8.

9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

V. Ya. Basevich, S. M. Kogarko, and E. I. Dinaburg, Teor. Osnovy Khim. Tekhnol., 10, 155 (1976).
V . A . Basevieh and S. M. Kogarko, Archiwun Termodynamiki Spalania, _7, 421 (1976).
J . M . B u r g e r s , Adv. Appl. Mech., _1, 35 (1948).
l~. N. Fedorov (editor), L i b r a r y of F o r t r a n P r o g r a m s [in Russian], Vol. 2, Joint Institute for Nuclear
Research, Dubna (1970).
V. Ya. Basevieh and S. M. g o g a r k o , Archiwun Termodynamiki Spalania, 6, 95 (1975).
V . A . Khramtsov, in: Combustion at High P r e s s u r e s [in Russian], Izd. Akad. Nauk Ukr. SSR, Moscow
(1970).
S . N . Kozlov, V. Ya. Basevich, and S. M. g o g a r k o , Teor. Osnovy Khim. Tekhnol., 7, 614 (1973).

STABILITY
SUBSONIC
GAS-FUEL
Yu.

OF

SUBMERGED

DIFFUSION

AND UNDEREXPANDED

FLAMES

IN

SUPERSONIC

STREAMS
M.

Annushkin

and

E.

D.

Sverdlov

The stability of combustion of a fuel jet past the nozzle (after shutoff of the ignition system) is an i m p o r tant c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the burning of a diffusion flame. The analysis of flame stability normally precedes the
a e r o d y n a m i c analysis of a gas flame. In the event of flame instability its aerodynamic analysis becomes pointless. The aerodynamic analysis of a stable flame can be c a r r i e d out by means of well-known approximative
methods resting on the assumption of infinite burning rates (or short burning times relative to the residence
time of the f u e l - a i r mixture in the h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e mixing layers) [1-41.
It is inferred f r o m a theoretical analysis [5, 6] based on the concepts of Zel'dovich regarding flame
stability in the boundary l a y e r of unbounded flows I7] that the flame must be stable for any fuel d i s c h a r g e
rates. Experimental studies [8-101 indicate the existence of a limiting discharge rate of fuel (subscript T)
w~r at which blowoff of the flame takes place. The limiting value grows nonlinearly with the nozzle (subscript c) d i a m e t e r d c, and the degree of influence of the nozzle diameter increases as well [10].
It follows f r o m [11, 12], in which a t h e r m o c h e m i e a l model of stability is used, that the standoff distance h f r o m the nozzle to the base of the lifted flame is determined by the homochronicity c r i t e r i o n Ho =
WTTb/dc, where dc/W T is proportional to the residence time of the mixture in the h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e boundary
l a y e r and ~b is a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c burning time of the mixture. It is a s s u m e d in [11, 12] that for a constant value
of Tb, which is determined by the composition and t e m p e r a t u r e TT of the fuel as well as the ambient ("outer")
t e m p e r a t u r e T o and p r e s s u r e Po of the medium surrounding the flame, a certain limiting value Ho ~ of the
homochronicity c r i t e r i o n exists, c o r r e s p o n d i n g to blowoff of the flame. In this case the discharge rate at
blowoff must be directly proportional to the nozzle d i a m e t e r (w~- ~ dr).
F o r w T > w~r it is assumed a priori in [11, 12] that existence of a flame is impossible. The experiments
analyzed below show that these conclusions are indeed c o r r e c t , but they are incomplete and depend on the p a r ticular range of nozzle d i a m e t e r s and kind of fuel analyzed by the cited authors.
The present study has disclosed new stability properties and a certain general pattern (Fig. 1), namely
that in working with a constant nozzle diameter,__ if the fuel discharge rate is increased for w T > w~fl by inc r e a s i n g the relative p r e s s u r e difference A p c = (p~ - pn)/po = 7r~ - 1, it is possible to attain a c e r t a i n value
of the p r e s s u r e difference (or WT), above which flame stability is restored. As Ape is increased (in the
domain w T > ~ 0T2) the stability of the flame i n c r e a s e s . Flame stability is r e s t o r e d in the domain of supersonic
p r e s s u r e differences (Apc2 > aXpcr ~ 0.89), and in a certain interval ~Pc = aXPci-APc 2 the flame is unstable
(goes out). The interval between Apc i and LXPc2 can span s e v e r a l o r d e r s of magnitude, depending on the nozzle
diameter. F o r nozzle d i a m e t e r s g r e a t e r than a certain limiting value dr* (for a given fuel and T T, T o, Po =
const) absolute flame stability is realized for any discharge velocities, and the conclusions of [5, 6] become
valid. All the existing experimental studies, conclusions, and generalizations of the above-cited papers have
Moscow. Translated f r o m Fizika Goreniya i Vzryva, No. 5, pp. 53-63, September-October, 1978.
Original a r t i c l e submitted June 15, 1977.

0010-5082/78/1405-0598 $07.50 9 1979 Plenum Publishing Corporation

597

UJ

( pol

'

'

9 '

.LO o

..._Flllltl
II.lllll
l|lllll
~[[ I [ [ 1 1

IIIlA

[ [ 11 t I I

bo

c
T

'

I
t

I i/i

I I~3

a~

de

F i g . 1. Q u a l i t a t i v e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s of f l a m e i n s t a b i l i t y d o m a i n
(blowoff in d o m a i n A) and f l a m e b a s e s f o r A T > 1 and ~tT < 1;
To, Po, T~-, L 0 a r e c o n s t a n t : 1) d i s c h a r g e r a t e a t f l a m e blowoff
with i n c r e a s e in WT; 2) r a t e at r e s t o r a t i o n of f l a m e s t a b i l i t y in
s u p e r s o n i c d o m a i n of A--pc (AT > 1); d c > d~) d o m a i n of a b s o l u t e
f l a m e s t a b i l i t y f o r any A T (A T ~ 1); B) c u r v e e n v e l o p i n g i n s t a bility domain.
b e e n o b t a i n e d in the r e g i o n of the l o w e r p a r t of the s t a b i l i t y c u r v e (see F i g . 1B) (for w ~ = w~rl, d c < dc).

The

c o m p l e t e c o n f i g u r a t i o n of the i n s t a b i l i t y d o m a i n and the c u r v e e n v e l o p i n g t h a t d o m a i n have b e e n o b t a i n e d f o r the

first time.
C o n s i d e r a b l e a t t e n t i o n w a s d e v o t e d in the e x p e r i m e n t s to the r e s t o r a t i o n of f l a m e s t a b i l i t y in the s u p e r s o n i c d o m a i n of p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n c e s a s s o c i a t e d with the flow of u n d e r e x p a n d e d fuel j e t s . To d e t e r m i n e the
i n i t i a l m i x i n g c o n d i t i o n s ( d i a m e t e r s dT of the i s o b a r i c c r o s s s e c t i o n and d i s c h a r g e r a t e A T) in s u p e r s o n i c
u n d e r e x p a n d e d flow we u s e d the m e t h o d of C h e r k e z , d e s c r i b e d in [13]. T h e a n a l y s i s of the e x p e r i m e n t a l l a w s
of f l a m e s t a b i l i t y and the p r o p o s e d p h y s i c a l m o d e l and m e t h o d of a n a l y s i s of the u n s t a b l e d o m a i n a r e b a s e d on
the g e n e r a l l a w s of the t h e o r y of m i x i n g of t u r b u l e n t j e t s [13, 14] and the t h e o r y of c o m b u s t i o n of g a s e s [15, 16].
Experimental

and

Data-Processing

Procedures

In the e x p e r i m e n t s we u s e d c o n v e r g e n t n o z z l e s with d i a m e t e r s d c = 0.55 to 16 ram, which a r e the m o s t

c o m m o n in e n g i n e e r i n g e q u i p m e n t . The e x p e r i m e n t s w e r e c a r r i e d out with v a r i o u s f u e l s (hydrogen, m e t h a n e ,
p r o p a n e , and m u n i c i p a l n a t u r a l g a s ) at a c o n s t a n t fuel s t a g n a t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e T ~ ~-- 300~
The fuel s t r e a m
d i s c h a r g e d into a s u r r o u n d i n g m e d i u m (air) with a t e m p e r a t u r e T o ~ 300~ a t a p r e s s u r e e q u a l to 100 to 25
k P a . F o r t h i s p u r p o s e the j e t w a s p l a c e d in a p r e s s u r e c h a m b e r with a v o l u m e of 21 m 3, which w a s v e n t i l a t e d
d u r i n g the t e s t s (with e x h a u s t of the c o m b u s t i o n p r o d u c t s and r e p l e n i s h m e n t of " b u r n e d - u p " a i r ) . At Po = 100
k P a t e s t s w e r e c o n d u c t e d in the p r e s s u r e c h a m b e r and o u t s i d e it f o r m e t h o d o l o g i c a l c o m p a r i s o n of any " c o n t a m i n a t i o n " i n f l u e n c e of the m e d i u m . The t e s t s r e v e a l e d c o n s i s t e n c y of the r e s u l t i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (flame
l e n g t h s and v e l o c i t i e s a t blowoff), thus i n d i c a t i n g u n i f o r m i t y of c o m p o s i t i o n of the m e d i u m in which the f l a m e
evolved.
In the e x p e r i m e n t s we v a r i e d the p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n c e in the n o z z l e Ape = A p c / P o , w h i c h u n i q u e l y (for
k = ep/C V = c o a s t ) d e t e r m i n e s the r e d u c e d v e l o c i t y 2~T, f r o m w h i c h the a b s o l u t e v e l o c i t y of the fuel is found
(at the n o z z l e o r i f i c e f o r 2~T < 1 and in the i s o b a r i c c r o s s s e c t i o n f o r h T > 1), a l o n g with the r e l a t i v e t e m p e r a t u r e in the c r o s s s e c t i o n 7-(2~T) = TT/T~? and the r e l a t i v e d i a m e t e r of the i s o b a r i c c r o s s s e c t i o n dT = dT/dc.
T h e q u a n t i t i e s 2, T, a T, and ~-(2,T) w e r e c a l c u l a t e d a s a f u n c t i o n of A---pe f o r the a d i a b a t i c e x p o n e n t s k c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the i n v e s t i g a t e d fuel (see T a b l e 1) with the u s e of the g a s d y n a m i c f u n c t i o n s [17]. F o r k = 1.4
(hydrogen) the d e p e n d e n c e of the i n d i c a t e d q u a n t i t i e s on Ape iS g i v e n in F i g . 2. A l s o shown in the f i g u r e is the

598

TABLE

I
T~r=

Gas
uf max,

** /

0,34 [9}
0,39

Municipal gas

0,64

L75 [JSl
1[5, 9]

[9, 201

lF

ls

wT , m s

m/see
Hydrogen
Methane
Propane

TO

(exper.)

(calc.)

~600
~6
~5

I 5 0 ~ t70
180+210
250-- 320

5t,2
74
II3

~10

150-- 160

63

Note. 1) Volumetric composition of municipal gas: 88.6~ CH4, 8.8%Hz, 1% CO, 0.3%CO 2,
0.2~ z, 0.8%Na. 0.2%othel~;2)The flame

lengthIF=Is - ~ / / ~ = | / ~ - ~ and lengths .ls of

w

"

the stoichiometric surface without burning are reduced to T(XT) = 1 (T T = 'T~).

d e p e n d e n c e of X, d, and r(X) f o r a n o m i n a l l y e x p a n d e d fuel s t r e a m (with fuel d i s p e r s a l in a L a v a t n o z z l e e x p a n d e d to ~ta = d e and with n o z z l e o r i f i c e p r e s s u r e s e q u a l to the a m b i e n t p r e s s u r e Po). The s u b s c r i p t T c o r r e s p o n d s to the i s o b a r i c c r o s s s e c t i o n , a n d the s u b s c r i p t a to the " n o m i n a l " c r o s s s e c t i o n .
It is i m p o r t a n t to b e a r in m i n d t h a t in the c a s e of u n d e r e x p a n d e d flow (due to s h o c k l o s s e s ) the d i a m e t e r
of the i s o b a r i c c r o s s s e c t i o n is g r e a t e r , and the v e l o c i t y l e s s , than f o r n o m i n a l flow at e q u a l v a l u e s of Ape,
s o t h a t (as w i l l be shown p r e s e n t l y ) the f l a m e s t a b i l i t y of the u n d e r e x p a n d e d flow i s g r e a t e r .
In the e x p e r i m e n t s we v a r i e d the r e l a t i v e t h i c k n e s s of the n o z z l e b e a d s (by v a r y i n g the d i a m e t e r of the
o u t e r b e a d Do) in the i n t e r v a l 8 = 5 / d e = (D O - d c ) / 2 d c = 0 to 4.5 (Do = D o / d e = I to 10). The q u a n t i t y 5 a f f e c t s
the d i s c h a r g e r a t e when the b a s e of the f l a m e is s e p a r a t e d f r o m the n o z z l e (w~) and the v e l o c i t y when the f l a m e
is a t t a c h e d to the n o z z l e w ~ . Since the s h a p e of the t h r o u g h f l o w p a r t of the n o z z l e w a s not o b s e r v e d to have
any i n f l u e n c e on the law g o v e r n i n g the d i s t a n c e of the b a s e of the l i f t e d f l a m e f o r w T > w T o r on the v a l u e of
w~r, we s h a l l not d e s c r i b e the n o z z l e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s .
In the e x p e r i m e n t s we p h o t o g r a p h e d the f l a m e d i r e c t l y and took s h a d o w g r a p h s of the flow p a t t e r n of t h e
b u r n i n g and u n l i t j e t s . We u s e d an I A B - 4 5 1 s h a d o w a p p a r a t u s and an A N F - 2 1 M c a m e r a with a f i l m s e n s i t i v i t y
of 1000 u n i t s GOST ( A l l - U n i o n S t a t e S t a n d a r d ) a t e x p o s u r e t i m e s of 0.1 to 1 s e e .
T h e fuel j e t w a s i g n i t e d by an e l e c t r i c a r c . A f t e r i g n i t i o n the i g n i t i n g d e v i c e was r e m o v e d a u t o m a t i c a l l y ,
and the n e c e s s a r y v a r i a t i o n s of Ape w e r e m a d e , i n c r e a s i n g it and d e c r e a s i n g it until f l a m e blowoff. F o r v a r i ous v a l u e s of de we s i m i l a r l y d e t e r m i n e d the blowoff v e l o c i t i e s (w~- and W~r2) and d i s t a n c e s h to the f l a m e b a s e ,
a s w e l l a s the s h a p e s of the f l a m e b a s e and j e t b o u n d a r i e s .

,~
1
2,0

1,0

[
-----4-v(~T)
,v(Xai
'%,

0,a

0,2

r"
- 20

-a

o,s

F i g . 2. R e l a t i v e d i a m e t e r and r e d u c e d v e l o c i t i e s in i s o b a r i c a n d
n o m i n a l (Pa = Po) c r o s s s e c t i o n s of
nozzle versus available relative
p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n c e s : 1) c o n v e r g e n t
n o z z l e ; 2) n o m i n a l flow (Pc = Po)"

f0

0,4

-3

-2

-!

3 1,{t apt

599

Experimental

Results

and

Analysis

The e x p e r i m e n t s showed t h a t when w T is i n c r e a s e d , at w T = w7r the b a s e of the f l a m e l i f t s off f r o m the

n o z z l e , and when w T is d e c r e a s e d , at w T = w~7 the b a s e of the f l a m e is a t t a c h e d , w h e r e w ~ > w~- and the d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n w ~ and w ~ d e p e n d s on the r e l a t i v e t h i c k n e s s of the b e a d s and the n o z z l e d i a m e t e r .
For wT >
w~: b u r n i n g t a k e s p l a c e in a l i f t e d f l a m e . A p a r a m e t r i c a n a l y s i s p e r f o r m e d with m u n i c i p a l g a s and a l t e r n a t e
v a r i a t i o n of the n o z z l e d i a m e t e r and r e l a t i v e b e a d t h i c k n e s s in the i n t e r v a l s dc = 1 to 4 m m and Do = 1 to 10
e n a b l e d us to d e t e r m i n e the e m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n
wV z w .

**

~T Re*-

% 0 . 6 - - ~ c (.1 + 0.5 l g D o ) ,

(1)

in which w~* is a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v e l o c i t y c o r r e s p o n d i n g to liftoff of the b a s e of the f l a m e f r o m the n o z z l e at

l a r g e d i a m e t e r s (dc -" oo); it d e p e n d s on the s t o i c h i o m e t r i c c o e f f i c i e n t L 0 and m a x i m u m r a t e of t u r b u l e n t c o m b u s t i o n u T m a x (at T T = c o n s t , T o = c o a s t ) and is d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e r e l a t i o n

w~,* ,~, (1: + L0) UTmax.

(2)

H e r e v T R e * / d c = w ~ is the d i s c h a r g e v e l o c i t y c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the o n s e t of t u r b u l e n t f l a m e c o m b u s t i o n ; Re* =

2300 is the e x p e r i m e n t a l l y d e t e r m i n e d c r i t i c a l R e y n o l d s n u m b e r f o r h y d r o g e n , m e t h a n e , p r o p a n e , and m u n i c i p a l g a s ; v T = TIT . P o / R T T T is the k i n e m a t i c v i s c o s i t y (PT = Pc); and TiT is the d y n a m i c v i s c o s i t y [19]. The
t e s t s s h o w e d t h a t r e l a t i o n (1) d e r i v e d f o r m u n i c i p a l g a s a g r e e s s a t i s f a c t o r i l y with the t e s t s f o r o t h e r f u e l s
( h y d r o g e n , m e t h a n e , and p r o p a n e ) . F i g u r e 3 g i v e s the b e h a v i o r of wq- = f(de) f o r h y d r o g e n at a c o n s t a n t o u t e r
d i a m e t e r of the n o z z l e b e a d s .
F o r w T > w7r b u r n i n g t a k e s p l a c e in the s l i g h t l y l i f t e d f l a m e . T h e d i s t a n c e h to the b a s e of the f l a m e (at
T ~ = c o a s t , To = c o a s t ) d e p e n d s on WT, the c h e m i c a l a c t i v i t y of the fuel a s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by the v e l o c i t y uf
of n o r m a l f l a m e p r o p a g a t i o n and the m a x i m u m t u r b u l e n t b u r n i n g r a t e u T m a x f o r m i x i n g in a t u r b u l e n t b o u n d a r y l a y e r . T h e d i s t a n c e h d o e s not d e p e n d on d c, a f a c t that h a s a l r e a d y b e e n noted in [11, 18]. F i g u r e 4 g i v e s
the d e p e n d e n c e h = h(w T) f o r w T > w7r in the c a s e of h y d r o g e n , m e t h a n e , and p r o p a n e (Pc = 100 k P a , T ~ = T o =
300~
In the s a m e f i g u r e a c o m p a r i s o n is m a d e with the e x p e r i m e n t s in [18], i n d i c a t i n g a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n
the r e s u l t s .
T h e function h = h(w T) is one of the m a i n d e p e n d e n c e s g o v e r n i n g the s t a b i l i t y (blowoff) of the f l a m e , so
t h a t it is a d v i s a b l e to a n a l y z e t h i s d e p e n d e n c e in m o r e d e t a i l a n d to s e t down a t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s f o r it. If
we p r o c e e d f r o m the w e l l - k n o w n [11] h y p o t h e s i s t h a t the t r a n s l a t i o n a l v e l o c i t y b e f o r e the s t a b i l i z a t i o n r i n g (D)
is e x a c t l y c o m p e n s a t e d b y the v e l o c i t y of t u r b u l e n t f l a m e p r o p a g a t i o n in the c r o s s s e c t i o n at a d i s t a n c e x = h
in the b o u n d a r y l a y e r at a c e r t a i n r e l a t i v e d i s t a n c e f r o m the a x i s ~ = y / R b o , i . e . , if we a s s u m e that
w.=w(x, y)=u ....
(x=h, y=y.)

(3)

and t a k e into a c c o u n t the l a w s of m i x i n g [13, 14] and t u r b u l e n t c o m b u s t i o n [15], we c a n a s c e r t a i n the r e q u i r e d

dependence.
T h u s , f o r an a x i s y m m e t r i c j e t the v e l o c i t y b e f o r e the s t a b i l i z a t i o n r i n g of d i a m e t e r D is g i v e n by the
relation
(4)

w(x, y)NwTd~/h.F(yD),
I100

w;,
m/sec

900

700

-~

""

I
2

(
500

0,4

0,8
t,f
1//tic, ITIIT1-1

1,6

2. 0

F i g . 3. Influence of n o z z l e d i m e n s i o n s on w T
f o r h y d r o g e n flow at D o = 3 . 5 m m ,
T~__=T o =
300~
Pc = 100 k P a ; 1) D o = c o n s t , 2) D o = l .

600

h~

~Tmox

60
H2

40

f]

20

~.r=1
0

400

800

1200

CH 4

160

I600

o 2
0

,r

;8C

2000'

J
/

120

>-

~ T~ I~

5
+,,
A

80

7
6
9

~o
40

to T, m / s
0

40

>1

h
60

80

f20

f60

I,
J

4-0
20

+ ....r

~T,

m/~ec

10

20

50

40

50

F i g . 4. D i s t a n c e f r o m n o z z l e to b a s e of lifted f l a m e
v e r s u s d i s c h a r g e v e l o c i t y for v a r i o u s v a l u e s of de,
ram: d c = 0.55; 2) 0.8; 3) 1; 4) 1.5; 5) 2; 6) 4; 7) 8;
9) 1 . 3 - 2 4 [18]; 10) c a l c u l a t e d f r o m (10).
in which F(YD) is d e t e r m i n e d for y = YD f r o m the r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n a c r o s s the jet [13, 141"
F (~) = w l w . , =

(1 - - g - a / s ) 2.

(5)

H e r e y = Y/Rbo, Rbo is the radius of the jet boundary at x = h, and w m is the v e l o c i t y on the jet a x i s (w m ~
w T 9d T / h ) .

It is s t a t e d in [11, 18] on the b a s i s of an a n a l y s i s of the d i s p l a c e m e n t of the s t a b i l i z a t i o n ring YF = f(h)

f o r m o d e r a t e l e n g t h s ~ = h / d c < 1/2 9 l S / d c ) that the c o o r d i n a t e YD of the s t a b i l i z a t i o n ring f o l l o w s the c o o r dinate of the s t o i c h i o m e t r i c s u r f a c e , i . e . , b e f o r e the s t a b i l i z a t i o n ring
yo =!7==I

at

X=h.

A m o r e c a r e f u l a n a l y s i s c a r r i e d out in an expanded range of v a l u e s of h / l s (before blowoff) s h o w e d that

this a s s e r t i o n is p a r t i a l l y true, n a m e l y , it is a p p r o x i m a t e l y c o r r e c t in the f i r s t half of the length of the s t o i c h i o :
m e t r i c s u r f a c e (h < l S / 2 ) and in the g e n e r a l c a s e the c o o r d i n a t e of the s t a b i l i z a t i o n riag d o e s act f o l l o w the s u r f a c e a = 1, r a t h e r it f o l l o w s a s u r f a c e c l o s e to the s u r f a c e of m a x i m u m fluctuations Yw'max = f(x) (Fig. 5), with
a v a r i a b l e c o m p o s i t i o n of the m i x t u r e b e f o r e the s t a b i l i z a t i o n ring (a D = var). The c o o r d i n a t e of the s t a b i l i z a tion ring -VD ~ Yw'max at x = h, w h e r e YD ~ 0.4 = c o a s t (YD = 0.4Rbo at x = h), c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the m a x i m u m
fluctuation v e l o c i t y in the m i x i n g boundary l a y e r

rddmax~ZC3TTk OY ]max

(6)

The b o u n d a r i e s of the burning jet f o r w T > w ~ a c q u i r e a kink f a i r l y c l o s e to the c r o s s s e c t i o n of the s t a b i l i z a t i o n ring (for x ~ 0.dh), and the b o u n d a r i e s of the burning jet with liftoff of the f l a m e b a s e a r e c o n s i d e r ably b r o a d e r than the b o u n d a r i e s of the unlit jet, c l e a r l y as a r e s u l t of the s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e in the d e g r e e of
t u r b u l e n c e due to ignition of the jet.

601

-_Y

i-15

h'

(~bo) ~6---

x4

9 2

65[

9 3

~el
8
[

//11-"

.~'~ I

,"

" ~I " ' ~

L ~ . _""Z .:2 ~ W - - ~
r

/
/
Rbo

(x:

//' . ~ 1 I.. I t A\l"rv

h '

YF

10

9~

b,

e e ~ A .

10

I(~=,Y~.L,I- B ~
/ . _ _ _ s

J_.

20

50

"a

....

, I

<tO

50

,~ = ~_
~YT

F i g . 5. P a t h of the s t a b i l i z a t i o n r i n g of a l i f t e d f l a m e in t h e
b o u n d a r y l a y e r and of the j e t b o u n d a r y with v a r i a t i o n of WT f o r
h y d r o g e n fuel, Pc = 100 k P a , T ~ = T o = 300~K. E x p e r i m e n t a l ,
YD:_ 1) d c = 0 . 5 5 m m ;
2) 1 m m ; 3) 1 . 5 m m . , YF, t~o-', R~o,
Rbo: I) w T = 800 m / s e e ;
II) 1080 m / s e e ;
III) 1400 m / s e c ;
IV) 1650 m / s e e ; 4) b o u n d a r i e s without b u r n i n g , R I = f(x); A ) c a l DO
c u l a t e d v a l u e of YD a c c o r d i n g to t h e o r y of G. 1~. A b r a m o v i c h
l
(w' = Wma x, YD = 0.4); I3) c a l c u l a t i o n of s u r f a c e a = 1 (without
b u r n i n g , x < h); 5, 6) v a r i a t i o n of l e n g t h 7S in i n t e r v a l of w T =
800-1500 m / s e e .
In a c c o r d a n c e with c o m b u s t i o n t h e o r y [15], f o r s t r o n g t u r b u l e n c e of the j e t in the d o m a i n Re > Re* the
t u r b u l e n t b u r n i n g r a t e is p r o p o r t i o n a l to the R e y n o l d s n u m b e r : u T ~ Re. T h e n f r o m the r e l a t i o n
u r / u f N Re/Re*

at

Re/Re* i> 1

(7)

we c a n c a l c u l a t e u T m a x c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the R e y n o l d s n u m b e r Re** a t the liftoff v e l o c i t y w~-*

Re**
UT ~

Urmax N //f ~

tJf w*r*dc
=

Re*

vr

(8)
'

a n d f r o m r e l a t i o n s (3) and (8) we find a f u n c t i o n c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the s t a n d o f f d i s t a n c e at w D = u T.

a result

We o b t a i n a s

h ~ v, Re* %
u f w~*"

(9)

B e a r i n g in m i n d t h a t h = 0 a t w T = w]-* r a t h e r t h a n at w T = 0, we c o r r e c t (9) f o r the s h i f t of w T. Then

the b e h a v i o r of the s t a n d o f f d i s t a n c e of t h e g a s d y n a m i c s t a b i l i z a t i o n r i n g D with a l l o w a n c e f o r the e x p e r i m e n t a l
r e s u l t s is g i v e n b y t h e e q u a t i o n

h= 0185-v.r Re*
- / wT l),
w h i c h is v a l i d f o r a l l the i n v e s t i g a t e d f u e l s (see F i g . 4).
s u m m a r i z e d in T a b l e 1.

The characteristics

(10)
of the i n v e s t i g a t e d f u e l s a r e

We c a l l a t t e n t i o n to the f o l l o w i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n s : 1) E q u a t i o n (10) d o e s not involve the n o z z l e d i a m e t e r ,

a s is c o n s i s t e n t with e x p e r i m e n t ; 2) it is known t h a t the n o r m a l v e l o c i t y of p r o p a g a t i o n of a l a m i n a r f l a m e
d e p e n d s only v e r y s l i g h t l y (for uf = 0.4 to 2 m / s e e ) on the p r e s s u r e : uf ~ pm, w h e r e m ~ - 0 . 1 to 0.1 [15].
T h e r e f o r e , the p r e s s u r e of the m e d i u m s u r r o u n d i n g the f l a m e c a n h a v e a s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e on the s t a n d o f f d i s t a n e e h, b e c a u s e h ~ v T --- ~T" R T T T / P o - T h e e x p e r i m e n t s c o n f i r m e d r e l a t i o n (10) and s h o w e d t h a t h ~ 1 / p o
(Fig. 6).

602

160 ] h,
TIlm

120

./
F i g . 6. D i s t a n c e f r o m n o z z l e to b a s e of
lifted hydrogen flame versus discharge
v e l o c i t y , T O = T~- = 300~
Experiment a l : 1)Po = 1 0 0 k P a , d c = 1 . 5 m m ; 2)Po =
7 7 k P a , dc = l . 5 m m ;
3) Po = 3 0 k p a ,
dc = 3 m m ; 4) Po = 30 k P a , dc = 1.5 m m ;
5) c a l c u l a t e d f r o m (10) f o r w~-*= c o n s t ,
uf = c o n s t , T~. = T O = 300~

+2

=30 kPa

80

600

tO00

14oo

1800 w ,

m/sec

Liftoff of the f l a m e b a s e f r o m the n o z z l e d o e s not m e a n t h a t the f l a m e is c l o s e to blowoff. A s u b m e r g e d

f l a m e c a n e x i s t in the s t a b l e l i f t e d s t a t e {depending on the n o z z l e d i a m e t e r ) e v e n f o r c o n s i d e r a b l e s u p e r s o n i c
p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n c e s A p c . As the f l a m e b a s e m o v e s f a r t h e r a w a y f r o m the n o z z l e the c o o r d i n a t e of the s t a b i l i z a t i o n r i n g YD is o b s e r v e d to m o v e g r a d u a l l y c l o s e r to, and then f a r t h e r f r o m (see F i g . 5) the c o o r d i n a t e of the
s t o i e h i o m e t r i c s u r f a c e Ys = Y a = l (without b u r n i n g ) . t A f t e r i n t e r s e c t i o n of the c o o r d i n a t e s in the c r o s s s e c t i o n
w h e r e YD = Ys t h e y a r e o b s e r v e d to d i v e r g e , and n e a r a = a m a x ~ 1 . 5 - 2 , c o r r e s p o n d i n g to h / l s ~ 2 / 3 , the
f l a m e b l o w s off. T h e q u a n t i t y
h]l,~h* =2]3

(11)

c a n b e t a k e n a p p r o x i m a t e l y a s the l i m i t i n g r e l a t i v e s t a n d o f f d i s t a n c e ( c o r r e s p o n d i n g to c r i t i c a l m i s m a t c h ) ; t h i s
r e l a t i o n is v a l i d f o r both s u b s o n i c a n d s u p e r s o n i c f u e l flow.
It is m o s t n o t i c e a b l e t h a t the s t a b i l i z a t i o n r i n g d o e s not f o l l o w the s u r f a c e a = 1 f o r h / l s > 0.5; its r a d i a l
c o o r d i n a t e i n c r e a s e s s t e a d i l y with w T and h, and the c o o r d i n a t e of the s t o i c h i o m e t r i c s u r f a c e in the s e c o n d half
of i s d e c r e a s e s .
F o l l o w i n g the s u r f a c e of m a x i m u m f l u c t u a t i o n s (w' = Wmax),' the s t a b i l i z a t i o n r i n g d e s c e n d s
with the o p t i m a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n r e l a t i o n s (C~min to a m a x ) , and t h i s s t a n d o f f d i s t a n c e c a u s e s u T m a x to d e c r e a s e
in the d o m a i n of l e a n m i x t u r e s (a = 1.5 to 2) and u l t i m a t e l y r e s u l t s in e x t i n c t i o n of the f l a m e (blowoff).
T h e l e n g t h l s of the s t o i c h i o m e t r i c s u r f a c e of the i s o b a r i c p a r t of the j e t is d e t e r m i n e d f r o m the i n t e g r a l
r e l a t i o n s of t h e t h e o r y of t u r b u l e n t j e t s . In a c c o r d a n c e with the d e c r e a s e in c o n c e n t r a t i o n on the j e t a x i s f o r
(Cm)a= 1 = 1/(1 + L 0) = Cs the l e n g t h

.5c, +Lo/.d

= 5,5

(12

and i n c r e a s e s with the s u p e r c r i t i c a l p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n c e A p e in c o r r e s p o n d e n c e with the i n c r e a s e of the d i a m e t e r dT and d e c r e a s e of the r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y PT f o r 3~" = c o n s t :

Pr

Po _ RTTv
PT

Ro%

~ (~T) =

-o*~'~ (~.~).

T h e r a t i o h / l s h a s an e x t r e m u m ( m a x i m u m ) with i n c r e a s i n g Apc in c o n n e c t i o n with the g r o w t h of h (10)

f o r l s = c o n s t in the d o m a i n of s u b s o n i c v e l o c i t i e s and with the m a r k e d i n c r e a s e of i s (12) w i t h the s l o w g r o w t h
of h [in c o n n e c t i o n with the l i m i t 7~T = f(A--'pc); s e e F i g . 2] in the d o m a i n of s u p e r s o n i c v e l o c i t i e s . W i t h the
c o n s t r a i n t S * = 2 / 3 (11) the r a t i o h/1 s e n a b l e s us to d e t e r m i n e the e n t i r e d o m a i n of f l a m e i n s t a b i l i t y (blowoff).
T h u s , it f o l l o w s f r o m r e l a t i o n s (10) and (12), s u b j e c t to the c o n s t r a i n t (11), t h a t t h i s d o m a i n is l o c a t e d i n s i d e
a c e r t a i n c u r v e d e s c r i b e d by the r e l a t i o n

uf ~1-' ~L
dc<doc=O.051 ,,TRy*

~,
] / C~,.
( , . ~ )9( w

I,,1

(13)

? T h e s t o i c h i o m e t r i c s u r f a c e Ys = f(x) and c o n c e n t r a t i o n on the j e t a x i s Cm ~ 5.5dT/X P'~T w e r e d e t e r m i n e d

e x p e r i m e n t a l l y and a g r e e with c a l c u l a t i o n s a c c o r d i n g to the t h e o r y of t u r b u l e n t j e t s [14] with a c o r r e c t e d
c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e [13]: c = C/Cm = (1 - ~3/2)3/2. T h e e x p e r i m e n t a l j e t b o u n d a r i e s w e r e u s e d .

603

2000 ~-

~-~

oo )Ii
o

,o

20

4o

6o

~oo

8o

dLO" Po, mm 9 kPa

F i g . 7. I n s t a b i l i t y (blowoff) d o m a i n f o r a h y d r o g e n f l a m e w i t h P o = v a r , Re* > 2300. 1, 2) Po =
100 k P a ; 3) 77 k P a ; 4) 45 k P a ; 5) 2 5 - 2 7 k P a ;
b l a c k d o t s ) X T > 1; c u r v e c a l c u l a t e d f r o m (13)
f o r w~-* = 6 0 0 m / s e c

(T~

= T O = 300~

w h i c h is com_puted f o r v a r i a t i o n of A-"pc o r w T =-f(A--pc) with L 0 = c o n s t , T~" = c o a s t , T O = c o n s t , p~- : c o a s t in

the i n t e r v a l A p c = A p c to 0%
I n a s m u c h a s v T ~ 1 / P o , we h a v e w~- = f ( P o ' de), and s o it is u s e f u l to a n a l y z e the d o m a i n of i n s t a b i l i t y
in the c o o r d i n a t e s
d

o.po= f(Lo, T.,* To, -'*

p. w~)

o r d i r e c t l y in the e x p e r i m e n t a l l y m e a s u r e d c o o r d i n a t e s ,
A-P~

for

p)=const,

T~=const,

where T O = coast for the investigated fuel.

T h e d o m a i n of i n s t a b i l i t y f o r h y d r o g e n a t T~- = T o = 300~ is g i v e n in F i g . 7, and the d o m a i n s of i n s t a b i l i t y of v a r i o u s g a s f l a m e s {I-Ix, CH4, C3H 8) in F i g . 8. It is s e e n t h a t r e l a t i o n (13) a g r e e s s a t i s f a c t o r i l y with
e x p e r i m e n t , and t h i s a g r e e m e n t p e r m i t s it to b e f o r e s t i m a t e s of the i n s t a b i l i t y d o m a i n s of f l a m e s of v a r i o u s
g a s e s f l o w i n g a t s u b s o n i c a n d s u p e r s o n i c p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n c e s into a s t a t i o n a r y a m b i e n t a i r s p a c e .
p.-

,. "

.__~-_ ~ . . . .
,

,--@,4----fi

; .I

.~o ~ , - - j L ~ K = :

,o-q
.~

i3.'-:,~.t__-~

I i]!
I#-I

~1;
jd

,o-,l 2 Te
~.~]
o

he?

I~,l

ij

~ i
t

"
~

to-.~
I
.I
0)2 0,5 'I 2
5 10 '20 ,50
lO-~'dc" Po ' ram" kPa

F i g . 8. B o u n d a r i e s of i n s t a b i l i t y d o m a i n s f o r
f l a m e s of v a r i o u s f u e l s a t T~- = T o = 300~
Po = v a t ; 1) c a l c u l a t e d f r o m (13), c o n v e r g e n t
n o z z l e ; 2) c a l c u l a t e d f o r k c = v a r , Pc = Po
(" n o m i n a l " flow).

604

CONCLUSIONS
1. The standoff distance of the stabilization ring of the b a s e of a lifted f l a m e i n c r e a s e s along the s u r f a c e
of m a x i m u m v e l o c i t y fluctuations, c a u s i n g it to stand off f r o m the s u r f a c e of s t o i c h i o m e t r i c composition in the
direction of lean fuel m i x t u r e s and finally resulting in extinction.
2. T h e r e is a limiting value of the injection nozzle d i a m e t e r (determined by the fuel composition, a m bient p r e s s u r e , fuel t e m p e r a t u r e , and ambient t e m p e r a t u r e ) , above which absolute stability of the lifted f l a m e
is e n s u r e d f o r any v e l o c i t i e s .
3. A stability model has been proposed, along with analytical relations, making it possible to d e t e r m i n e
the domain of f l a m e instability f o r subsonic and supersonic fuel s t r e a m s discharging into a s t a t i o n a r y s u r rounding a i r space.
The authors a r e indebted to V. R. Kuznetsov f o r suggestions in the c o u r s e of a discussion.
LITERATURE

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.

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605