2

LITERATURE REVIEW

CHAPTER
I have studied a detailed literature survey before starting the formulation of the problem and
analysis. 20 journals listed below have been reviewed. Review has been mainly made for rice
based bio-composites, natural rubber latex based bio-composites, and jute fibre composites,
which have been categorized below and presented in subsequent sections:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

Review on rice based bio-composites

Review on natural rubber latex based bio-composites
Review on jute fibre composites

Most of the issues of these journals from the year 2000 to 2012 have been surveyed.
2.1 LIST OF JOURNALS STUDIED FOR
REVIEW
S. No.

Name of Journals & Publishers

1.

Journal of Food Science and Technology (Springer Science)

2.

Journal of Polymers and the Environment

3.

Journal of Food Engineering (Elsevier Ltd.)

4.

Russian Journal of Applied Chemistry

5.

Composite Science and Technology

6.

Journal of Polymer Research

7.

Journal of Polymers and the Environment

8.

Fibers and Polymers

9.

Materials and Design, Elsevier Science Ltd.

10. Journal of Polymer Environment (Springer Science)

11. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Elsevier Science Ltd.
12.
13.

Composites: Part A, Elsevier Science Ltd.

Materials and Design, Elsevier Science Ltd.

14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.

Materials Science and Engineering: A , Elsevier Science Ltd.

Journal of Biomaterials, Elsevier Science Ltd.
Advanced Polymer Science (Springer Science)
Construction and Building Materials, Elsevier Science Ltd.

Journal of Polymer degradation and stability (Springer Science)

Journal of Materials (mdpi)
Journal of Composites Structure, Elsevier Science Ltd.

2.2 REVIEW ON RICE BASED BIOCOMPOSITES

S. Balasubramanian et. al. [9] have studied rheological and nutritional quality of ready-toeat rice
(Oryza sativa) -legume viz. black gram (Vigna mungo), green gram (Vigna radiata), lentil (Lens
culinaris) and peas (Pisum sativum) based extrudates were studied using low cost collet extruder
in 2011. Extrudates were prepared keeping constant feed rate (25 kg/h) and moisture content
(14% wb) at 0, 5, 10 and 15% legume incorporation levels. Rheological properties of porridge
made of extrudate flour were evaluated using Rapid Visco Analyser (RVA). Maximum and
minimum peak viscosity for rice extrudates alone and rice extrudates blended with 15% peas
were 697 cp and 523 cp, respectively. There was a decreasing trend in degree of gelatinization
with increase in legume incorporation level. Other RVA rheological parameters like trough break
down and final viscosity were in the range of 266-226 cp, 431-297 cp and 452-375 cp
respectively.
J. Prachayawarakorn et. al. [10] have studied biodegradable polymer from thermoplastic
waxy rice starch (TPWRS) was prepared by internal mixer and compression molding in 2011.
Since tensile properties and water uptake of the TPWRS was still the main disadvantages, the
TPWRS sample was, therefore, modified by agar and/or cotton fibers. The effect of different
ratios of agar:cotton fibers on properties of the TPWRS matrix were also studied. It was found
that new hydrogen bonds could be found for the TPWRS matrix with the addition of different
ratios of agar: cotton fibers by the detection of IR peak shift. Tensile properties of the TPWRS

sample were significantly improved by the addition of agar or cotton fibers and the highest
tensile properties were obtained from the TPWRS composite modified with 4:6 agar:cotton
fibers. In addition, thermal degradation temperature and thermal stability of the starch were
improved by the incorporation of agar and/or cotton fibers. Moreover, color measurement,
morphology, water uptake and biodegradability from soil burial test were also examined.
Jutarat Prachayawarakorn et. al. [11] have studied biodegradable polymer was prepared as
thermoplastic starch (TPS) using rice and waxy rice starches in 2011. In order to increase
mechanical properties and reduce water absorption of the TPS, cotton fiber was incorporated as
the fiber reinforcement into the TPS matrix. The effect of cotton fiber contents and lengths on
properties of the TPS was examined. Internal mixer and compression molding machine were
used to mix and shape the samples. It was found that the thermoplastic rice starch (TPRS)
showed higher stress at maximum load and Youngs modulus but lower strain at maximum load
than the thermoplastic waxy rice starch (TPWRS). In addition, stress at maximum load and
Youngs modulus of both TPRS and TPWRS increased significantly with the addition of the
cotton fiber. Cotton fiber contents and lengths also affected mechanical properties of the TPRS
and TPWRS composites. Moreover, water absorption of the TPRS and TPWRS composites
decreased by the use of the cotton fibers. FT-IR and XRD techniques were used to study a
change in functional group and crystallinity of the thermoplastic starch composites.
Morphological, thermal and biodegradable properties of different thermoplastic starch
composites were also investigated.
Yong-Liang Xu et. al. [12] have prepared and studied rice gels from 16 various types of indica
rice in 2008. Their rheological parameters based on creep behavior were determined and the
effect of the chemical compositions on the rheological parameters of rice gel was assessed. The
creep process of rice gel consisted mainly of retarded elastic deformation, e 2, and viscosity flow
deformation, e3. The retarded elastic modulus, E2, relaxation time, t, and the viscosity coefficient,
n3, of the rice gel were estimated according to the Burger model. The creep parameters of indica
rice gel were related to rice variety. The complex of protein or lipid with amylose and
embedment in gel network made an important contribution to the state of the network structure
formed by starch molecular chain, and that affected the creep properties of rice gel. Correlation
analysis indicated that the creep properties showed a dependence on the chemical compositions.
The retarded elastic modulus, E2, had positive correlations with amylose (P = 0.004) and fat

content (P = 0.066). The relaxation time, s, had negative correlations with amylase (P = 0.006)
and fat content (P = 0.012). The viscosity coefficient, n 3, was positively correlated to both
amylose (P = 0.079) and protein content (P = 0.089).
2.3 REVIEWS ON NATURAL RUBBER LATEX BASED BIO-COMPOSITES
E. A. Bondareva et. al. [13] have studied a quantitative relationship between the strengths of a
latex compound and the binder, allowing prediction of the properties of the material, has been
revealed and also examined how the strength of a composite depends on that of the binder, latex
polymer in 2009.
Zhi-Fen Wang et. al. [14] have studied the starch was modified by esterification, and the
starch/natural rubber composite was prepared by blending the modified starch with natural
rubber latex. The morphology, thermal stability and mechanical properties of the composite
were investigated in 2009. The results show that the crystal structure of starch in the composite
disappears after modification with esterification, and the starch particles with an average size
around 200 nm homogenously disperse throughout the natural rubber (NR) matrix. The thermal
stability of composite is improved significantly after the modification with starch. The
mechanical properties of composite are enhanced with the increase of starch loading. The
composite possesses the best properties at the starch xanthate content of 20 parts per hundred
rubber (phr). The enhanced thermal stability and mechanical properties of modified starch/NR
composite are mainly due to the improved phase interface interactions between rubber and
starch.
Roberto F.A. Teixeira et. al. [15] have studied physical approaches towards the fabrication of
nanocomposite polymer latexes in which each individual latex particle contains one or
morehard nanoparticles, such as clays, silicates, titanates, or other metal(oxides) in 2010. By
physical approaches we mean that the hard nanoparticles are added as pre-existing entities,
and are not synthesized in situ as part of the nanocomposite polymer latex fabrication process.
They shall narrow our discussion to focus on physical methods that rely on the assembly of
nanoparticles onto the latex particles after the latex particles have been formed, or its reciprocal
analogue, the adhesion of polymer onto an inorganic nanoparticle. First, They shall discuss the
phenomenon of heterocoagulation and its various driving forces, such as electrostatic
interactions, the hydrophobic effect, and secondary molecular interactions. They shall then
address methods that involve assembly of nanoparticles onto or around the more liquid

precursors (i.e., swollen/growing latex particles or monomer droplets). They shall focus on the
phenomenon of Pickering stabilization. They shall then discuss features of particle interaction
with soft interfaces, and see how the adhesion of particles onto emulsion droplets can be applied
in suspension, miniemulsion, and emulsion polymerization. Finally, They shall very briefly
mention some interesting methods that make use of interface-driven templating for making
well-defined assembled clusters and supracolloidal structures.
Shangyue Shen et. al. [16] have studied and prepared natural rubber (NR)/Palygorskite
composites by co-coagulating rubber latex and clay aqueous suspension in 2006. Orgpalygorskite was attained by using cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) and the four
factors influencing the average diameter of palygorskite were discussed. Four optimal
conditions of preparing minimum average diameter were determined which included the
concentration of palygorskite, the concentration of sodium polyacrylate, ultrasonic time and
ultrasonic power. Mechanical properties suggested that composites using modified palygorskite
which were dispersed by ultrasonic wave were the best, the tensile strength, tear strength, 300%
modulus and shall hardness increased by 77.14%, 118.18%, 242.86% and 65.2%, respectively.
Modified palygorskite was shown by FTIR spectrogram and observed by ESEM. Modified
palygorskite dispersed by ultrasonic wave were dispersed into the rubble uniformly, some stick
particles inserted into the rubber and it is difficult to find stick shape, and there were 20%
particles belonging to nanomaterials and 80% micromaterials.
2.4 REVIEWS ON JUTE FIBRE COMPOSITES
As a result of the increasing demand for environmentally friendly materials and the desire to
reduce the cost of traditional fibers (i.e., carbon, glass and aramid) reinforced petroleumbased
composites, new bio-based composites have been developed. Researchers have begun to focus
attention on natural fiber composites (i.e., biocomposites), which are composed of natural or
synthetic resins, reinforced with natural fibers. Natural fibers exhibit many advantages
properties, they are a low-density material yielding relatively lightweight composites with high
specific properties. These fibers also significant because of cost advantages and ease of
processing along with being a highly renewable resource, in turn reducing the dependency on
foreign and domestic petroleum oil. Recent advances in the use of natural fibers (e.g. jute, flax,
cellulose, hemp, straw, switch grass, kenaf, coir and bamboo etc.) in composites have been
reviewed by several authors.[6-15]

U. S. Ishiaku et al. [17] have studied fabrication and characterization of the mechanical and
morphological properties of short fiber reinforced jute/poly butylene succinate (PBS)
biodegradable composites in 2005 . The effect of a dual gated mold in the fabrication of welded
specimens was a key focus of the investigation. It was observed that incorporation of jute fiber
(10 wt%) conferred drastic changes on the stressstrain properties of the matrix as the elongation
at break (EB), dropped from 160% in the matrix to just 10% in the composite. The tensile
strength of the composite was lower than that of the matrix. However, it is noteworthy that the
tensile modulus of the composite increased. Bending test also revealed that both bending strength
and modulus increased with the incorporation of jute. Morphological studies of the tensile
fracture surface using SEM revealed two types of failure mode. Ductile failure was indicated by
plastic deformation at the initiation of fracture followed by brittle failure.
Dipa Ray et al. [18] have studied a 5% alkali (NaOH) solution treatment for 0, 2, 4, 6 and 8 h
at 30C of jute fibres in 2001. An improvement in the crystallinity in the jute fibres increased its
modulus by 12%, 68% and 79% after 4, 6 and 8 h of treatment respectively. The tenacity of the
fibres improved by 46% after 6 and 8 h treatment and the % breaking strain was reduced by 23%
after 8 h treatment. For the 35% composites with 4 h treated fibres, the flexural strength
improved from 199.1 MPa to 238.9 MPa by 20%, modulus improved from 11.89 GPa to 14.69
GPa by 23% and laminar shear strength increased from 0.238 MPa to 0.2834 MPa by 19%.
Quazi T. H. Shubhra et al. [19] have fabricated and studied plant based natural jute fiber
reinforced polypropylene (PP) matrix composites (20 wt% fiber) by compression molding in
2010. Bending strength (BS), bending modulus (BM), tensile strength (TS), Youngs modulus
(YM), and impact strength (IS) of the composites were found 44.2 MPa, 2200 MPa, 41.3 MPa,
750 MPa and 12 kJ/m2, respectively. Animal based natural B. mori silk fiber reinforced
polypropylene (PP) matrix composites (20 wt% fiber) were fabricated in the same way and the
mechanical properties were compared over the silk based composites. TS, YM, BS, BM, IS of
silk fiber reinforced polypropylene composites were found 55.6 MPa, 760 MPa, 57.1 MPa, 3320
MPa and 17 kJ/m2 respectively. Degradation of composites in soil was measured upto twelve
weeks. It was found that plant based jute fiber/PP composite losses its strength more than animal
based silk fiber/PP composite for the same period of time. The comparative study makes it clear
that mechanical properties of silk/PP composites are greater than those values of jute/PP

composites. But jute/PP composites are more degradable than silk/PP composites i.e., silk/PP
composites retain their strength for a longer period than jute/PP composites.
B. Singh et al. [20] have studied the durability of jute fibre-reinforced phenolic composites in
2000. The physical and mechanical properties of jute composites have been studied under
humidity, hydrothermal and weathering conditions. The aging-induced deteriorative effect of
these conditions on the dimensional stability, surface topography and mechanical properties of
the composites was observed. The severity of aging was more detrimental in an accelerated water
test as compared to the other exposure conditions. SEM observation reveals the fibre
accentuation along with fibre breakage/splitting and surface discoloration in both natural and
accelerated weathering of UV exposure. Some biological defacement in the form of fungal
infestation appeared at the cut edges of weathered composites while extensive disfigurement was
noticed on all surfaces under high humidity/water-immersion.
Smita Mohanty et al. [21] have studied dynamic mechanical and thermal properties of MAPE
treated jute/HDPE composites in 2006. They summarize an experimental study on the
mechanical and viscoelastic behavior of jute fibre reinforced high density polyethylene (HDPE)
composites. Variations in mechanical strength, storage modulus, loss modulus and damping
parameter with the addition of fibres and coupling agents were investigated. It was observed that
the tensile, flexural and impact strengths increased with the increase in fibre loading up to 30%,
above which there was a significant deterioration in the mechanical strength. The composites
treated with MAPE showed improved properties in comparison to the untreated composites.
Dynamic mechanical analysis data showed an increase in the storage modulus of the treated
composites. The thermal behavior of the composites was evaluated from TGA/DTG thermograms. It can be concluded that jute fibres could effectively reinforce HDPE matrix when used in
an optimal concentration of fibres and coupling agents.
Dipa Ray et. al. [22] have studied modification of the dynamic damping behaviour of
jute/vinyl ester composites with latex interlayer in 2007. The interlayer helped to improve the
damping capacity of the composites, with a lowering in the stiffness values. Jute cloths were
taken and roller coated with SBR latex, dried and used as reinforcement in vinyl ester resin
matrix composites to develop interlayer jute composite. Untreated composites were prepared
with 35 wt. % of jute content and 65 wt. % of resin content. In the latex interlayer composites,
30% of the matrix vinyl ester resin was replaced by latex, while the jute content was same.

Tensile properties of the latex interlayer composites were compared with the untreated jute
reinforced composites. The tensile strength and tensile modulus were lowered by 66% and 93%
respectively in case of the interlayer composites compared to the uncoated ones, but the energy
absorption increased by 183%. The interlayer composites showed high loss modulus value at
room temperature and the damping was also very high compared to the uncoated composites
over a wide range of temperature.
Alok Satapathy et al. [23] have studied processing and characterization of juteepoxy
composites reinforced with SiC derived from rice husk in 2009. This paper depicts the
processing and mechanical characterization of a new class of multi-phase composites consisting
of epoxy resin reinforced with jute fiber and filled with silicon carbide (SiC) particulates. The
SiC used as filler material in this work was prepared from rice husk through plasma-processing
technique. The effect of filler in modifying the physical and mechanical properties of juteepoxy
composites has been studied. Incorporation of rice husk derived SiC modifies the tensile,
flexural, and inter-laminar shear strengths of the juteepoxy composites. The micro-hardness and
density of the composites are also greatly influenced by the content of these fillers.
Rui-Hua Hu et al. [24] have studied the moisture absorption, tensile strength and
microstructure evolution of short jute fiber/polylactide composite in hygrothermal environment
in 2010. Aging behaviors of short jute fiber/polylactide (PLA) composite material in
hygrothermal environment are investigated. The material is fabricated by using film stacking hot
pressed method. Moisture absorption rates of the samples are measured during the aging process.
It is found that the moisture absorption process of uncoated samples includes three stages: short
and quick moisture up taking stage, a slow stable up taking stage and abrupt very quick moisture
up taking stage. Microstructures of the samples in different aging stages were observed. The
main defects occurred during the aging process include pores, microcracks, delamination and
complete relaxation in the whole structure. The molecular weight measurement by gel
permission chromatography (GPC) indicates that the PLA matrix was severely degraded in
hydrothermal environment. Tensile strength severely decreased after aging.
2.5 PRESENT
INVESTIGATION
From the literature review of various Journals for the last several years, to the best of my
knowledge no significant work has been found related to the rice and natural rubber latex based

bio-composites so far. Therefore, it is decided to work for this bio-composite from the very
beginning. The materials used in fabrication of bio-composites are following:
1. Jute Fibres,
3. Natural Rubber Latex, and

2. Rice,
4. Epoxy Resin

The natural rubber latex was chosen as a constituent because of its sticky quality which might
be more suitable for proper binding of rice and jute fibres. Epoxy resin was initially not thought
to be included as a constituent in order to fabricate the bio-composite. But it was noticed that
drying of rice and natural rubber latex is time taking. It took about 5-7 days to dry when the
room temperature was ranging between 7 C to 39 C. Thus, we are used epoxy resin as a
constituent in order to fabricate the bio-composite.
Thus the following types of bio-composites were fabricated using hand lay-up technique in
open mould:
1. 35% rice, 40% epoxy (Araldite AY-103) and 25% jute fibre (R35E40JF25) bio-composite
2. 20% rice, 40% epoxy and 40% jute fibre (R20E40JF40) bio-composite
3. 15% rice, 20% natural rubber latex, 40% epoxy and 25% jute fibre (R15NRL20E40JF25)
bio-composite
4. 15% rice, 20% natural rubber latex, 25% epoxy and 40% jute fibre (R15NRL20E25JF40)
bio-composite
Procurement of the raw materials: The raw materials used have been procured from different
sources as given below:
1. Jute Fibres: Purchased from local market at Rs 100 per kg.
2. Rice: We are used waste boiled rice so we are arranged waste boiled rice from
restaurants, hotels, marriage parties, guest houses etc.
3. Natural Rubber Latex: Arranged from the natural rubber tree.
4. Epoxy Resin (Araldite AY - 103) and Hardener (Aradur HY - 951): Purchased from
Huntsman Advanced Materials (India) Private Limited, Andheri (East), Mumbai 400093,
India.
Problems encountered during fabrication of bio-composites:

Following problems

encountered during fabrication of bio-composites:

1. Collection of natural rubber latex is very difficult and 1 to 2 weeks time taken.
2. Natural rubber latex based bio-composite takes too much time to become dry i.e. about
5-7 days at room temperature (7 C to 39 C) and also with rice.

3. Pure natural rubber latex and pure rice based bio-composite was not possible to fabricate
because of curing problem (cant dry).

Testings: Following testings are performed during my thesis work:

1. Density determination of jute fibres
2. Density determination of rice
3. Density determination of natural rubber latex
4. Tensile testing of jute fibres in natural condition (i.e. when dry)
5. Water Absorption test of jute fibres
6. Testing of 35% rice, 40% epoxy (Araldite AY-103) and 25% jute fibre (R35E40JF25) biocomposite under
(a) Tensile test
(b) Compression test
(c) Bending test
(d) Impact test

(e) Shore Hardness test

(f)Water Absorption test

7. Testing of 20% rice, 40% epoxy and 40% jute fibre (R20E40JF40) bio-composite under

2.

(a) Tensile test

(b) Compression test

(c) Bending test

(d) Impact test

(e) Shore Hardness test

(f) Water Absorption test

8. Testing of 15% rice, 20% natural rubber latex, 40% epoxy and 25% jute fibre
(R15NRL20E40JF25) bio-composite under
4. (a) Tensile test
6. (b) Compression test
8. (c) Bending test
5. (d) Impact test
7. (e) Shore Hardness test
9. (f) Water Absorption test
1.

9. Testing of 15% rice, 20% natural rubber latex, 25% epoxy and 40% jute fibre
(R15NRL20E25JF40) bio-composite under
2. (a) Tensile test
(b) Compression test
(c) Bending test
3.

(d) Impact test

(e) Shore Hardness test

(f) Water Absorption

test
Prediction of modes of fracture of bio-composites
Results, salient findings, discussions and comparisions
Comparison of almost similar work with other works
Conclusions, suggested applications and suggestions for further work.

4.