circuit which
includes all theconductors from the transformer secondarytprrnin,ni.c
In thp wnrknit-c@p 1 1.t-.iinliv thgarph
the extension of steel work metal orflxtures into the secondary loop
should bekept to a minimum.
2.2.6 SPOT ANL) PROJF-CTIONWELDING MACHINES:
On the basis of the mechanicalconstruction, resistance spot
weldingmachines can be of four types viz. rocker -arm, press,
portable and multiple electrodemachines. Usually projection
weidingmachines are of press or multiple electrodetype.
2.2.6.1. ROCKER-ARM MACHINES:
This is the simplest form of stationarymachines. This machine
consists of aframe that houses ilne transformer and tapswitch
vertically adjustable lower horizontalnorn, and an upper horn

mounted in arocker arm that is pivoted at the front topedge of the

t@rai-ne (Fig.14@). This type ofmachine is available in the capacity
rangeof 10 to 300 KVA (throat depths 30omm to1.2 metre). For job
shop work with shortproduction runs, foot-operated type rockerarm
machines can be used. Air operatedtype rocker arm machines are
used forshort or medium production runs whereminimum set up time
is needed. Motoroperated rocker-arm machines will besuitable for
long production runs.
2.2.6.2. PRESS TYPE MACHINES:
They have an upper electrode and weldinghead that move vertically
in a straight line.The capacity of these machines vary Troin5 to 600
KVA (throat depths upto 1.2metres).
Bench type models of this version are used
fnr rnrliri in-,tntmnnfni iinwiiirv nnel rizin#ni
work. They have throat depths of a lewhundred millimetre and are
rated below 5K'VA. Either manual, pneumatic ofhydraulic controls can
be used. Both spotand projection welding machines areavailable in
this type.
2.2.6.3. PORTABLE MACHINES:.
They are otherwise called guns. The basicunits of this type are:
i. Portable welding gun
ii. Electrical contrm such as weldingcontactor and a sequence timer.
iii. Welding transformer.
iv. Secondary cables and hose neededto carry power between the
transformerand the weldi.ig gun.
Welding force is applied by air or hydrauliccylinders. in these,
machines, secondarylosses are high and so secondary voltageis two
to four times the voltage of thetransformers of the other type.

2.2.6.4. MULTIPLE ELECTRODEMACHINES..

These are special purpose, custom-buiftmachines. These are
economical inautomobile industry. These are muftipictransformer type
machines. Each of thesetransformers will have two secondaries
andtwo electrodes are connected to eachsecondary. This type is
popular amongprojection welding machines.
2.2.7. ROLLER SPOT AND SEAMWELDING MACHINES:
Both these "rations are carried out in thesame machine. These
machines aredifferent from spot welding machines by
#be f@M fb@f fb^ -machines are of vefilcai construction. Tilethroat depth, throat height
and throat areaare shown in the (Fig. 1 3).
2.2.2. VVELDING TRANSFORMF-R-.
As mentioned already, the resistancewelding transformers step down
the linetune of 2 to 2OV. The primary is connectedto the line supply
and is made from edge-bent copper strip insulated between turnswith
the entire coil also thoroughlyinsulated.
In a typical resistance welding transformer,there are 2 coils of each 8
steps in theprimary winding. T@ne two coils can beconnected either
in series or parallel thusgiving rise to 16 different secondaryvoftages.
The secondary winding will haveprovision for water cooling.
2.2.3. DUTY (;YCLE..
The concept of 'duty cycle' is to be clearlyunderstood before
operating any machine.Unlike the are welding power sources,
theresistance welding power sources aredesignated tor 1 minute
integrating period.Suppose a machine is rated for 50% dutycycle, it
means t@nal after operating themachine for 112 min. at full load,
themachine has to be cooled tor the next 112min. The duty cycle at
loads different to thelull load can be calculated from theformula.

Duty cycle at Y kvA = (rated KVA N KVA)rated KVA.

This formula is applicable straight in thecase of underloads but while
overloading,we should not overlook ilne constraintimnn--ptl hu #h#,
mnyimeirn rnnne-ifigx-- nf thia
circuit elements e.g. diodes, contacts etc.,though the machine is
going to beoverloaded to that extent only for a verybrief period
allowed by this formula. Ineffect, this formula takes care ot thebeating
of the winding only.
2.2.4 TAP SWITCHES:
There are elements for connecting thevaf ous ps on the primary
winding of thetransformer to the power supply line. Theswitches are
usually of the rotary dead-front type and are arranged for
flashmounting in opening in the machine frameor directly on the
transformer. On verylarge transformers, spring contact switchesare
inadequate and bolted bar jumpers, areused. All the resistance
weldingtransformers are of load tap changing typeonly.
2.2.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF THESECONDARY CIRCUIT:
The dimensions of the secondary circuit insecondary loop determine
to a large extent,the performance of these machines. Thesecondary
loop Is roughly equal to thethroat area. The impedance of all the parts
the secondary loop except the weld In 1surface should be as low as
possible sothat the losses are less. The materialsused in the
secondary circuit should have alow electrical resistivity and the
dimensionsof the conductors must be just enough tocarry the current.
The throat depth anaheight of the machine should be just X duty
cycle
sullicient as to accommodate themaximum size of the job to be
welded withthat machine. The magnetic materialsinte"sed between
the arms and horns of!be machine reduces the secondary currentin
relation to the thickness of the material
2.2.8. RES!SIAN(;F- VVELDINGELECTRODES AND HOLDERS:

2.2.8.1. REQUISITES FORELECTRODES-.

The resistance welding electrodes aremeant for the following
functions:
i. Conducting electricity.
ii. Conducting @away@ the heatiii. locatingiv. forming
v. beat balancing functions.
From the above, the requirements for theelectrodes can be derived
as=.
a. mechanical strength - this ismeasured by the hardness.
b. Adequate current carrying capacity-This is given by the
electricalconductivity.
c. Provisions for cooling
d. Resistance to deformation and wearunder beat and pressure.
2.2.8.2. ELECTRODE MATERIALS:
Resistance
welder
manufacturesassociation
(RVVMA)
categorised thematerials used for resistance weldingelectrodes.

has

Group A - Copper - base alloysClass 1 Cu-Cd (1 % Cd) - high

conductivityClass 2 Cu-Cr (0.5 Cf) - high mechanical
properties.
Class 3 Cu-Be (0.5% Be, 1 % Ni 1 % Ca)- nigh wncluctivity and
Class 4 Cu -Be (1.8% Be, 0.3% Cu -- do -)
Class 5 Ai-Bronze (12% al) Flash of buttdies,Cu -Zr- Plated
rnatchals(galvanisediron or steels).

GROUP B - REFRACTORY..
Class 10, 1 1, 12 - Cu & WClass 13 - W 1
Class 14 - Mo For welding of Cu ofbrass.
2.2.8.3. SPOT AND PROJECTIONWELDING ELECTRODES.
Four main parts of the electrodes are:i. Face
ii. Shank or kody
iii. Means of attachment to the electrodeholder
iv. Provision for cooling.
Spot welding electrodes can have pointed,dome, fiat, eccentric,
truncated or radiusface. The shank may be tapered or R maybe
straight having threads for attachment.Internal cooling may be
provided orimmersion cooling, flooding or a wraparound copper tube
cooling may beadopted.
The holders may be of ejector or non-ejector type and straight,
universal or off-set models. The electrodes should beused with the
prescribed holders andadopters in order that a good weld isobtained.
Electrode
material
dressing,cooling,
cieanliness
of
the
engagementsection, proper alignment and propermachine settings
are also important. TheFig.15 shows a few types of spot
weldingelectrodes. Projection weialing electrodesusually makecontact
wfththeworkonflat
surfaces that must always be larger thanthe base diameter of the
projection.Generally flat face spot welding electrodesare used. In
cross-wire welding,rectangular bar stock is used.
The projection welding electrodes haveinternal water cooling and
replaceableinserts is used.
2.2.8.4. SEAM WELDINGELECTKC)DF-5..

These are shaped like wheels or disks.The basic considerations of

theseelectrodes are
i. Face contourii. Width
Ill. Diameter
iv. Cooling andv. Attachment.
The at)ove factors depend on thethickness, size and shape of the
work,current density, pressure requirement andthe type of drive
mechanism.
Floor cooling of top and bottom electrodesare employed. Care should
be taken topreserve the shape and cleanliness of theelectrodes.
Special types of electrodes arealso manufactured depending on
therequirements. Fig. 16 shows a few types ofseam welding rollers.
2.3. UPSET AND FLASH BUTTWELDING MACHINES:
2.3.1. UPSET BUTT WELDINGMACHINES..
These are usually small capacity horizontaltype machine. The power
source requiredfor this is a step down transformer as in thecase of
spot, seam or projection welding.
Either manual clarnping or clarnping withsprings or air cylinder is
employed. Timingis accomplished using a limit switchoperated by the
movement of the platen oran automatic timer. Upset bull
weldingmachine is similar to flash butt weldingmachine described in
detail in the nextsection.
Willi modifications, upset welding machinecan be used for forging and
shaping rods,or tubings; also metal gathering and cablesevering.
2.3.2. BASIC ELEMENTS OF FLASH-BUTT WELDING..
A flash bull welding machine is mainlycomprised are
i. Main frame

ii. Stationary Plateniii. Moving Platen

iv. Clamping mechanismv. Transformervi. Tap switch
vii. Electrical controls
vili. Flashing and upsetting mechanisms.
Platens are usually of cast or fabricatedsteel and some small
machines havebronze, cast iron of copper platens.
2.3.3. TRANSFORMER FOR FLASHBUTT WELDING:
The transformer required for flash buttwelding is similar to that
needed for otherresistance welding processes. Here, thetransformer
is to be of totally enclosed typeto prevent flash or dirt. Usually flash
buttwelding machines have very sophisticatedcontrol making the
equipment automatic.All the steps are to be preciselysynchronised
and therefore, an automaticsequential controller will be provided.
Usually a motor driven variable speedflashing can with pneumatic or
hydraulicupsetting mechanism is adopted.
Heat control is accomplished usingignitrons or magnetic contactors.
Theelectronic contacts have the followingadvantages over their
magnetic counterparts:
i. F-iimination or periodic maintenancesuch as contact dressing.
li. Control of upset current independent offlashing current.
ill. @Application of postheat current at
a value different from that of eitherflash or upset current.
iv. Use of dual flashing voltage in whichflashing action can be started
at onevoltage and switched to another withoutinterruption of the flash.
Flash butt welding machines capable ofwelding an area of 20,000
sq.mm. areavailable (1 0000 KVA)

2.3.4. FLASH AND UPSET WELDINGDIES:

In flash and upset welding the dies are notin contact wn"n the welding
area but theyfunction as work holding and currentcarrying clamps.
Contact area is large.Hard materials (Group A) are used formaking
dies. The essential requirementare that the materials have
sufficientconductivity to carry the current withoutoverheating, be rigid
enough to maintainalignment and minimize deflection and beable to
resist the adherence of flash.
3.0. TESTING OF RESISTANCEWELDS:
There are a number of destructive andnon-destructive tests available
for tostina
the weids obtained[ by resistance welding.Radiographic.or Uftrasonic
exannination isused with all types ot resistance weldingespecially
flash butt welding. Eddy currenttesting is another NDT available for
seamwelding.
The destructive tests are listed below,:
Tension shear test - Spot, seam
and projectionTension test - Spot and
projectionImpact test - Spot and
projectionFatigue test - Spotand
projectionMacro-etch test - spot, seam
flash andprojection
Torsional test - Spot,
projectionHardness test - spot, seam,
flash andprojection
Peel test - Spot andprojection
Bend test - Spot seam,
flash projectionand upset butt.
Pillow test - Seam.

4.0. ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS4.1. ADVANTAGES OF

RESISTANCE
WELDING:
1 . Resistance welding is very fastcompared to are welding.
2. Almost any combination of metalscan be resistance welded
providednecessary precautions are taken.
3. No edge preparation is needed for
res stance welding: surface cleaningwill suffice.
4. Highly skilled operators are not requiredunlike in are welding. In
resistance
@ding, once the parameters are setwel
by the engineers and supervisors, theoperator's job is restricted to
loadingand unloading of the material andoperat rig some Kno
5. No filter metal of shielding is required,hence resistance welding is
moreeconomical.
4.2 LIMITATION5 OF RESISTANCEWELDING:
1. Pressure-tight joints are achieved onlywith flash bull welding.
Resistance weldingis not recommended for high pressurejoints and
quality applications.
2. Accessibility of the joint is a restraint tothe introduction of
resistance welding toany job. Spot and seam welding can beapplied
to sheets and cans, projectionwelding can be applied to certain types
ofjoints, upset butt welding can be applied towires and tubes, Flash
butt welding can beapplied to tubes and rods. Other thanthese
applications, the scope of resistancewelding is much restricted,
3. The resistance welding machines aremore expensive compared to
the arewelding machines. Also they are 'Duiky andgenerally consist
of many sophisticatedcontrols. Therefore, they are not suitablefor
field applications.

5.0. SUPPLIERS OF RESISTANCEWELDING MACHINES IN INDIA:

The following are some
weidingmachines in India.

of

themanufacturers

of

resistance

1 .Jaya Hind Sciaky Ltd. Pune.

2. Meelnelonic weidefs Pvt. Ltd., Bombay.3. Kanubhai Eleethr-als
Pvt.Ltd., Calcutta4. Technique, Bafoda
5. Sonder Technologie Pvt Ltd., Calcutta.6. Mechelonic engineers
Ltd., Bombay
6.0. REFERENCE :
a. AWS Welding Hand Book - Vol.2b. metals hand Book - Vol.5
c. Recommended practices for ResistanceVVCiding - A:VVS
d. Oates JA, Welding EngineeCsHandbook.
e. Resistance seam Welding - WRCBuiieting
f. Houlderaft, P.T. Welding Processes.