Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress (1938)

The B-17 was developed in response to a 1934 specification for a United

States Army Air Corps heavy bomber. It carried a crew of 10, and over
12,000 were produced. The B-17 formed the backbone of the Allied day
bombing offensive in Europe and earned a reputation for being able to
keep flying in spite of severe battle damage.

Representative
Applications

F-18 Super Hornet taking off from USS Enterprise

aving introduced basic radar principles and

approaches to their implementation, this chapter
briefly examines representative practical uses of
radar. Some of these, such as air-to-air collision
avoidance, ice patrol, and search and rescue are primarily civil
applications. Examples of military applications are early warning and missile guidance (Fig. 3-1). Applications such as severe
weather detection, storm avoidance, and wind shear warning
have both civil and military purposes.

3.1 Weather Phenomena

Weather Detection and Prediction. We are all aware of the
havoc severe weather can wreak. Sufficiently early detection
can help reduce potentially catastrophic consequences by

Figure 3-1. This Saab Gripen fighter is equipped with a multi-function

radar system. (Courtesy of Aviation Explorer.)

37

38

PART I: Overview of Airborne Radar

Representative Airborne Radar Applications

Weather Phenomenon

Long-range surveillance

Weather prediction

Early warning

Storm avoidance

Sea surveillance

Wind shear warning

Ground battle management

Tornado warning

Low-altitude surveillance

Targeting

Navigational Aids

Marking remote facilities

Facilitating air traffic control

Avoiding air-to-air collisions

Altimetry

Blind low-altitude flight

Forward range and altitude measurement

Precision velocity update

Car collision management

Remote Sensing

Fighter/Interceptor Support

Air-to-air search

Raid assessment

Target identification

Gun/missile fire control

Missile guidance

Air/Ground Targeting

Blind tactical bombing

Terrain mapping

Strategic bombing

Environmental monitoring

Defense suppression

Law enforcement

Proximity Fuses

Blind landing guidance

Artillery

Change mapping

Guided missile

Reconnaissance and Surveillance

Search and rescue

Submarine detection

enabling both organizations and individuals to take evasive

action. Many countries have networks of ground-based pulseDoppler radars to measure and predict weather. Indeed, most
people are accustomed to interpreting rainfall radar maps when
they watch television and Internet weather reports. Weather
radars are large-scale systems typically operating within the
S- and C-bands. They are highly sensitive, which enables them
to see light rainfall as well as intense storms even out to ranges
on the order of 150 km. Weather maps for most areas may be
generated from several radars whose coverages partially overlap. Additionally, there are three common weather threats to
the safety of flight: turbulence; hail; and, particularly at low
altitudes, wind shears or microbursts. All three are common
products of thunderstorms. One of the most customary uses of
airborne weather radar is alerting pilots to these hazards.
Storm Avoidance. In a weather radar system, if the radio
frequency of transmitted pulses is appropriately chosen the

CHAPTER 3: Representative Applications

39

radar can see through clouds while still receiving echoes from
rain within them. The larger the raindrops, the stronger their
echoes. By sensing the rate of change of the strength of the
echoes range, the radar can detect thunderstorms. By scanning
a wide sector, the radar can display those regions in which
hazardous weather and turbulence are likely to be encountered. (Fig. 3-2).
Wind Shear Warning. Wind shears are strong downdrafts that
can occur unexpectedly in thunderstorms. At low altitudes the
outflow of air from the core of the downdraft can cause an aircraft to encounter an increasing headwind when flying into the
downdraft and then a strong tailwind when emerging from it
(Fig. 3-3). Without warning, this combination of conditions can
cause an aircraft that is taking off or landing to crash.
Pulse-Doppler weather radars employed in aircraft are sensitive not only to the intensity of the rainfall but also to its horizontal velocity and therefore to the winds within a storm. By
measuring the rate of change of the horizontal winds, these
radars can detect a wind shear embedded in rain as much
as 8 km ahead, giving the pilot up to around 10 seconds of
warning to take avoidance action. Radar has also been used to
detect wind shear in clear air by examining the echo response
caused by dust particles.

Figure 3-2. This shows the display of a weather radar systems view
of Hurricane Katrina, which caused devastation to New Orleans and
the surrounding area in 2008. The color-coding indicates intensity
of precipitation and turbulence. (Courtesy of National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration.)

Tornado Warning. A tornado is a violently rotating column of

air that is in contact with both the surface of the earth and,
most typically, a cumulonimbus cloud. Tornadoes are capable
of acquiring huge amounts of energy and hence can cause
widespread devastation and loss of life. Coherent pulse-Doppler radar systems have been designed to specifically enable
the detection and monitoring of tornadoes. Radar is also used
as a tool to investigate the formation of tornadoes so that their
threat and movement patterns can be better predicted.

3.2 Navigational Aids

Radar has long been used to assist with navigation. It originally
helped to guide bombing missions in World War II. Among
common navigational uses of airborne radar are marking the
locations of remote facilities, assisting air traffic control, preventing air-to-air collisions, measuring absolute altitude, providing guidance for blind low-altitude flight, and measuring
the range and altitude of points on the ground ahead. Global
Positioning System (GPS) now provides a widely used alternative to radar and in many instances has become the primary navigation tool. Radar systems are also increasingly being
employed in ground vehicles. With new cars more and more
likely to sport several radar systems, this may become their
most common use.
Marking Remote Facilities. For approaching helicopters and
airplanes, the locations of offshore drilling platforms, remote
airfields, and the like may be marked with radar beacons.
The simplest beacon, called a transponder, consists of a
receiver, a low-power transmitter, and an omnidirectional

Figure 3-3. In a typical wind shear, as an aircraft approaches the

downdraft it encounters increasing headwinds. As it emerges
from the downdraft, it encounters strong tailwinds. This can cause
instabilities with potentially catastrophic consequences.

40

PART I: Overview of Airborne Radar

antenna (Fig. 3-4). The transponder receives the pulses of

any radar whose antenna beam sweeps over it and transmits
reply pulses on a different frequency. Even though they
are low powered, the replies are still designed to be much
stronger than the radars echoes. Since their frequency is different from the radars, they are not accompanied by clutter
and hence stand out clearly on the radar display.

Radar Pulse
Reply Pulse
Transmitter

Receiver

Figure 3-4. Upon receiving a pulse from a radar system, a simple

beacon transponder transmits a reply on another frequency. This
forms the basis of navigation aids.

Transmitter
Coding

Transmitter

Synch.

Coding
Receiver

TRANSPONDER

Receiver

Coded
Reply

INTERROGATOR

Figure 3-5. In a complete radar beacon system, an interrogator

is typically synchronized with a search radar system and the
transponders replies are shown on the display.

A more capable beacon system (Fig. 3-5) includes an interrogator, which transmits coded pulses to which transponders
respond with coded replies. The most common beacons of
this sort are those used as part of air traffic control. Until
recently these were dominated by the Air Traffic Control Radar
Beacon System (ATCRBS), which is expected to be phased out.
Its replacements are the Automatic Dependent SurveillanceBroadcast System (ADS-B) and Mode Select (Mode S), which
have improved capacity to handle more aircraft and provide
more detailed flight information.
Assisting Air Traffic Control. Mode S transponders are carried
on all but the smallest private aircraft and have interrogators
that operate in conjunction with the air traffic control radar at
every major airport. An interrogators monopulse antenna is
mounted atop the radar antenna, so it moves and scans with it
(Fig. 3-6). The interrogators pulses are synchronized with the
radars. The operator can subsequently interrogate an incoming aircraft simply by touching its blip on the radar display
with a light pen.
Ordinarily the interrogator uses only two of several possible codes. One requests the identification code of the aircraft carrying the transponder, and the other requests the
aircrafts altitude. Every beacon-equipped aircraft can thus be
positively identified and its position accurately determined in
three dimensions.1 Strictly speaking, this is not a radar system.
However, its heritage and use make it a very close cousin, and
it is commonly referred to as Mode S radar.

Figure 3-6. The antenna of the beacon interrogator is mounted

on top of the air traffic control radar antenna. Through coding of
the beacon pulses and their replies, the radar is able to identify
approaching aircraft and can obtain and display flight information
such as altitude and flight number.

1. Every aircraft can be assigned a unique identification code

because 16 million are available.
2. Distance to the ground.

Avoiding Air-to-Air Collisions. The Traffic Alert and Collision

Avoidance System (TCAS) also uses ATCRBS transponders.
Typically integrated with an aircrafts weather radar, TCAS
interrogates the air traffic control transponders and whatever aircraft happen to be within the search scan of the
radar. From a transponders replies, TCAS determines their
directions, ranges, altitude separations, and closing rates.
Based on this information, the system prioritizes threats,
interrogates high-priority threats at an increased rate, and, if
necessary, gives vertical and horizontal collision avoidance
commands.
Altimetry. In many situations, it is desirable to know an aircrafts absolute altitude.2 Since beneath the aircraft there is
usually a large area of ground at very nearly the same range

CHAPTER 3: Representative Applications

(Fig. 3-7), a small low-power, broad-beam, downward-looking

radar can provide a continuous precise reading of absolute
altitude. Interfaced with the aircrafts autopilot, the altimeter
can ensure smooth tracking of the glide slope for instrument
landings. Altimetry is also used in remote sensing applications
to evaluate changes in surface height of the land and sea.
Altimeters may be continuous wave (CW) or pulsed. For military uses, the probability of the altimeters radiation being
detected by an enemy is minimized by transmitting pulses at a
very low pulse repetition frequency (PRF) and employing large
amounts of pulse compression to spread the pulses power
over a very wide band of frequencies.

41

Figure 3-7. An aircrafts absolute altitude can be precisely

determined by measuring the range to the ground beneath it with
a small low-powered, broad-beam radar.

Blind Low-Altitude Flight. Low-altitude flight is inherently dangerous but can enable a fighter, via a technique termed hedgehopping, to avoid observation and hence enemy attack. To
accomplish hedge-hopping, two basic radar modes have been
developed: terrain following and terrain avoidance.
In terrain following (Fig. 3-8), an aircrafts forward-looking
radar scans the terrain ahead by sweeping a pencil beam vertically to the horizon. From the elevation profile this obtains,
vertical steering commands are computed, supplied to the
flight control system, and used to automatically fly the aircraft
safely at terrain-skimming altitude.

Vertical Scan

Figure 3-8. For terrain following, a radar scans the terrain ahead
vertically with a pencil beam.

Terrain avoidance (Fig. 3-9) is similar to terrain following except

that periodically the radar also scans horizontally, enabling
the aircraft not only to hug the ground but also to fly around
obstacles in its path.
Unmanned air vehicles (UAVs) are being used increasingly to
replace human-operated systems. UAVs can be placed on a
precisely timed, preprogrammed, ground-hugging trajectory
along a known contour on a map. Ground clearance is measured with a very low-power radar altimeter. Since it illuminates only the ground beneath the aircraft, the possibility of
enemy detection is low. Operating at frequencies for which
atmospheric attenuation is high may further reduce this detection probability.
Forward Range and Altitude Measurement. On a bombing run
over ground that is neither flat nor level, it is often necessary to
precisely determine the range and altitude of the aircraft relative to the target. This can be done by training the radar beam
on the target and measuring the following two parameters: (1)
the antenna depression angle; and (2) the range to the ground
at the center of the radar beam (Fig. 3-10).
Monopulse may be used to center the target in the beam (see
Chapter 31). Once the target is centered, the range and the
depression angle can be measured simultaneously. The simple
geometry depicted in Figure 3-10 allows straightforward computation of the altitude of the target relative to the aircraft.

Vertical & Horizontal Scan

Figure 3-9. For terrain avoidance, the radar alternately scans terrain
ahead both vertically and horizontally.

h = R sin
R

Target

Figure 3-10. The figure depicts measurement of the range and the
relative altitude of a point on the ground. The range that the radar
measures is the one at which the elevation tracking-error signal is
zero.

42

PART I: Overview of Airborne Radar

Precision Velocity Update (PVU). As described in Chapter 1,

by measuring the Doppler frequency of the returns from three
points on the ground ahead forward-looking radar can measure the radars velocity. Such measurements can be used to
update the aircrafts inertial navigation system. If the inertial
system fails, the radar can take over. A radar system operating
in this way is known as a Doppler navigator.

Figure 3-11. Vehicular radar systems are using low cost but
sophisticated technology to improve both traffic safety and
trafficflow. (Courtesy of AutoLiv.)

Car Collision Management. Increasingly, modern vehicles

are being equipped with a suite of miniature radar systems
that provide for improved collision avoidance and navigation applications. These systems are set to become the most
numerous and, consequently, an important form of radar.
They typically are designed using a frequency modulated
continuous wave (FMCW) and emit average powers of just
a few milliwatts at an operating frequency of either 24 GHz
or 77 GHz. They can detect a variety of obstacles out to
ranges of the order of 100 m, which provides the information
necessary for collision avoidance (Fig. 3-11). Although these
systems are small and cost just tens of dollars, they offer a
sophisticated capability to resolve objects to a few tens of
cm. This high range resolution is exploited to determine the
precise position of obstacles so that early warning is provided to the driver, or, ultimately in cases of immediate danger, generates command signals that automatically allow safe
braking and steering away from the obstacle. The automotive
industry hopes this will eventually lead to collisionless and
even driverless vehicles.

3.3 Remote Sensing

Radar remote sensing applications have become increasingly
important, and they help us to understand the evolution of
our planet. These can range from crop monitoring, measurement of deforestation, and assessment of polar ice cap melting
to coastal erosion, ice patrol, high-resolution terrain mapping,
vehicle speed detection, and autonomous blind landing guidance, to name just a few. This list is ever increasing, as is the
number and variety of radar systems designed to meet such
applications. Remote sensing of the earth from space continues to grow, fueled by the need to gain a better understanding of how our planet is changing. Indeed, there are so many
space-based systems orbiting the earth that parts of it are being
mapped several times a day. Here just a few examples are
briefly reviewed.
Terrain Mapping. The earliest terrain mapping radars were
real-beam, noncoherent systems called side-looking airborne
radars (SLARs). These have a long linear array antenna that
looks out to the side of an aircraft. While the aircraft flies
in a straight line, the radar beam is dragged past a scene
of interest so that a map-like image can be formed. Most of
these systems predate digital processing, so optical scanning

CHAPTER 3: Representative Applications

processors were employed to record the radar echo data onto

photographic film. Figure 3-12 shows an SLAR being used to
map ice flows.

Pele Island

Pele Point

43

Medium Thin Ice

SLAR operates at relatively short ranges (a few tens of km)

and high frequencies (say, 35 GHz or above) so that adequately high resolutions were possible for applications such
as charting passages though ice in waters that freeze over
in wintertime. Moreover, because the radar is simple and its
antennas are fixed, it is comparatively inexpensive. However,
the coherent imaging technique synthetic aperture radar
(SAR) has become the remote sensing and surveillance tool
of choice. High-resolution SAR imaging (a few tens of cm or
less) is possible at ranges compatible with operation from a
spacecraft.
SAR has proven especially useful for highly accurate, low-cost
terrain mapping for both civil and military applications. In
addition, high-resolution, three-dimensional maps (Fig. 3-13)
can be generated using interferometric techniques. This type
of 3D imagery is increasingly being used to map much of the
surface of the planet to very high accuracies.

Cleveland.Ohio

Open Water

Brash

Figure 3-12. An ice flow on Lake Erie is mapped by a real-beam

side-looking array radar with a long, fixed array antenna that looks
out on either side of the aircraft.

Law Enforcement. Both SLAR and, increasingly, SAR have

played important roles in oil spill detection, fishery protection, and the interdiction of smugglers and drug traffickers.
Since SAR can provide fine resolution at long ranges, it has the
advantage of uncovering illicit activities without alerting the
lawbreakers (Fig. 3-14).
Blind-Landing Guidance. The ground directly ahead of an aircraft cannot be mapped with SAR, so other techniques must be
employed for landing guidance. One approach is to scan the
narrow region ahead with a monopulse antenna. At the short
ranges involved, sufficiently fine azimuth resolution may be
obtained to enable an aircrew to locate runways and markers

Figure 3-13. This shows a representative interferometric, 3D SAR

map. (Crown copyright DERA Malvern.)

Figure 3-14. A SAR map, such as might be used to interdict smugglers, shows a convoy of
trucks on an off-road trail. As indicated by the radar shadows of the trees, the map was made
from by a radar system operating at long range some distance above the top of the image.

44

PART I: Overview of Airborne Radar

(Fig. 3-15) and therefore to make autonomous approaches to

small or unimproved landing strips at night or in bad weather.
This technique is known as Doppler beam sharpening and is a
close cousin of both SAR and SLAR.

Figure 3-15. A forward-looking radar system, with a monopulse

antenna, fills in a gap in a SAR map with real-beam mapping. This
provides sufficient resolution to enable blind approaches at landing
strips where navigation aids may not be available. (Courtesy of
Northrop Grumman Corporation.)

Change Mapping. Detection of changes over time and space

provides invaluable information in many ways, such as in
coastal erosion, polar ice cap melting, and deforestation.
Figure 3-16 offers an example of noncoherent change detection showing targets detected in the first image but not the
second in blue. Targets detected in the second image but not
the first are shown in red. This allows an image analyst to be
alerted to changes on the ground that happen over time.

3.4 Reconnaissance and Surveillance

Reconnaissance and surveillance are military applications of
remote sensing, and because of the nature of warfare their
radar designs can be very different. In military operations, airborne radar has proven to be vital for its ability to see through
smoke, haze, clouds, and rain; to rapidly search vast regions;
to detect targets at long ranges; to simultaneously track a great
many targets that may be widely dispersed; and, to a degree,
to classify targets.
Four representative applications are considered here: long-range
air-to-ground reconnaissance; early warning; air-to-ground battle surveillance; and balloon-borne low-altitude surveillance.

Figure 3-16. Noncoherent change detection showing targets

detected in the first image but not the second are indicated in blue.
Targets detected in the second image but not the first are shown
in red. (Image courtesy of Air Force Research Laboratory, Sensors
Directorate, Gotcha Radar Program, Public Release Number: AFRL/
WS- 88ABW-2013-5108.)

Figure 3-17. A long-range, long-endurance unmanned

reconnaissance aircraft may relay 30 cm resolution SAR maps
via satellite directly to users in the field. (Courtesy Northrop
GrummanCorp.)

Long-Range Air-to-Ground Reconnaissance. Very high-resolution (30 cm) SAR radars provide all-weather surveillance of
military targets out to ranges of several hundred km. In fact,
as the altitude of the aircraft determines the range to the horizon it also finds the longest operational ranges. The very high
resolution provides a level of detail invaluable in pinpointing
ground targets for fighters and bombers.
SAR radars have been developed for such missions in small
pilotless reconnaissance aircraft capable of long-range endurance flight (Fig. 3-17). These radars also relay radar images of
30 cm resolution via satellite directly to users in the field. The
imagery from a SAR system is produced in real time and hence
in prodigious quantities. The quantities of data are too great
for all of it to be analyzed, even by several humans. However,
real-time automatic assessment of imagery using high-speed
computers remains a challenge, and much of the detailed interpretation must be done manually.
Early Warning and Sea Surveillance. Airborne radar can detect
low-flying aircraft and surface vessels at far greater ranges than
can a radar system on the ground or one located on the mast of
a ship. Accordingly, to provide early warning for the approach
of hostile aircraft and missiles and to maintain surveillance
over the seas radars are placed in high-flying loitering aircraft
such as the Hawkeye system and airborne warning and control
system (AWACS).

CHAPTER 3: Representative Applications

45

Because these aircraft are large and slow, the radars they carry
can employ antennas large enough to provide high angular
resolution while operating at frequencies low enough that
atmospheric attenuation is negligible. They can also transmit
very high powers.
They provide 360 coverage, detecting low-flying aircraft out
to the radar horizon (which at an altitude of 10,000 m is more
than 300 km) and higher altitude targets at substantially greater
ranges. In addition, they can simultaneously track hundreds of
targets.
Air-to-Ground Surveillance and Battle Management. Very
much as AWACS provides surveillance over a vast air space,
airborne radar can also provide surveillance over a vast area
on the ground. These radars combine high-resolution imaging
with an ability to detect ground-moving targets. This is quite
an accomplishment in a single system since the requirement
to support these two modes results in very different specifications. The moving targets are located more accurately using
monopulse, and research has shown that advanced techniques
such as displaced phase center antennas (DPCA) and spacetime adaptive processing (STAP) can help to make targets easier
to detect against a background of clutter.
Examples of such system include JSTARS, SENTINEL, and AN/
AP-12. JSTARS is equipped with a long electronically steered
side-looking antenna (Fig. 3-18) and detects and tracks moving
targets on the ground with moving target indication (MTI) and
detects stationary targets with SAR.
Flying in a racetrack pattern at an altitude of more than 10,000 m
and standing off more than 150 km behind a hostile border,
the radar can maintain surveillance over a region extending a
150 km or more miles into enemy territory. Through secure communication links, Joint STARS can provide fully processed radar
data to an unlimited number of control stations on the ground.

Figure 3-18. The passive ESA of Joint STARS radar is housed in an

8 m long radome. The radar performs SAR mapping and groundmoving target detection for tracking and surveillance in battle
management. (Courtesy US Air Force.)

Low-Altitude Air and Sea Surveillance. Maritime or sea surveillance continues to be an important function in which surface
targets from submarine periscopes to frigates are detected,
tracked and, in the case of ships, classified. High resolution is
required to eliminate clutter, to enable the detection of small
targets, and to provide the detail necessary for small boat and
ship classification.
A novel surveillance application of airborne radar is interdiction of smugglers at sea, especially those carrying drugs. For
example, the Customs Service implemented a radar fence
along the southern border of the United States by placing
large-reflector, long-range surveillance radars in tethered balloons (Fig. 3-19), and there are similar projects elsewhere in the
world. The relatively stable airborne platform is more suited to
the detection of moving targets against a background of sea
clutter. Here the craft are often smaller and fast-moving.

Figure 3-19. An aerostat carries lightweight solid-state surveillance

radar having a large parabolic reflector antenna. Tethered at
altitudes of 5000 m, the radar can detect small low altitude aircraft
at ranges out to 300 km. An aerostat can stay aloft for 30 days,
remain operational in 30 m/s winds, and survive 40 m/s winds.
(Courtesy Raytheon Company.)

46

PART I: Overview of Airborne Radar

3.5 Fighter/Interceptor Mission Support

The fighter/interceptor mission is twofold: (1) thwart attacks
by aircraft and missiles; and (2) achieve control of the airspace
over a given region. In both, the fighters radar typically plays
four vital roles: search; raid assessment; target identification;
and fire control.

Figure 3-20. Equipped with a high-power pulse-Doppler radar, the

U.S. Air Force F-16 air superiority fighter can provide surveillance
over a huge volume of airspace.

Air-to-Air Search. The extent to which a fighters radar must

search for targets varies. At one extreme, the fighter may be
vectored to intercept a target that has already been detected
and is being precisely tracked. At the other extreme, the radar
may be required to search a huge volume of air space for possible targets (Fig. 3-20).
Raid Assessment. Even if a radar has a narrow pencil beam, at
long ranges it may not be able to resolve a close formation of
approaching aircraft. Consequently, the fighters radar is usually provided with a raid assessment mode. This may require
the radar to alternate between track-while-scan to maintain
situation awareness and single-target tracking of the suspect
multiple targets in a mode providing exceptionally fine range
and Doppler resolution.

dBsm

Target Identification. To identify targets that are beyond visual

range, some means of radar identification is generally desired.
One of these is identification friend or foe (IFF). An IFF interrogator synchronized with the fighters radar transmits interrogating pulses to which transponders carried in all friendly
aircraft respond with coded replies. Despite use of sophisticated codes, the possibility of compromise is always present, so additional means of uncooperative target identification
methods have been devised.
0

Target

5
10 15
Meters
1D Signature

2D Signature

Figure 3-21. These 1D and 2D signatures of aircraft in flight were

obtained with an uncooperative target identification system.

Aim
Point

Lead

Angle

Target

Figure 3-22. In this depiction of a lead-pursuit course for firing

guns, the fighters radar automatically locks onto its target in an aircombat mode and tracks it in a single-target tracking mode.

These techniques fall into the general category of signature

identification. The unique characteristics of the echoes received
are used to identify radar targets by type. More typically this
approach involves providing sufficiently fine range resolution
so that targets may be identified by their 1D range profiles.
Going a step further, by employing inverse synthetic aperture
radar (ISAR), 2D images may be provided. Figure 3-21 illustrates the form of 1D range profiles and 2D ISAR images used
for classification.
Fire Control. Depending on a targets range, the pilot may
attack it with either the aircrafts guns or its guided missiles.
For firing guns, a selection of close-in combat modes may
be provided in which the radar automatically locks onto the
target in a single-target tracking mode and continuously supplies its range, range rate, angle, and angular rate to the aircrafts fire-control computer. The latter directs the pilot onto
a lead-pursuit course against the target (Fig. 3-22) and, at
the appropriate range, gives a firing command. Both steering
instructions and firing command are presented on a head-up
display so that pilots never need to take their eyes off the target.

CHAPTER 3: Representative Applications

47

Radar-guided missiles, however, are often fired from beyond

visual range. These are generally launched while the fighters
radar is operating in a track-while-scan or search-while-track
mode. Hence, several missiles may be launched in rapid succession and be in flight simultaneously against different targets.
Initially, the missiles are guided inertially on a lofted trajectory.
They then transition to semiactive guidance in which a radar
seeker that the missiles carry homes in on the periodic target
illumination provided by the fighters scanning radar (Figure
3-23). At close range, the seeker switches to active guidance in
which it provides its own target illumination.
An Advanced Medium-Range Air-to-Air Missile (AMRAAM) (Fig.
3-24) is equipped with a command-inertial guidance system. It
steers the missile on a preprogrammed intercept trajectory based
on target data obtained by the fighters radar prior to launch.
If the target changes course after launch, update messages are
relayed to the missile by coding the radars normal transmissions.
A receiver picks up the messages in the missile and decodes and
uses them to correct the course set into the inertial guidance
system.3 For terminal guidance, the missile switches control to a
short-range active radar seeker that it carries.

Figure 3-23. An Advanced Medium-Range Air-to-Air Missile

(AMRAAM) is test-launched from an F-35 Lightning.

3. If the missile is not in the radar beam at the time, the messages
are received via the radar antennas sidelobes.

3.6 Air-to-Ground Targeting

Radar may play an important role in a wide variety of airto-ground attacks. To illustrate, hypothetical missions of four
different types are examined: (1) tactical-missile targeting; (2)
blind tactical bombing; (3) precision strategic bombing; and (4)
ground-based defense suppression. In each, the basic strategy
is to take advantage of radars unique capabilities while minimizing radiation from the radar.
Tactical-Missile Targeting. In this hypothetical mission, an
attack helicopter lurks behind a hill overlooking a battlefield.
Only the antenna pod of a short-range, ultra-high-resolution
(millimeter wave) radar situated atop of the rotor mast shows
(Fig. 3-25). The radar quickly scans the terrain for potential targets. Automatically prioritizing the targets it detects, the radar

Figure 3-25. A small antenna of high-resolution millimeter-wave radar

sitting atop the rotor mast enables an attack helicopter to detect targets for
its launch-and-leave missiles while it keeps out of sight from the battlefield.

Figure 3-24. An AMRAAM is inertially guided on preprogrammed

intercept trajectory; it receives update messages from the radar if
the target maneuvers after launch (length 4 m; range 25+ km).

48

PART I: Overview of Airborne Radar

hands them off to a fire-control system, which aims small,

independently guided launch-and-leave missiles.
Blind Tactical Bombing. A strike aircraft is guided by an inertial navigator on a terrain-skimming course to an area where
a mobile missile launcher is believed to have been set up (Fig.
3-26). Upon reaching the area, the operator turns on the fighters radar to update the navigator and then makes a single SAR
map. With the map frozen on the radar display, the operator
places a cursor over the targets approximate location. Turning
the radar on again, the operator makes a detailed SAR map
centered on the spot designated by the cursor.
Having identified the target, the operator places the cursor over
it. Immediately, the pilot starts receiving steering instructions for
the bombing run. At the optimum time, the bomb is automatically released. By briefly breaking radio silence just three times,
the radar has provided all the information needed to score a
direct hit on the target under conditions of zero visibility.
Precision Strategic Bombing. In this mission, the flight crew of a
stealth bomber, flying at some 7000 m altitude, turns the bombers radar on just long enough to make a high-resolution map of
an area where an enemy command center has been activated.
This map, too, is frozen, but it is scaled to GPS coordinates. As
Area Photo

Area Map

Detailed Map

Target
Area

1m

4m

Offset
Approach
Course

Target
4.
Bomb
Release

1.
Update
Velocity

2.
Survey
Target Area

Bo

g
bin

Ru

3.
Designate
Target

Figure 3-26. In this representative blind bombing run, the strike aircraft scores a direct hit from an offset approach course by turning radar on
justthree times.

CHAPTER 3: Representative Applications

soon as the target is identified, the operator places a cursor over

it, thereby entering the targets GPS coordinates into the GPS
guidance system of a 2000-pound glide bomb.4 Automatically
released at the optimum time, the bomb glides out until it is
almost directly over the target (Fig. 3-27) and then dives vertically onto it with an accuracy of better than 1 m.

49

4. As a hedge against a GPS failure, alternate means of delivery are

provided.

Ground-Based Defense Suppression. Ground-based enemy

air-search radars and surface-to-air missile (SAM) sites, when
radiating, may be put out of action with high-speed antiradiation missiles (HARMs), which home in on emitted radiation from an enemy radar system.
A specially equipped aircraft, lurking at low altitude outside the
field of view of an enemy defense radar, determines its direction
and range using data received via a data link from other sources.
The flight crew preprograms a HARM to search for the radars
signals. Launched in the direction of the radar, the missile soon
acquires the radars signals. It then zooms in on and destroys the
radar before the enemy even realizes it is under attack.

3.7 Proximity Fuses

Figure 3-27. A GPS-guided bomb glides until it is almost directly

over the target designated prior to launch on a SAR map made by
the bombers radar and then dives vertically onto it.

Another important application of airborne radar is proximity

fuses (see panel alongside).

3.8 Summary
In this chapter it has been possible to look only briefly at just a
small range of representative applications. Radar systems come
in a wide variety of designs, each tailored to a very specific
application.

Further Reading
J. A. Scheer and W. L. Melvin (eds.), Principles of Modern Radar
Volume 3: Applications, SciTech-IET, 2014.

Proximity Fuses: Then

and Now
An early proximity fuse detonates an artillery shell when
the return from the ground reaches a predetermined
amplitude or detonates an anti-aircraft shell on the basis
of the change in amplitude of the received signal as the
shell approaches an aircraft.

Test your understanding

1. Name and briefly describe 10
representative applications of pulse
Doppler radar.
2. What weather phenomena can be
detected and measured using radar?
3. How do systems such as ADS-B differ
from air traffic control radar?
4. What is meant by the term change
detection?
5. What are the advantages of target
identification using radar?

In guided missiles, much more sophisticated fuses are

employed. They not only detect the presence of a target
but also are able to control the timing of the detonation
by measuring the change in Doppler frequency of the
radar return as the missile approaches the target.