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MechanicshomemadeCNCmachine

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TheDesigntheRC/Articles/Materials,Technologies,Tools

MechanicshomemadeCNCmachine
AuthorSergeyPavlov(Graf)

WhydoIneedamachine?
Wearedefiningthetechnicalcharacteristicsof
appointment
cuttingeffortsandasteppermotor
Accuracy
Speed
Millingworkareasize
plainbearingsandguides
materials
Nonmetallicbearings
Resource
decide
Whattodoandhow?
Runningscrewsandnuts
Helicalgearswithslidingfriction
feedscrew
slidingnut
Howtoproceed?
Ballscrews
machinedesign
Chassis
Transmission
Attach"commodity"form
application

WhydoIneedamachine?
"Would the machine, and that it do there," "Let us see what happens, then, and see," "Just wondering," "Not a
jigsaworafiletosawdonotknowhow,here,letthemachineandsaws","Aninterestingproblemitselfandthe
process of solutions "," I want the machine to to saw it many KITs and earn a lot of money ", etc. etc.Similar
motivations to start a construction of such a complex and expensive devices such as CNC machines, are not
serious,thoughcommon.
Mymotivereasonnotcoincidewithanyoftheabove.IknewwhatIwoulddoonthemachinecutbalsapartsfor
theiraircraft.AndwhyintheNC?Andbecausehewastiredandhishandstoolong.Forexample,hereisaphoto
of the upper wing panels and a copy of the stabilizer of the aircraft I5, designed for CNC lathe and completely
sawnonit.

This is my first model, which is designed exclusively for the CNC. Ribs balsa 1.5 mm, all tongued, 80% of the
partsunique.Handisdoingwornout,butprobablynottodo.Andimagine,bangamodelinthefirstflight?Or
thesecond?Posedeesh!Andthen,hetookanddrankanewwing,orthere...stabilizer.
Oh well. A machinewhy? Where not spit office with lasersharp! I gave files received the items, and not
expensive.Yes,itis,ifthestampKITs,butnotintheprocessofdevelopment.OFFICEneedvolumes,theyare
notinterestedcut23parts,10parts,theyevencutwillnot,Givethem10standardsheets.Yes,andnotrunupto
them.
Todesigninsideandout,andthenasheetoflasercut,perfectlymatchedtoall,canonlybeasimplemodel,but
notacopy.Maybesomeoneanditfails,butnotme.Constructed node, sliced, glued, twisted in his hands, fixed
dislike,movedonthat'smyapproach.Andforthismachinemustbehome.
ReadingtheforumdedicatedtoCNCmachinetoolsonourwebsite,Icametotheconclusionthatthosewishingto
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buildamachineadimeadozen.Butifwiththeelectronicsandsoftwarepeople,ingeneral,friends,atleasthave
anunderstandingofwhatandhowtodosomethingwiththemechanicalpartofthemachinepipe.Articletaskto
introducethoseinterestedinthecourseofbusinessonanexampleofthedesignofaparticularmachine.Itwould
bedesirabletoquestionsonforumsaremoremeaningfulandbasedonrealfactsandnotonspeculation.Ihave
noproblemtoteachandtospecifyexactlyhowyoubuildyourownmachine.Youcantakemyrecommendations
intoconsideration,andcanbeignored,itisyourright.
Inthisarticle,notawordissaidabouttheelectronicsandsoftware.Andnotonlybythefactthatthisisatopicfor
another article, which may have someone write. I do not want to offend anyone, but, in my opinion, today the
electronics not a problem. In contrast to the mechanics of it can be quite easy to buy in full connected and
working,anditscostisnotmorethanaquarterofthetotalcostofthemachine.Butthemechanicsofacceptable
qualityatareasonablepriceaproblem.IwishthatpeopleotherthanthedesireIwanttheCNCmachine,itwas
alsoanunderstandingthatbehindthis.

Wearedefiningthetechnicalcharacteristicsof
appointment
1.Asalreadymentioned,themachineisneededprimarilyforcuttingbalsaplatescutfromthemdetailsofaircraftmodels.Inthis
material,themachinemusthaveamaximumperformance.Alsotobemilledbalsaconstructionandaviationplywood,wood,
plastic,glassfiberandcarbonfiber.machineaccuracyofthesematerialsshouldnotbeworsethan0.1mmatthemaximum
length.
2.Alsononmetalmachineshouldbewellcutaluminumalloycutterswithadiameterof3mmwiththefilingof150...250mm/
min,withburialto2mm.Precisionmillingofaluminumalloysmustbeintheregion0.05mmto150x150mmsquare.
3.Millingofsteelisnotprovided,exceptforisolatedcases,thespeedandaccuracyisnotregulated.
4.Itshouldbepossible3Dmillingofmodelsandmatricesofnonmetallicmaterialsandmoldingvykleykiwings,hoods,lamps,
etc.

Optimally,compactdesktopmachineunderthelistedtasksmusthaveframeconstruction.
cuttingeffortsandasteppermotor
Thereisamisconceptionthatthemillingcutterisnecessarytopressontomakeitbettercut.Itisnotright.Think
ofsawingajigsaw,alittlepressedSawingbroke.sawingspeeddependsonhowfastyouperformreciprocating
jigsaw, and the severity of the saw blade. When milling cutters thin observed the same picture, set the wrong
cuttingdatamillbroke.Therefore, we expect a sharp quality tool and optimum cutting conditions. Under these
conditions,aloadonthespindlebearingsandsmallexpectedresponse,withinafewkilograms.
Expect those kilograms by the formulas is not necessary. You can easily and visually estimate the maximum
possibleeffortdirectlywithyourbarehands.Todothis,takeathinendmillwithadiameterof1mm,andtryto
breakitinhishands.Youwillbesurprisedhoweasilyyousucceed.Cutterdiameter3mminthehandsofthemore
difficulttobreak,butstill,theseeffortsarenotextraordinary.Thedestructionofthemillsinexcessoftheallowable
loads and will be the fuse that will protect our machine from the critical stress and failure. The rigidity of the
machineshouldbedesignedfortheload,itisdesirabletoreserveadouble.
Powerofthesteppingmotorisnotessentiallyneededforcutting,andtoovercomefrictionforcesinthepairand
thescrewguides,andtheseforcesdependonthequalityofmanufacture,gapswarps,lubrication.Cancalculate
these forces, techniques exist, but the smaller gear, the less reliable results are obtained. So that the engine
choiceforthemachinepoweristhesameshamanism,asthechoiceofenginefortheaircraftmodelwithinternal
combustionengine:pullwillnotpull,withastocktothelimit,ie,fromexperienceorbasedontheanalysisofthe
prototype.
Stepper motors on the market in bulk. Select suitable to this abundance is not easy. Therefore we orient those
engines,whichareoftenusedinthistechniqueSovietinductorsteppermotorsDSHI2003or2002DSHI.They
differinpower.ThereareDSHI2001,butitisfranklyweak.DSHI200enginesaregood,ifyou'relucky,youcan
find these engines index OS (special series, military acceptance), the quality of their production better, but also
quiteordinarylevel.
HerearethetechnicalcharacteristicsoftheengineDSHI2003(inbracketsvaluesforDSHI2002)
Themaximumstaticmoment,nt0.84(0.46).
Asinglestep,hail1.8(1.8).
Theerrorprocessingstep,%3(3).
Themaximumfrequencyofpickup,Hz1000(1000).
ThecurrentinthepowerphaseA1.5(1.5).
Powersupply,V30(30)
Powerconsumption16.7(11.8).
Weight,kg0.91(0.54).
Accuracy
Often confused resolution positioning and cutting accuracy. Resolution depends on the choice of the stepping
motor and the type of transmission. For example, a stepper motor DSHI2003 when working optimally
polushagovommodemakes400stepsperrevolution.Therefore,ifweapplythescrewgearincrementsscrew2
mm, then one step actuator moves by 2/400 = 0.005 mm, ie 5microns.In step 3 mm 3/400 = 0.0075 mm, ie
within2.5microns,butwillspeedandathirdhigher.
If you use a transmission with a toothed belt, the picture is this. The minimum possible (because of design
considerations),theaveragediameterofthedrivegear14mm.So,onewaytogettheturnoverof3.14*14=
43.96mm,iemoving1stepwillbe43.96/400=0.11mm.Forbalsaacceptable,withdifficulty,ofcourse,butit
wouldbepossibletoreconcile,ifthatwasall.Butthisis,unfortunately,notall.
Formillingaccuracy,thevalueshouldbeaddedauthorizationprocessbacklashintheguideandtransmission,as
wellasthevaluesofdisplacementduetoelasticdeformationduetotheoverallmachinestiffness.Backlashcanbe
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calculated,butwiththetotalhardnessharder.Calculateitimpossible.
When mass production initially designed and built a prototype (as a rule, on the basis of prior art, ie, the other
machine). Then, the machine experience, make careful measurements, and look, it meets the accuracy
requirements of TOR or not. If you do not respond, the structure is analyzed, define problem areas, where it is
necessary to increase the rigidity, conduct changes in the design documentation and launching a series of
installation.Theprocessisrepeatedseveralcopiesalready.Thisprocedureiscalledafinetuningofthemachine.
Amateurdesignalsoakindofprototype,butunfortunately,italsoturnsouttobefinal.Thisforceslayinthedesign
ofthepowercircuitofthemachineobviouslyexcessiverigidity.Donotbeafraid.Hereitisbettertobesafe.The
desiretocreateanelegantandoriginaldesigncanplayacrueljokewiththedesigner.Themachinecannotget
hard,butthesecondattemptcannotbetooexpensive.
Falselyunderstood"refinement"ofthemachinethecorrectionoferrorsinthepowercircuitscrewingadditional
corners,gussetsandribstheresultdoesnot.It'sthesamethingastabletstotreatteethtemporaryrelief,and
then it gets worse. Learn to do robust, rigid construction impossible. The design must feel, it comes with
experienceinthesamewayasthedriverwiththeexperiencebeginstofeelthecar.
If you want to build a reliable and durable machine for everyday use, and not for demonstrating fundamental
features,butdesignexperienceyouhaveisnotenough,donottemptfate,takeabasisforaprovenprototype,it
willsavenerves,timeandmoney.
Ifyoudodecidetodevelopthedesignofthemachineitself,sticktoafewsimplerules:
Donotskimponthestiffness.Indoubtfulcasesreinsured.Adheretotheprincipleofequalstrengthand
ravnozhestkosti.
Intheframestructureofthemachinewhereverpossible,applythedeafandpressfitpinsorbecausesimple
boltingstiffnessdoesnot.
Rememberthatonaverage,isproportionaltothetorsionalrigidityofthesquaresectiondimensionsand
flexuralfourthdegree,i.e.withincreasingdetailsectionaldimensionstwice,itsrigidityisincreasedsixteen
times.
Donotgetcarriedawaywithfins.Solidaluminumpartistougherthanherequalinstrengthandweightofthe
steel,butfins.
Butwedigress.Theaccuracyofthemachineisdeclaredinthespecificationsonthedesignbasisofthetasksto
beperformedonthemachine.Herewehavedeclaredaccuracywithin0.05mmataworkingmillareaboundedby
thesizeof150x150mm.Wewilltrytoprovideit.Whenthemachineisready,let'sseewhatreallyhappened,and
whilesomeestimates.
First. Toothed belt is not suitable for resolution. So screw. In terms of resolution, step screw 2 or 3 mm is not
crucial, both approaches. By the way, is another common misconception the smaller the propeller pitch, the
highertheaccuracyofthemachine.Positioningresolutionbecomeshigher,buttheaccuracyofthemilling.
Second.Obviously,themostloadedinthemachineforguidingtheXaxiscarriageWeightXisexpectedwithin5
kg,expectedcuttingforceof2...3kg.Whenloadssuchtwoshafts16mm,length700mm,madeofsteelglued
40Xdeflectionwillbeabout23microns.Even5microns,it'sstillquiteacceptable.
Third.WeassumethatwewillbeabletoensuretherigidityofthecarriagebodypartsXoneinwhichtherewillbe
noticeable deformation of the cutting forces. Then all the errors (of the order of 0.04 mm) will remain on the
backlash,mainlyontheclearancesinscrewpairsandtoamanufacturingerrorspindles.
Verystringentrequirements,infact,thisisthemaximumthatcanbeobtainedfromtheselfmademachine.Asfor
allthemillingarea,ifwearetokeepwithin0.1mmoveralengthof700mm,itwillbejustsuper.
The drive with toothed belt accumulated screws there is no error, but the belt only conditionally runs, it actually
stretchessocuttingaccuracyislowwithitandisrarelybetterthan0.25...0.3mmoveralengthof700mm.
Speed
Inthemachinehastwospeedsthespeedofmovementofthespindleduringmilling(supply)andtheidlespeed
(positioning).Thefirstisdefinedbythecuttingconditionsandcanvaryoverawiderange,andthesecondshould
be possible. Obviously, if the maximum speed is lower than the optimum feed material for milling to which the
machineisdesigned,machineperformancewillbeinsufficient.
Forbalsaoptimalroutingmodesare:
Sheetthickness1to2mm0.6mmcutterdiameter(0.8mm)feed600mm/minrateof40,000...50,000
rev/min.
Thesheetthicknessof2to6mm0.8mmcutterfeed500mm/minatthesamespeed
Forothersupplylessmaterial.Thespeeddependsonthespindle.EveniftodayIdonothaveaspindle50,000
rev/min,maybehewillbetomorrow,sothemachineshouldbedoneonthesupplyof500...600mm/min.
DSHI2003hasafrequencyof1000Hzpickupinpolushagovommodeis150rev/min,thenthemaximumfeed
screw pitch of 3 mm is 450 mm / min. Little does not reach the optimum mode. With screw 2mm supply will be
evenless,only300mm/min,whichisclearlynotenough.Whentheengineisinthenormalmode,themaximum
speedisobtained900mm/min,butpositioningaccuracydropsto0.015mm.Forbalsaamissfornoaluminum.
Millingworkareasize
Astheysay,sizedoesmatter,andnotonlyintermsoftheoptimalplacementofthesquarebillet(100h1000for
balsa, 300h500 for balsa plywood). The size of the working plane milling machine is very cost depends on,
especially if you apply a spiral gear. Here a compromise is needed. For myself, I found this compromise
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700h300h70mm.Youhavethesedimensionsmaybeothers.

plainbearingsandguides
Forarelativelysmallsizedprecisionmachinessuchasthefactthatwedesign,alternativeroundsteelguideswith
plainbearingsarehardtofind.Atleastinthatpricecategory,whichwelookforward.
Inrecentyears,alargenumberofballlinearbearingsofdifferenttypes.Frankly,Idonotunderstandthereasons
for their growing popularity. In addition to a singleesteem exceptional ease of movement (and therefore the
possibilitytouselesspowerfulengines),theyhaveasoliddisadvantages.Themostimportantofwhichthelow
accuracyandincreaseddemandsontheenvironmentinwhichtheyoperate.Allsortsoftrickstoprotectthedesign
of the bearings from dust, dirt and chips save bad. Furthermore, any additional detail in the bearing assembly,
whetherthecuff,ascraperorbrush,besidesincreasingthecostofmakingaknotofunreliableelements.
Forthesamereasonswillremovefromconsiderationvariousdesignschemesusingrailsandwheelsintheform
ofballbearingsasfrivolousmachineforagivenaccuracy,andcloselyexaminetheslidingsupport.

Enclosurewithplainbearing.

Bearingshaveasmallradialsizeandweight,makingthemrequiresnospecialequipment,theycancarryheavy
loadsathighspeeds.Butinourcaseitisimportanttonotthat,whatisimportantistheirgreatadvantagethey
arequietandhavehighdampingcapacityundertheinfluenceofcyclicalandshockloads.
materials
When selecting a material for sliding bearings will be guided by the available material having good friction
characteristicsforourconditions.Andtheseconditionsareasfollows:
Loadrangeof0.1...10MPa.
Theslidingspeedof0.2...5m/s.
Frictiontypemediumdryandbearingsurfaceoftheguideinwholeorincontactonlongsections.
Separatingtheoillayerisabsent.Oilisonlyonthesurfaceoftheadsorptionfilm.
Periodiclubrication.
Foraguideofhighaccuracy,asinourcase,specialattentionshouldbepaidtoride,whichdependsprimarilyon
the difference of the coefficients of static friction and sliding friction (as no lubrication or lubrication when weak).
Thischaracteristicisparticularlyimportantforus,becauseweuseasteppermotor,andthecarriageontheguide
willmovethoughscanty,butinspurts.
Aftersimplesearchesturnedhereisalistofavailableandaffordableride(withaweaklubrication)withcoefficients
offrictionmaterialonasteelshaft:
Greycastiron0.15...0.2.
Antifrictioncastiron0.12...0.15.
Bronze0.1...0.15.
Textolite0.15...0.25.
Polyamides,nylon0.15...0.2.
Nylon0.1...0.2.
Teflonwithoutlubrication0.04...0.06.
Rubberunderwaterlubrication0.02...0.06.
In principle, the bearings can be used for any of the above materials other than rubber, which is shown for
comparison,andiron,whichwediscardasmaterialfordomesticmachineexotic.Frankly,thechoiceisnotgreat.
Byandlarge,itboilsdowntothismetal(bronze)ornonmetal(anyoftheabove,exceptfortherubber).
Formyself,Ihavelongchosenbronzeaprovensolution,wecansaythestandard,widelyused,anddoesnot
requireadetailedjustification.Butfortheorder,considerotheroptions.
Nonmetallicbearings
Nothingagainstthenonmetallicbearingshavenot.IfforanyreasonIwouldbeunavailablebronze(thoughtoday
itisdifficulttoimaginesuchreasons),IwouldhavechosenforbearingsPCB.Textolitebearingsaremadefrom
multilayeredchiffonfabricimpregnatedwithBakeliteandamoldedunderapressureofabout1000kg/cm2,at
150...180degrees.Theyworkbestifthelayersarearrangedperpendiculartothefrictionsurface.Textolitecan
beprocessedwithcarbidetippedtoolsatlowfeedratesandhighcuttingspeedswithrelativelytighttolerances.
Kapron and nylon work well when there is insufficient lubrication or no lubrication at all. But, like all the
polyamides are difficult machining. Nylon and nylon bearings manufactured pressmolding in metal molds with
dimensional accuracy to within a few hundredths of a millimeter. In the production problems may arise with the
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requiredtolerancesonuniversalprocessingequipmentdoesnottakeone.
Teflon(PTFE)greatstuff,but,unfortunately,notverygoodforthemanufactureofbearingsduetothesoftnessof
a large linear expansion coefficient, cold creep (the appearance of residual deformations under prolonged
exposuretorelativelylowstress),andthetotalnonwettingoil.
Allnonmetallicbearingsareusedinconjunctionwithguideshighhardness(>HRC50).Underthiscondition,they
exhibithighdurability.increasedhardnessrequirementguideisnotalackofnonmetallicbearings,itisareality.
Bytheway,andforbronzebushingstoobadpodkalitguide.
Resource
With regard to the bearing life, there must be taken into account the following considerations. If we adopted the
principleofequalstrengthandravnozhestkostiasafundamentalconceptinthedesign,thereisnothingstopping
to take the same principle in relation to the basic resource nodes. What I mean? The main components of our
machines are running screws with nuts and guides. It is logical to make them so that resource screw pair was
commensuratewiththeresourceofplainbearings.Those.installing bearings once they have to work out all the
time while operating the screws and nuts. Upon leaving the screw pair of order, the machine will require major
repairs, at this moment, and you can replace the bearings. Making replacement before impractical to set the
bearings,whichsurvivenotonlythescrewpair,butyouandmetoo.
Itisknownthattheconventionalscrewsteamsteelspindleandbronzenutisaverylongtime.Withproperchoice
ofparametersandqualitymanufacturingsuchunitsoperateforyearseverydayinthreeshifts.Idonotthinkthat
my machine will be loaded in this way. However, it is impossible to accurately calculate the resource. It can be
predicted based on the experience and knowledge of the subject. I think that in this case will serve as a pair of
spiralforabout8years,eventakingintoaccountthefactthatIsawonthemachineKITs.Duringthistimealotof
waterwillflowaway,andthemachineismorallyobsolete,andnewtechnologieswillbe,andthecostofproduction
fallspossible.Itmaymakesenseandwillnotberepaired.
Thepairsteelscrewnutbronzeworksinmuchmoresevereconditionsthansteelguidebronzebearing,which
meansthatthebearingwilltheoreticallyhavecertainlymoreresources.Butifthegap,resultingfromproductionof
the thread in the nut is adjusted, the gap in the bronze sleeve bearings no. Therefore, we will (not from the
ceiling,andonthebasisofananalysisofprototypesandverylikely)thatthescrewandthebronzebearingswill
haveapproximatelythesameresource.
Doasmuchliveasanonmetallicbearing?Notsure.He can live, but maybe not. The principle is not fatal, it is
possibletoprovideforinterchangeableinserts,butthisincreasesthecostofthebearingassembly,andinaddition,
by investing a lot of money in the production of the machine, do not want to initially lay hemorrhoids with
replacementbearings.
decide
Withthisinmind,thedesignoftheguide,youcantakethefollowingtechnicalsolutionfortheimplementationof
thebearingassembly:
holeinthehullunderthedrillsleevewiththeminimumrequirementsfortolerancesofformandpositionof
surfaces(ie,quiterudely)
tightlypressedintothecasedetailsbronzeplainbusheswithanallowanceontheinnerdiameter
boresleeveforguidingapartofbuildingswithdesigntolerances.
Alreadywecansaythatsuchasolutionseemsappropriate,butstilllookatotheroptions.
Thefirstthingthatcomestomindwhydobronzebushings,andthenembedthemandbore,whenthemarketis
full of readymade sleeves plain bearings, with much better properties than pure bronze, for example,
metalfluoraplasticbearings?Isnotiteasiertobuythemandjustdrivein?

Metalloftoroplastovogosleeve.

We will understand. Metalloftoroplastovogo bearing is a steel liner with vacuum impregnated Teflonlead
composition,dispersionliquidtoaporousantifrictionlayerofspechnyhbronzealloys.Byitself,thecombinationof
bronze and PTFE tempting and promises significant benefits in properties. The way it is. Metalloftoroplastovogo
bearingatlowspeedsanddry(!)Permitsaverylargefrictionload(upto350MPa)andremainsoperationalinthe
temperaturerangefrom20to+280degrees.However,atloadswithin0.1...10MPa,andslidingspeedsof0.2...
5 m / s (as ours) the friction coefficient may vary from 0.1 to 0.2, i.e. be within the usual bearing materials in
boundarylubrication.ItturnsoutthesamethingthatputthealloywheelsonwheelsearedZaporozhetscan,of
course,justmakesnosense.
Then maybe we will win exactly simplify the machining and thus save? Also no. In the first case we do chiseled
bronze bush, in the second, just have a seat bore under the sleeve in the housing, ie, expensive surgery on a
goodboringmachine,wedonotrule.Moreover,inthecalculationofdimensionalchainsareincludedtoleranceof
misalignment, runout, roundness and others. The most purchase cartridges that need to be taken into account,
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providedthatthesetolerancesareknownandreliable,thatis,itisgoodexpensivebearingsinsteadofunknown
originliner3rublesperbag.Asaresult,allourprecisionmachinedidnotadd,butrathertheopposite.
bronzebushingsThecost,whichissimplyapieceofpipe50rubles,andgoodmetalloftoroplastovogobearing
about$10.Bearingtheseneed12pieces.Calculateforyourselfhowmuchweoverpay,almostwithoutpurchasing
anything.Thesamecanbesaidaboutotherpossibleoptionspurchasedplainbearingsoverpay,andthebenefits
arenotobvious.
Well, if there is no bronze? And this is, I'm sorry, complete garbage. If you have access to a decent stock of
machinesandexpensiveprojectstarted,donotfindapieceofbronzebushingsforsmallertwelveandfourspindle
nut,justfunny!
Whattodoandhow?
Untilnowwehavealwayssaid,"steel","bronze"....Andwhatkindofbronzeandsteel,specifically?
Ifourrequirementsfordurability(everydayinthreeshiftswillnotwork)andlowrequirementsforthestabilityof
thefrictionforces,thechoiceofgradesofsteelandbronze,aswellasheattreatmentofsteelrailsareessential
not.Therefore,ifyoucallmefromthefactoryandasked:"Thisbronze(steel)thatyourecordedinthedrawing,we
donot.Canwemakethechangefor...?".Iimmediatelyandwithouthesitationreply:"Itispossible!Ifonlythiswas
indeedthebronzeandsteelwasmediumcarbon.Forexample,steel30,40or45'.
Butthefigurestillneedsomethingtowrite,andwriteshouldbethebestoption.Worsenedalwaysplentyoftime.
For plain bearing bushings are well suited tin phosphorous (BrOF101) and zinc (BrOTsS5712, BrOTsS663)
bronze.Tinlessbronze(BrAZh94,BrS30)workbestwithsmoothlymachinedhardenedrails,soinanycaseitis
necessarytoguidetempertoahardnessof40...50HRCandpolishedwitharoughnessRa0,63.Malowhether
fromwhateventuallynarezhutsleeve.Theinnersurfaceofthesleevesdonotneedpolishing,buttheroughness
ofhershouldnotbeworseRa1,25.
Letusnotforgetthatwehaveinadditiontobearingbushingstherearebronzerunningnuts.Therethematerialis
morerigidrequirements,butnotmuchforourcase.Itmakessensetounifythematerialforspindlenutandsliding
sleeves.
With regard to geometry and clearance, then there better not to allow liberties. To ensure the efficiency of our
product at a given accuracy the maximum guaranteed clearance between the sleeve and the guide (16 mm
diameter)shouldbeabout0.034mm,whichcorrespondstothechassislandingon7thQualitet(H8/f7).
In practice, with unit shipments (not serial) manufacture do so. First bore pressed into the hub shell, with the
requiredtolerancesofformandpositionofsurfaces,andthenaccuratelymeasuretheresultingholeandthenjust
grindrailstosize,providingthenecessaryclearance.Thenthewholethingismarkedtonotfurtherconfuseany
bodyslideforsomeguides.
Alsoimportantparameterofthegapofthebearingsleeveitslength.Ratherlengthnot,assuch,andtheratioof
length to diameter (l / d). It is known that the supporting bearing capacity is proportional to the square of l / d.
Takingintoaccountthepositiveandnegativeinfluenceofl/dontheloadbearingcapacity,oftenadheretothe
meanvaluesofl/d=0,8...1,2.Withadiameterof16mmraillengthrangebushes12.8...19.2mm.However,
inourdesignofthebearingloadcarryingcapacityareconcernedalittle,weloadsmall.More concerned sleeve
sensitivity to distortions. Obviously, the smaller the ratio l / d, the smaller the sensitivity. Therefore, the sleeve
lengthisbettertochoosecloserto13mmthanto20.
Onelastnote.WhatshouldIdoifIcannotfulfillalltheaboverecommendationsinthischapter?Drop the case
andnottobathe?Well,why,justhavetobepreparedforthefactthatintheendqualityoftheproduct(machine)
willsuffer.That'sall.Andsuddenlygetshurt?Suffersuffer,thequestionishow?Andthisiswithaprecisionnoone
willsay.Questionslike:"Whatwouldhappenifyoureplacebronzebrass,orevenmakeacoupleofslidingsteel
onsteel?"Doesnotmakesense.Trydo,thentellus.Onethingiscertainitwillbeworse.Bytheway,guides
irresponsiblelowaccuracypairofslidingsteelsteelisallowed,andthedetailsofthepairshouldhaveadifferent
hardness,forexample,theguidehardenedandthesleeve,conversely,released.

Runningscrewsandnuts
In practice, there may be only two options a classic steel lead screw with brass nut fitted with backlash
compensationdevice,orballscrew(ballscrews).
Helicalgearswithslidingfriction
Almostallofthegeneralconsiderationsexpressedinthepreviouschapterregardingthechoiceofmaterialsforthe
guidesandplainbearingsarealsovalidforhelicalgearwithslidingfriction,itmakesnosensetorepeat.Consider
anotherimportantpropertyofascrewpair,whichmaybeimportantinrelationtoourcasenamely,thedamping
abilityofhelicalgearslidingfriction.
Steppermotorspeculiarundesirableeffectcalledresonance.Theeffectismanifestedintheformofasuddenthe
fallatsomespeeds.Thismayleadtomissingstepsandlossofsynchronism.Theeffectismanifestedwhenthe
step frequency coincides with the natural resonant frequency of the rotor. The fight against this effect can be
carriedoutintwodirections.Electronicmethodssuchasthetransitiontomicrosteppermotoroperation(oratthe
levelofthedriverofthealgorithm),andtheorganizationofthemechanicaldamping.
It's a shame, making or buying controller and built a machine to run into the phenomenon of resonance.
Therefore, we must take care that the motor during acceleration and braking smoothly pass the resonance
frequency.Daylightmicrosteppingmodeisnotalwaysacceptablebecauseofthesharplossofspeedandtorque
ontheshaft.Yes,andifacceptable,willneverhaveabadmechanicaldampingmeans.
TheresonantfrequencyiscalculatedbytheformulaF0=(N*TH/(JR+JL))0.5/4*pi,
Where:
F0theresonantfrequency,
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Nthenumberoffullstepsperrevolution,
THpointdeductionforthemethodused,thecontrolandthephasecurrent,
JRthemomentofinertiaoftherotor,
JLinertiaoftheload.
Theformulashowsthattheresonancetoalargeextentdependsontheloadconnectedtotheengine.Obviously,
whenrigidlyattachedtothespindlemotorshaftmomentofinertiaofthesystemwillincreasesignificantly,which
shifts the resonance at lower frequencies, which appear good damping properties of viscous friction in threads
runningthread.Bychoosingthenumberofturnsinthethreadandadjustingclearance(preload)resonancecan
eliminatesymptoms.
Here much depends on the material of the nut. For a good adsorption of the oil to the material. For example,
PTFEnutcannotbeusedasadamperforthecompletenonwettingoil.Capron,inthissense,isbetter,butnot
toowell.OfNonmetallicbestPCB,whichisfriendlywithoil.Bronzeisgoodonallsides.
Whenusedinconnectionwiththeloadoftheelasticcouplingofelasticmaterials,itisnecessarytomakesurethat
the elastic material is facilitated absorption of energy in the resonant system and leads to damping of spurious
vibrations,andnotviceversa.Thesecouplingsarenotcheap,butinthiscase,thedampinginthethreadslosesits
meaning, which is why when using ball screws, in which the viscous friction is clearly not expressed, a good
couplingisrequired.
Next,focusonthespecificsofsteelleadscrewsandbronzenuts.
feedscrew

Theleadscrew.

Running screws rely on strength durability and stability. The strength and efficiency, we are interested enough.
Durabilityinterestedintermsofdeterminingtheaveragepressureontheworkingsurfacesofthethreadsandthe
choiceofcoilheight.But,basedonthecalculationofthestability,weneedtodeterminethediameterofthescrew
at a predetermined length and the selected pattern fixing screws in the supports. This scheme must also be
selected.
Iwillthenlightenup,tolookwiseandboreyouwiththecalculationsontrickyformulas.EspeciallysinceImyself,
thoughIamabletodothisforalongtimealreadythesethingsdonotcount.Ourmachineisnothardwiththejack
screwcargoonagivenmultitonload,andprecisemechanicaldevice.Selectionofgeometricparametersofthe
screw can and need to produce prototypes based on the analysis. If you analyze (analyze the need industrial
equipment, not homemade), a large number of similar machines and devices similar scheme, you will find the
following:
screwsupports:oneendisrigidlyfixedandtheotherisbaseddirectlyonthesteppermotor.
Theminimumdiameterofthescrew:12mminlengthand700mminlength16mmto1200mm.
Threadprofile:trapezoidalortape(witharectangularprofile).
Instep3mmheightprofileof1.5mmthread.
You can perform calculations specifically for our machine and verify this, but time is a pity. When designing the
main attention should be paid to materials and technology in this case is much more important. Next will be
presented to the technical requirements of the screws. For their implementation should be sought, but it's not
alwayspossibleandquiteexpensive.Hereitisnecessarytoseekcompromises.Thingstosacrifice,andwhatcan
notbeadifficultquestionandisdecidedbyeachdesignerindifferentways,accordingtotheirpreferences.Donot
insistonyouropinion,arethebasicrequirements,asitshouldbereally.
For thermally unprocessed spindles normal and high accuracy of the best material is a hotrolled steel A40G.
Appliedalsosteel45and40Xbetter.Inthiscase,thematerialguidecanbeunifiedwithscrewsmaterial.
InthecaseoffinishingcutterscrewsusedU10Asteelthatisannealedtothehardnessof197HB.
For hardened and grinded on the profile of the screw thread steel grades used 40HG and 65G, which has high
wearresistance.Thisembodimentofthemachineforthehomeistoosteep,buttheballscrew,bytheway,onlyto
doso.
Tolerancesscrews:
1.Maximumpermissiblecumulativepitcherror,m:

inasinglestep3...6
alengthof25mm5...9
alengthof100mm6...12
alengthof300mm9...18
per300mmlengthisadded3...5
overtheentirelengthofthescrew,notmorethan20...40.
2.Tolerancesoftheouter,middleandinnerdiameterofthethreadissetnotmorethanthecorrespondingtolerancesfor
trapezoidalthreadaccordingtoGOST948481,withthefieldoftolerance7HaccordingtoGOST956281.

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3.Toensuretheaccuracyofthescrewsonthestepandtopreventthethreadfromtherapidlossofaccuracyduetolocalwearon
theroundnessdeviationoftheaveragediameterofthethreadatapitchof3mmshouldbe5...7mm.
4.Thebeatingoftheouterdiameterofthescrewwhencheckingincenterswithalengthofupto1m40...80microns.
5.Iftheouterdiameterofthescrewservesasatechnologicalbasisfortapping(andalmostalwaysthecase),thetoleranceonthe
outerdiameterappointh5.

Itisnotdifficulttoguessthatonvariationsaccordingtoclaim1directlydependsontheaccuracyofthemachine.If
wemovedthecarriagemanuallyvernier,thensobeitwas,butinthiscaseitiseasiertolive,becausethemachine
CNCaccumulatederrorcanbecompensatedbysoftware.
Ifwestartedatrapezoidalthread,youhavetosetouttherequirementswouldhavetoaddabunchofimportant
butslozhnovypolnimyhrequirementscornersthread.Butthecostoftheleadscrewandsohighastoproducea
special tool for cutting trapezoidal thread (and it is made for each case). When manufacturing unit shipments
withoutpreparationspecialequipmentwillfitperfectlytapethreadwitharectangularprofile.
Still,betterthantrapezoidalthreadascomparedwiththetape?Onlyonethebestwearresistance,becausecoil
workingsurfaceintrapezoidalthreadisgreaterandthepressureonthissurface,respectively,isless.Thechoice
betweenthetrapezoidalthreadandtapethequestionofacompromisebetweendurabilityandcost.If you are
willingtopaygoodmoney(comparabletothevalueofballscrews)fordurability,chooseatrapezoidalthread.I'm
personallynotready.
Iforeseetheissueoftheseries:"Whatwouldhappenif...?".Whathappensifyoutakeagoodrodandcutitmetric
threadswithtriangularprofile?Theanswerisitwillbeworse.Atadiameterof12mmstandardcutmetricthread
withapitchof1.75.Height1,137mmatit,itisnotenoughfordurability.Thenextthread,suitableheightprofile
(1,624) has a pitch of 2.5 and cut into 18 mm diameter. It turns out a decent club. But most importantly, to the
screwontherequirementsofparagraphs15arethesame.Thegaininmanufacturingcostsifyouwill,something
small.
Incidentally,themanufacturingcostsofthescrewincreasesexponentiallyfromitslength.Thisisduetothethread
cuttingtechnologyandtheuseofspecialequipment.Forexample,forthemanufactureofascrewlengthof500
mm requires a backrest, and 700 mm for a screw for two. Steady rest for a specific screw need to be further
developed,thecostofcompletionandothernecessaryequipment,asyouknow,partofthecostofthescrew.If
weweredoing50screws,orassociatedwiththeproduction,wherethesescrewsaredoingcommercially,itwould
be cheaper, and so .... That is why from the beginning I laid in the machine working area in the X 700 mm,
insteadof1000.Expensiveandnotalldo.
slidingnut
UsuallythenutsaremadeofbronzeandbrandsBrO10F1BrO6Ts6S3.Ifyoufindabronze,itwillbeverygood,
butnotfatally,ifyouuseanyother.In general, all that we have said about the materials for the sliding sleeves,
validforthespindlenut.
Permissibledeviationsofnuts:
1.Point2appliesforscrewstonuts.
2.Forasplitnutouterdiameterofthethreadisassignedaconditionforabutmenttothescrewnutontheprofile,soitissetata
0.5mmthaninaccordancewithGOST948481.Theinnerdiameteroftheprescribedconditionsnecessaryclearance,soitis
setata0.5mmthaninthesameGOSTy.
3.Incaseswheretheinnerdiameterofthenutservesasatechnologicalbasisforthefinalprocessingofthebodynuts(you
know,thewayithappens),theinnerdiameterofthenutisperformedontheN6.
4.Tolerancesprofileandpitcharenotregulated,andlimitedtothevalueoftolerancefortheaveragediameter.

The presence of the gaps between the threads of a screw pair is cause backlash. Its elimination is achieved by
designmeasuresduetotighteningslottednutscrew,springclamporcollet.Theeasiestwaytomakeasplitnut
totieitwiththescrew/

Floatingnut.

Howtoproceed?
Remember what we said about the guides and bearings: "In practice, they do so. First bore sleeve, and then
polished to a size guide that provides the necessary clearance. " So, with the lead screws and nuts, everything
happensexactlytheoppositefirstdothescrews,andthengrindthemnuts.
Thisfactpromisesgreatbenefits.Screwsvirtuallynowear(thisisintheproductionofcapitallyrepairedmachines
makethenewtotheoldscrewsnuts),soyoucanbringtotheplanttheappropriatespindle,anditwillmakeyoua
nut.Suitablescrewscanbebought,canberemovedfromtheoldmachinesanddevicesfoundinalandfill,finally.
Thisgreatlyreducethecostofproductionofyourmachine,becausecostspindlesismorethanhalfthetotalcost
ofmanufacturingofmechanics.
Asalwayshappens,thissolutionhasnotonlyadvantages.Purchased(found)thescrewsalreadyhavetocutthe
ends that dictate a very definite structure supports, you might not profitable, as well as the use of the bearings,
whicharesuitableforthescrew,ratherthanthosewhowouldliketoputtoyou.Oftenthereisneedforadditional
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supportsforthemanufactureofpartsthataddcostandarenotrequiredto,bedesignyourscrewsandnuts.This
isarealminus.
Recently, a lot of firms (including foreign), who sell readyscrew pair. In principle, the cost of purchase and
productiondonotdiffermuch,butthereisaproblemwiththeends.Oftenthesecompaniesarereadytomakefor
you the correct length screws and bunching of all, you do draw, but the price at the same time grow in 1,5 ... 2
times.Inanycase,tomakeitsspindlesorbuyreadymade,youdecide.
Ifyouarenotsurethatyouwillbeabletoproducehighqualityscrewpair,andyouhavedecidedinyourmachine
to use store bought or even "left" screws will be right at first to buy them or find, and only then taken for
constructionofthemachine.Morespecificallyfortheconstructivedesign,becausethedesignisnothingspecialin
it.
Ballscrews
The ball screw sliding friction is replaced by rolling friction. This can significantly increase the efficiency of the
mechanismofupto95...98%,aswellasanorderofmagnitudelargerresource.This explains the widespread
useofballscrewsinmechanicalengineering.
Precision ball screw below the accuracy of helical gears with sliding friction. The reason is simple. In a
conventionalhelicalgearincontactarejusttwopartsandthetechnologicalgap(backlash)isadjustable,andthe
ballscrews,exceptthesametwoparts(screwandnut)intheworkincludesathirditemaball,orratherabunch
of balls, and adjust the backlash problematic. But this does not mean that the ball screw is not accurate. It is
accurate,onlytheaccuracyofthistechnologyisnotgiveneasily.Putitthisway,ifwecomparetheballscrewand
screwdrivewithfrictionslipexactlythesame,theballscrewisobtainedsubstantiallymoreexpensive.
I'mnotabadattitudetoballscrewsanddonotstandupexclusivelywithclassicalscrewnut.Onthecontrary,Ilike
the ball screw itself to make them dream machine. But.In addition, it is safe, beautiful, expensive and generally
cool, it's a great responsibility. It is strange to see the ball screw next to the guide of the tubes for curtains and
kapron bearings, drilled with a drill. Conversely, a good guide with fashionable look metalloftoroplastovogo
bearingsnearthethreadedrod,boughtonthemarket,andhexnutfor3rublesatleaststrange.
Ifweuseballscrews,togetherwiththegoodguides,goodqualityplainbearingsleeves,sturdytransitioncouplings
forconnectiontothemotorballscrew,andtheremainingpartsofthemachineshouldbeat.Otherwiseitmakes
nosense.Andthat'sanotherpricecategory.

machinedesign
Tediouspartofthestoryisfinished.Nextwillbemorefunwithpicturesandphotos.Thefirstthingwedenotesome
keypointsthatwillbebasedinthedesign.
1.Comeupwithacomplexmechanismwithabunchofpartsisnotdifficult.Therearemanydonotmind.It'shardtocomeupwith
amechanismofsimpleandtechnological,butwhichfulfillsthesamefunctionasthecomplex.Whyisitdifficulttocomeupwith
anoriginalbike?Becauseitisallinvented,longtime!Thequestionariseswhetheritisnecessarytoengageininventionand
designbalancingact?Themachineisneededforbusiness,ratherthantodemonstratetheinflamedimaginationofthe
designer.So,withoutfurtherado,rummageontheInternetandchoosethemachinereadyconstructiveschemethatmeetsour
requirements.
2.Detailsofthemachinemusthaveasimplegeometricshapewithaminimumofmillingoperations.Additionally,theseparts
mustbesmall.Wealreadyspendalotofmoneyonguidesandleadscrewsandnuts,tosplurgeevenonfiligree,lacebody
parts.
3.Nowelding.Thisextramoney,andbesides,thenstillhavetoannealtheweldedassemblyinanoventoremoveresidual
stresses,andputonthemachineformachining.
4.MaterialofbodypartsalloyD16T.Stiffnesswillrecruitlargemonolithicsections,astoimparttherequiredstiffnessthickone
piecelessthanthreethinbondedtogether.
5.Aslittleaspossiblefasteners.Tappingalsocostsmoney.
6.Itwouldbenicetolayinthedesignofthepossibilityofupgrading.Forexample,tochangetheoperationofthemachinefield
withminimalmodifications,ifnecessary.

SearchtheInternetyieldedresults.IlikedtheAustrianGermanmachinetheFourtheStep(http://cooltool.ru/).

Generalviewoftheprototype.

Very suitable prototype. If it cost less, at least two times, one would never bother with its own production, but
simplytotakeandbuy.Bythewaythesitehasadetailedpricelist.Itisclearlyapparentsharpincreaseintheprice
of the machine, depending on the increase in stroke for X. This is exactly what we talked about in the previous
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chapter.
Hereonthisprototypeandwewillbeguided.Letusproceed.
Chassis
Let'sstartwiththecarriageZ.Thisisjustabarwithabuiltinslidebearingsandbracketmountingholesforthe
spindle.

ThecarriageZ.

Y carriage is already two bars with holes for bearings and guides Z. guides are inserted into holes in the dense
(transition) landing and fixed mounting screws. Fixing screws need more to soothe the soul, than for a real
attachment. Runners have to sit in the holes in his tracks. In the lower bar has a hole for the spindle bearing
assemblyandthetopaseatforthesteppingmotor.

ThecarriageY.

XcarriagetwowallshavingthesamestructuralelementsasthecarriagebarsY.Thewallthicknessof15mm.
Lesscannotbeotherwiseguideswillstaybad.Atthebottomofthehousingwallsarescrewedslidebearingsfor
movingthecarriagealongtheguideslocatedintheframe.

CarriageH.

Inthisform,theXsliderhassufficientrigidity.Theeffortrequiredtomakethecarriagevisibleelasticdeformations
far outweigh the effort required to break the cutter. (Remember, broke at the beginning of the article?) Please
note,thedesignallows,insomesmallrangetocompensateforthedismaladmissiontotheholescoordinatesfor
guides.
Rama, in the sense we are accustomed to, not at all. Instead, there will be two beams with the housing for
directingcollectedonaluminum30h60h5corner.

Beam.

PutXinthecarriageframe.

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Chassisassembly.

You'rereadytotiethechassisofthemachineastrongandrigidbaseforthecornersofthebeams.Thebasemay
be,forexampleapieceoflaminatedboardusedforthemanufactureofkitchenfurnituretabletops,orjustadesk.
Beamsframethemselvesintherequiredposition.theydonotinterferewiththemainthing.
Note that changing the length of the guide can be easily done with any machine (within reasonable limits) size
millingworkingplanewithoutchangingthehousingparts.
Transmission
Youcanbegintoinstallthescrews.

Screwbearingsandmotor.

Aswehavesaid,oneendofthescrewhangsdirectlyonthesteppingmotor,andtheotherisbasedonthebearing
assembly,whichconsistsoftwoangularcontactbearings,whichdonotallowtomovealongtheaxisofthescrew.
Onebearingprovidesemphasistooneside,theothertheother.Preloadinbearingsiscreatedthroughthecap
nutsleeve,standingbetweenthebearings.Bearingassembly,andhencetheentirescrewisfixedinthehousing
mountingscrewthroughtheholeintheouterring.
Bearingscanbeany.Iappliedwithdimensions6h15h5.Theideaisthatthereshouldbedoubleangularcontact
ballbearings(series176GOST899575),butfinditdifficult.Evensimpleangularcontactbearingsonthemarket
doesnotlieinheaps,andevendoubleanddidnot.Youcanputordinaryradialbearings.Axialforcesandspeed
wearenotbig,andifafterawhilezahrustyat,replacethemeasily,donotevenhaveanythingtodisassemble.
Onthemotorshaftscrewimpaledthroughthesleevewithscrewclamps.

torquetransmissionfromthedrivescrewpositionXonthenondrivebyaspecialplastictimingbelt.

Toothedbelt.

Sam toothed belt and gear purchased. Strap on a length hardly stretches and it is necessary to ensure a good
tightness.Isitreliable?Reliably.AndyoucanputontheXaxisshagovikatwo,oneforeachofthescrew?Idonot
know,havenottried.Ithinkitwillbeasynchronizationproblem.Abeltcheapandcheerful.
Finishingtouch.Putthebracketspindle.

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Generalviewofthemachine.

That's all. You can cling to electronics, to put the spindle and run the machine. Everything should work. And it
works,Imustsay!Inprinciple,nothingmoreisneeded.Oh,andthelimitswitchesmustbeput,butyoucannot
put.Thisoption,themachineworksperfectlyandwithoutlimitswitches.

Limitswitch.

Webelievehousing(exceptrailsandspindles)thedetailsthatneedtobeorderedatthefactory14pieces!Plus2
corner, plus two parts to the spindle bracket. Total: 18 parts. A nomenclature, and even less, only 8 very good
result!
Attach"commodity"form
Lookingataphotooftheprototypefromthesite,weseethattherestanocheksolid,andwehavesomeskeletisty
anddead!
Rightnow,wedoit!
Establishthebottomoftheframechannelsbase(thickness5mm)andclosethespindleschannelbarhousing
(2mmthick).

Establishtraverse,alsoofUsections.Thus,fromoneendofthebeltdrivewillclose,andtheotheronthebeam
caninstallconnectorsfromshagovikov.

OnthecarriageXReplacethecoverthatprotectstheleadscrewtheY,andforhimtoscrewtrough,whichwilllay
thecablefromthecarriageZ.Thesametroughscrewedtotheframefromthedrive.

Doallofthesegiveourcoversthemachinerigidity?Ofcourse,give,butnotverymuch.Strengtheningthedesign
andgiveittheoverallrigidityinasimilarwayisimpossible.The power circuit of the machine should work on its
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ownandwithouttheseprops.Butnowthemachineiseasytocarryfromplacetoplace,andnottokeepitboltedto
thedesk.
We pose the cap, drank (sample) on the new machine boxes to hide them in the transition block for wires from
shagovikov.Andthefinishingtouch,setthetracksforcables.

All!Nowisdifferent!Welookattheprototypeatwinbrother!
There was sheer nonsense to draw drawings, competently assign tolerances on key dimensions and can be
giventotheplant.
Somepeoplesaylicked,andrejoice!Please,Idonotcarethesecriticisms,Ineedagoodmachine,notapatent
fortheinvention.I'lltellyouinanotherwaycreativelyreworkedbecauseitdoesnotdullrubbings,andknewwhat
Iwasdoing,why,andwhyitisso.

Iamnotagreatexpertinthefieldofmetalworkingandmachinetooldesignspecifically,somaybesomewherewas
wrongorinaccurate,comradesknowmebetter.In addition, for many years of real design in instrument making
and mechanical engineering I have developed certain stereotypes in the approaches to the design of machine
parts (choice of design bases, especially the appointment of tolerances and fits, the adaptation of the structure
undertheconcretefactoryequipmentandsoforth.),Perhapsyoutheseapproachesnotsatisfied,sotheyarehere
and do not bring. But the design of this machine, I relied precisely on those general considerations that are
outlinedinthearticle.Andthismachineworks!Asconceived!Whetheritwilllast8yearsIdonotknow,timewill
tell,butwiththedesigndocumentation,Icanmakenotonlyparts,butacoupleofthesamemachine.Ifyouneed.

application

Bibliography:
1.V.I.Anurev.ManualMachinistdesigner.In3volumes.Moscow."Engineering".2001.
2.I.Ya.Levin.ReferenceDesignprecisioninstruments.Moscow.Oborongiz.1962.
3.F.L.Litvin.Designofmechanismsanddetailsofdevices.Leningrad."Engineering".1973.
4.P.I.Orlov.Fundamentalsofdesign.In3volumes.Moscow."Engineering".1977.
5.Directory.Instrumentballbearings.Moscow."Engineering".1981.
6.metalworkerDirectory.In5volumes.Ed.B.L.Boguslavskogo.Moscow."Engineering".1978.
Discussontheforum

Copyingmaterialaboutradiocontrolledmodels

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andtoys,onthissiteisprohibited.19972007theRCdesign

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