FME 452 Questions & solutions

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES/TOUGHNESS QUESTIONS

Q41 (i) Sketch the impact energy versus temperature curve you would
expect for a Ni alloy (fcc) and a Zn alloy (hcp). Explain any differences you
predict. [8 marks]

fcc

The fcc Ni will show little or

no change in impact energy
observed with temperature
(perhaps a very slight
decrease at higher
temperatures) as yield
stress does not vary with
temperature.

Temperature
Dislocation motion is easy in the fcc system due to its large number of
close-packed planes and directions and requires little thermal activation.
As a result, the yield stress is always lower than the cleavage stress and
plastic deformation always occurs on impact.
Hence tough ductile rupture is seen at all temperatures absorbing
considerable amounts of energy => impact energy is high.

Q4 (i) Sketch the impact energy versus temperature curve you would
expect for a Ni alloy (fcc) and a Zn alloy (hcp). Explain any differences you
predict. [8 marks]
hcp
fcc

For the hcp Zn (as

mentioned in the previous
part of the question) there
are few close packed planes
and as a result thermal
activation of other slip
systems is required for
plastic deformation to occur.

Temperature
A ductile brittle transition is therefore seen. When the yield stress is
higher than the cleavage stress (at lower temperatures) then brittle
cleavage is seen which absorbs little energy => impact energy is low.
At higher temperatures the yield stress is lower than the cleavage stress
and plastic deformation occurs on impact. Hence tough ductile rupture is
seen absorbing considerable amounts of energy => impact energy is high.

Q1 (ii) What differences in fracture surface features (and hence fracture

mechanisms) would you expect in each case at high and low temperatures
respectively? Explain how these fracture surface differences arise in terms
of the fracture processes operating.[8 marks]
High and low temperature tests in fcc case will both be ductile failures. In
hcp case, high temperature test will be ductile, whilst low temperature case
will be brittle
ductile failure:
microvoid coalescence
cup-cone failure

Brittle failure: Brittle cracks travel through the grain

structure: Along crystallographic cleavage planes
(e.g. cleaving a quartz crystal, in steel the cleavage
planes are {100} type) transgranular cleavage.
Along the grain boundaries if they are embrittled
intergranular cleavage
Ductile
Fracture surface: dimpled
Deformation:
lots of plastic
Crack propagation: slow
Mode of failure:
gradual

Brittle
flat
not appreciable
fast
catastrophic

Q1 (iii) The Zn alloy has a yield strength of 250MPa and a fracture toughness (KIC)
value of 25MPam at room temperature. A load-bearing component is being
manufactured from this alloy. The smallest internal defect that can be detected is
4.5mm, whereas the smallest surface defect that can be detected is 3mm, you can
therefore assume that any component containing cracks bigger than this will be
rejected during processing. What would you define as the safe design stress at
room temperature for the component? Would this design stress still be safe in a
cryogenic (very low temperature) environment? Assume KIC = Qf(a), where Q =
1 for an internal defect and 1.1 for a surface defect. [9 marks]

25106

K
f = c =
a

f =

Kc
Q a

2.2510

= 297106 = 297MPa

25106
1.1 310

= 234 106 = 234MPa

internal
surface

f for internal defect (2a = 4.5mm) higher than for surface defect, y is in-between
these two values.
Surface defects are more deleterious, and 234 MPa should therefore be used as
the upper failure stress limit
applying an appropriate safety factor (20-50%) to define design stress gains a
mark.
At cryogenic temperatures KIC lower and y higher - new calculation needed, it is
likely that the design stress will be considerably lower.

Non-metals/creep question
Q2 (i) Why do ceramics have such high strength compared to
metals, and yet show such poor resistance to failure in the
presence of a notch? [7 marks]
Dislocations do exist in ceramics but
they have a high thermal activation
energy so only operate at high
temperatures.
Possible slip plane

When a dislocation moves in a

ceramic it cannot move to bring like
charged ions into contact => possible
dislocation slip systems are very
limited. As a result ceramics show
very high strength c.f. metals. [3
marks]

Q2 (i) Why do ceramics have such high strength compared to

metals, and yet show such poor resistance to failure in the
presence of a notch? [7 marks]
In the case of most metal systems, dislocation motion is
relatively easy, leading to lower strengths than in ceramics,
but much better ductility (2 marks).

Ceramics are stronger than metals because dislocation

motion so limited, BUT, as plastic deformation is so limited
there is no plastic deformation to relieve stress
concentrations from flaws, hence they are brittle and weak in
tension, particularly in the presence of a notch (2 marks).

Q2 (ii) How do we define creep in metals (a sketch may be helpful), and

what are the mechanisms of creep? Based on this how do you think the
creep resistance of ceramics compares with that of most metals? [8 marks]
Creep consists of increasing extension/strain being observed over time at
a constant applied load/stress. (1 mark)
In metals this time dependent and permanent deformation under load
occurs at temperatures > 0.4Tm
A secondary creep regime can be
defined where a constant strain rate is
found:

Q
= A exp

RT
n

Q2 (ii) How do we define creep in metals (a sketch may be helpful), and

what are the mechanisms of creep? Based on this how do you think the
creep resistance of ceramics compares with that of most metals? [8 marks]
Creep is a diffusion controlled mechanism in metals, mechanisms
include: bulk diffusion of atoms to relieve stresses, diffusion which
assists dislocation motion and diffusion along g.b.s allowing g.b. sliding.
To minimise g.b. sliding, g.b.s need to be minimised => single crystal
materials can be used, or coarse grains, with g.b.s parallel to the applied
stress (to minimise shear stresses needed to give rise to the sliding) (5
marks)
Ceramics have very high melting points (a reflection of their bond
strength) and so may be expected to have very good creep resistance (2
marks)

Q2 (iii) The linear growth velocity V of new crystals in a sample of cold

worked aluminium at a temperature T is:
T (C)

120

175

325

400

V (m/s)

3.19x10-8

5.08x10-6

4.51x10-2

9.31x10-1

Show graphically (or otherwise) that these results are consistent with a
diffusion-controlled growth equation, and estimate the temperature
required for a growth velocity of 10-1 m/s
The grain growth process occurs by DIFFUSION which is dependent on
Q
temperature:
D = Do exp

RT
The linear growth velocity will therefore have a similar dependence on
temperature:
Q
Q
V = A exp
lnV = ln A
RT
RT
so plotting lnV against 1/T (T in K not C) should yield a straight line, with
a negative gradient of Q/R and an intercept of lnA. See table for values:

Q2 (iii) The linear growth velocity V of new crystals in a sample of cold

worked aluminium at a temperature T is:
T (C)

120

175

325

400

V (m/s)

3.19x10-8

5.08x10-6

4.51x10-2

9.31x10-1

Show graphically (or otherwise) that these results are consistent with a
diffusion-controlled growth equation, and estimate the temperature
required for a growth velocity of 10-1 m/s
Show graph for plot and
T (C)
120
175
325
400
T (K)
393
448
598
673
determine regression line
-1
-3
-3
-3
-3
1/T (K )
2.54x10
2.23x10
1.67x10
1.49x10
-8
-6
-2
equation. Or use sets of
V (m/s)
3.19x10
5.08x10
4.51x10
9.31x10-1
lnV
-17.26
-12.18
-3.10
-0.07
simultaneous equations
0
0.00E+0
-2
0

5.00E04

1.00E03

1.50E03

2.00E03

2.50E03

3.00E03

Q
lnV = ln A
RT

-4
-6
-8

Series1

-10

Linear (Series1)
Linear (Series1)

-12
-14
-16
-18

y = -16333x + 24.228

-20
1/T

lnV = 24.28 16333

1
T

A = 3.5 1010
Q = 16333 R = 135793kJ

Q2 (iii) The linear growth velocity V of new crystals in a sample of cold

worked aluminium at a temperature T is:
T (C)

120

175

325

400

V (m/s)

3.19x10-8

5.08x10-6

4.51x10-2

9.31x10-1

Show graphically (or otherwise) that these results are consistent with a
diffusion-controlled growth equation, and estimate the temperature
required for a growth velocity of 10-1 m/s
Show graph for plot and
T (C)
120
175
325
400
T (K)
393
448
598
673
determine regression line
-1
-3
-3
-3
-3
1/T (K )
2.54x10
2.23x10
1.67x10
1.49x10
-8
-6
-2
equation. Or use sets of
V (m/s)
3.19x10
5.08x10
4.51x10
9.31x10-1
lnV
-17.26
-12.18
-3.10
-0.07
simultaneous equations
0
0.00E+0
-2
0

5.00E04

1.00E03

1.50E03

2.00E03

2.50E03

3.00E03

ln V = 24.22816333

-4
-6
-8

Series1

-10

Linear (Series1)
Linear (Series1)

-12

T =

16333
24.228ln V

1
T

-14
-16
-18

y = -16333x + 24.228

-20
1/T

then for a V=10-1 m/s, T

=744K=472C

POLYMER QUESTIONS (BUT OFTEN MIXED WITH METALS)

Q3 (i) Compare and contrast the stress-strain behaviour at room temperature of
thermoplastics, thermosets and elastomers by sketching stress-strain curves for the
three polymer classes on the same graph. Explain the differences seen in terms of
deformation mechanisms operating within the polymer structures. [10 marks]

A = thermoset, B = thermoplastic, C
= elastomer (3 marks)
Thermoset: consists of 3D network
structure of covalent bonds
polymer chains cant move with
respect to each other so brittle linear
elastic behaviour exhibited:
high stiffness, high strength, no plastic
deformation (2 marks)
Thermoplastic weak interchain Van der Waals bonding (strong intrachain covalent bonding)
-> plastic deformation occurs as chains slide past each other,
breaking these weak bonds -> yield occurs and a stable neck may form, where tangled
amorphous polymer chains start to straighten out and pack closer together in the neck region.
This transmits stress more effectively to the unnecked portion as closer packed chains are
stiffer. (3 marks)

Q3 (i) cont.

A = thermoset, B = thermoplastic, C
= elastomer
Elastomer- this is a lightly crosslinked network structure, such that
chain sliding (i.e. deformation) is still
possible, but the relative positions of
the chains are still maintained
So, when the applied stress is
released the elastomer returns to its
original shape, thus showing nonlinear elastic behaviour,
with large recoverable strains being
possible at low stresses (2 marks)

Q3 (ii) Define what is meant by crystallinity in thermoplastic polymers

[3 marks]

Crystallinity in polymers refers to more regular packing of the long

polymer chains. As the chains are of differing lengths a 100% regular
packing is difficult to achieve. The polymer chains can adopt a twisted
lamellar ribbon morphology forming spokes in a 3D spherulite, but
some part of the polymer will still have amorphous structure.

Q3 (iii) Define the stress relaxation modulus Er(t) and sketch the
expected variation in Er(t) with temperature in an amorphous
thermoplastic and 60% crystalline thermoplastic why are the 2 curves
different? [6 marks]
Er(t) = (t)/o, where (t)is the stress at time, t, and o is the applied strain
[1 mark]
Crystalline polymers stiffer and stronger :
more regular and relatively close-packed
Glassy
structure.
At low T in amorphous polymer, below Tg
CRYSTALLINE
there is no chain sliding.
At higher T, above Tg, the amorphous
polymer chains can slide -> viscoelastic
Leathery
(time dependent) behaviour.
Crystalline polymer retains stiffness - less
AMORPHOUS
energetically favourable for the chains to
move from their regular packing.
Viscous
Tg
Tm
Towards the melting point chain
movement very much easier and viscous
LowTemperatureHigh
(HighLoading rateLow)
(low stiffness behaviour) is seen.

2 marks

3 marks

Q3 (iv) An initial stress of 0.7 MPa is required to stretch a 55 mm

rubber band to 100 mm. After 17 days at 25C at the same extension,
the rubber band now only experiences a stress of 0.5 MPa. What is the
relaxation time ? What stress would be experienced by the band at the
same extension after 50 days ? State any assumptions you make.
[6 marks]
t
ln =
o
0.5 17
ln
=
=
0.7

17
= 50.52days
0.5
ln

0.7

t
ln =
o
50
50
ln
= 0.7exp
=
= 0.26MPa
0.7 50.52
50.54