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MECHANICS AND
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GEOLOGY
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SOIL DENSIY AND COMPACTION
34
CHAPTER
4 3
CHAPTER
to the volume of soil solid grains plus the volume of voids between grains.
[Refer to
Chapter 2 for various states of soil density and the related equations (i.e. bulk density
( ), dry density ( ), saturated density ( ), submerged density ( )].
b
sat
sub
In general, the higher its density value, the denser or more compacted the soil is.
3.1
4.1
Relative Density
The actual void ratio of a soil lies somewhere between the possible minimum and
maximum values, i.e. emin and emax. In the case of soils without fines (sometimes
referred to as cohesionless, i.e., sands and gravels), a more convenient measure of the
state of compaction is provided by indicating the relationship between the actual void
ratio, e and the two extremes emin and emax that these soils can attain. Such an
indication is termed the Density Index (Id) or sometimes referred to as Relative
Density (D ).
R
Id =
emax e
emax emin
Density
0-15
Index (%)
State of
Very loose
Compaction
15-35
35-65
65-85
85-100
Loose
Medium
Dense
Very Dense
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The expression for Density Index can also be written in terms of the dry density associated
with the various voids ratios. From the definitions we have
Refer to Chapter 2, page 9/19
e=
Gs w
and hence
1
Id =
min
min
y
1
d ( d d )
max
d ( d
min
max
d min )
max
Note that you cannot determine the density from knowing Id. This is because the values of the
maximum and minimum dry densities (void ratios) can vary significantly. They depend on
soil type (mineralogy), the particle grading, and the angularity.
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Sept 2009
Appendix 1
max
place a mould (mass = M1 and volume = V1) under water and quickly pour soil into
it from just above the top
strike off level the soil surface and determine the mass of mould+water+soil (M2)
sat (min) =
M2 - M1
V1
e max =
G s w - sat (min)
sat (min) - w
Determination of e
(G s + e max ) w
1 + e max
and
e max
1 + e max
n max =
min
place a standard compaction mould (mass = M3 and volume =V3) under water
place the soil in the mould in three layers of approximately equal thickness, each of
the layer is compacted using a vibrating hammer
strike off level the soil surface and determine the mass of mould+soil+water (M4)
sat (max) =
M4 - M3
V3
e min =
G s w - sat (max)
sat (max) - w
(G s + e min ) w
1 + e min
and
n min =
e min
1 + e min
3
2
1
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3.2
4.2
CHAPTER
4 3
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Sept 2009
For cohesionless soils, the Sand Replacement Method is used Figure 4.1.
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A pouring cylinder filled to within 15 mm of the top with uniform fine standard
sand with diameter of grains between 0.3 mm to 0.6 mm. (The cylinder should
have a shutter to allow the sand to fall through into the cone-shaped space.)
Tool for excavating holes in ground, consisting of a steel dipper and spoon, and a
scraper for making the ground level.
A metal tray about 300 mm square with a hole in the centre, 100 mm in diameter
A glass plate
A calibrating container 100 mm in diameter and 150 mm deep
Synopsis
The procedures involves digging a hole in the ground and removing a known mass of
soil from the hole, and filling the hole with standard sand of known density. The
volume of the hole can then be calculated from the mass of the replacing standard sand
used (since the sand density is known). Knowing the volume of the hole and the mass
of soil removed, the bulk density can be calculated. The dry density can also be
calculated after obtaining the water content.
Test Procedures
Detailed test details are described below:
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Sept 2009
Step2:
Fill the calibrating container with sand from the pouring cylinder (Figure 4.3). The
mass of sand filling the container is found by subtracting the mass of sand in the
cone. This calibration is repeated several times and the mean value is taken.
From the mass of sand filling the calibrating container and the volume of the
calibrating container, the density of the standard sand is determined.
Field Test
Step 3:
The test area is scraped level and the metal tray with the central hole is placed on
the levelled area.
A hole in the ground with the same diameter as the hole in the tray is dug to a
depth of 150 mm. The excavated soil is placed in a sealed container immediately
and is taken to the laboratory where it is weighed and the moisture contained
determined.
The pouring cylinder, which is filled to within 15 mm of the top with standard sand,
is placed on the template over the excavated hole. The shutter is opened and the
sand is allowed to fill the excavated hole (Figure 4.4). By difference, the mass of
standard sand filling the excavated hole can be found.
m4-m5
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Calculation:
(a)
ma
m1 - m2 - m3
where m1 = mass of cylinder and sand before pouring into calibration container
m2 = mass of sand in the cone
m3 = mass of the cylinder and sand after pouring into the calibration container
(b)
sand =
ma / Va
the mass of sand required to fill the excavated hole (mb) is calculated by:
mb
m4 - m5 - m2
where m4 = mass of cylinder and sand before pouring into the excavated hole
m5 = mass of cylinder and sand after pouring into the excavated hole
(d)
(mt/mb) x sand
(e)
b / (1 + w)
or
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CHAPTER 4
CHAPTER 3
d = 844 kg/m3
Page 8 of 35
Not to be included in
the notes for Students
CHAPTER 4
d = b / (1+w)
= 1374/(1 + 34.4%)
= 1022 kg/m3
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4.2.2 Cone
Core Cutter Method
Sept 2009
drive a steel cylinder (of known weight and volume), with a hardened
cutting edge, into the ground using a steel rammer and protective dolly
dug out the cutter and trim the soil flush at each end
weigh the whole cylinder with soil to determine the mass of the soil and its
bulk density
if the water content is also determined, the dry density can also be calculated
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4.2.3
Nuclear Method
Sept 2009
CHAPTER
4 3
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In this method, both the bulk density and water content may be determined
simultaneously. The method is quick and non-destructive. There are variations in this
method depending on the depth of the soil to be measured. The apparatus (Figure 4.7)
consists of a portable box with two radio-active sources at its base. One source emits
gamma rays for density measurement and the other emits fast-moving neutrons
for
moisture content measurement. Dense soil absorbs more radiation than loose soil and
the readings reflect overall density. Water content can also be read, all within a few
minutes.
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Procedures
Measuring Density
Position the box well seated on ground to minimize air gaps at the soil interface.
Emitted gamma rays penetrate the soil and are reflected back (back scatter). The
intensity of the back scatter varies directly with the density of the soil.
Geiger-Muller tubes detect the scatter and translate the count-rate or intensity of
detected radiation into a direct reading showing the soil density in kg/m3. (Using
standard blocks, the Geiger-Muller tubes are precalibrated, the typical range
covered by the meter is 1,100 to 2,700 kg/m3.)
The meter is calibrated in the laboratory by using several materials, such as
limestone and granite grains, which are made into blocks with different densities
that fall within the ranges expected for the soil to be tested. The meter is adjusted
so that the density reading corresponding with the known density of the standard
blocks.
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4.3
CHAPTER
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COMPACTION OF SOIL
Compactive
Effort
+ WATER =
air
air
water
water
soil
solid
soil
solid
Before
Addition of
Compactive
Effort
After
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To increase the shear strength and therefore the bearing capacity of the soil.
To make the soil less susceptible to subsequent volume changes and therefore
less settlement under load or under the influence of vibration.
To reduce the void ratio of the soil such that the soil will absorb less water
(water is no good to fine-grained soil).
Reduction in the void ratio also decreases the permeability of the soil (water
not easy to go through).
Compaction can prevent the build up of large water pressures that cause soil
to liquefy during earthquakes
the nature and type of soil (i.e., sand or clay, uniform or well graded, plastic or
non-plastic)
the moisture content at the time of placing of soil
the type of compaction plant used
the maximum possible state of compaction attainable for the soil
the maximum amount of compaction effort attainable under field conditions
There are several types of test which can be used to study the compactive properties of
soils. Because of the importance of compaction in most earth works standard
procedures have been developed. These generally involve compacting soil into a
mould at various moisture contents. One of the three standard laboratory tests shown
in Table 4.2 is used for this purpose (the most common one is the Proctor test).
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Vibrating Hammer
Vibrating Hammer
25 kg
37.5 mm
---2305 cm3
152 mm
127 mm
3
Vibrated for 60 s
300-400 N
Handle
collar (mould
extension)
Metal guide to control
drop of hammer
Cylindrical
soil mould
Hammer for
compacting soil
Base plate
Mould
Figure 4.8 Standard Proctor Mold
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To assess the degree of compaction it is important to use the dry density, , because
we are interested in the mass of solid soil particles in a given volume, not the total
mass per unit volume (which is the bulk density). From the relationships derived
previously we have:
d
b=
d=
Hence,
M T M S + M w M S + wM S M S (1 + w)
+ w)
=
=
=
= d (1 =
VT
VT
VT
VT
b
(1 + w) where the water content w is in actual value (not %)
This allows us to plot the variation of dry density with water content, giving the typical
response shown in Figure 4.9 below. From this graph we can determine the optimum
water content, w , for the maximum dry density, ( ) .
opt
d max
Dry Density d
Bulk
density
(dry
)
d(max)
max
wopt
m
opt
Moisture
content
Water Content,
w
Figure 4.9 Typical Compaction Test Result
If the soil were to contain a constant percentage, A, of voids containing air where
Av =
Va
(AV in actual value, not %)
Vt
writing V as V - V - V we obtain
a
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1 AV =
V w +V s
Vt
then a theoretical relationship between and w for a given value of A can be derived
as follows
d
d =
Va
water
Mw
soil particles
Gs=2.65
Ms
M
WSs ++W
WS ++W
MW
MwW ((M
w ))(1 AV )
= s
1+ w VT (1+ w)
(V s +V w )(1+ w)
Now V s =
Ms
and
Gs w
Vw =
Mw
wM s
Gs w
(1 AV )
1 + wG s
Hence d =
If the percentage of air voids is zero, that is, the soil is totally saturated, then this
equation becomes
Gs w
1 + wG s
d =
1.
From this equation we see that there is a limiting dry density for any water content and
this occurs when the voids are full of water. Increasing the water content for a
saturated soil will result in a reduction in dry density. The relation between the water
content and dry density for saturated soil is shown on the Figure 4.10. This line is
2.
known as the zero air voids line.
ze
r
Dry Density
Dry unit
weightd
Vt
air
oa ir
-v
oi
ds
lin
e
M oisture
content
Water Content,
w
Figure 4.10 Typical compaction curve showing zero-air-voids line
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water content.
4.3.8 Effects of increasing compactive effort
Dry Density d
Dry unit
weight
Increased compactive effort enables greater dry density to be achieved and because of
the shape of the zero air voids line this must occur at a lower optimum water content.
The effect of increasing compactive energy can be seen in Figure 4.11. It should be
noted that for water contents greater than the optimum the use of heavier compaction
machinery will have only a small effect on increasing dry density. For this reason it is
important to have good control over water content during compaction of soil layers in
the field.
ze
ro
-
ai
r-v
oi
ds
lin
e
M oisture
content
Water Content,
w
Figure 4.11 Effects of compactive effort on compaction curves
It can be seen from this figure that the compaction curve is not a unique soil
characteristic. It depends on the compaction energy. For this reason it is important that
other than
then giving the values of ( ) and w it is important to also specify the
compaction procedure (for example, standard or modified).
d max
opt
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max
opt
19
12
18
15
18
15
17
17
15
25
It can be seen that compaction is more effective on well-graded soils (compared with
poorly graded) and coarse-grained soils (compared with fine-grained soils).
Compaction by Pressure
This method is used in the field on construction sites and consists of moving heavy
vehicles and plants over loosely-dumped soil to close its void spaces. Different types
of rolling equipment are used in the field according to the nature of the soil and the
weight of plant deemed necessary.
Smooth-wheel roller
Pneumatic-tyred roller
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Sheeps-foot roller
Grid-roller
Compaction by Vibration
Compaction by vibrating the soil is usually used in loose granular soils such as sands
and gravels. As the compaction plant vibrated under pressure, the soil densifies and
its void spaces decrease. Various vibratory plants are available, e.g., vibration plate,
vibratory roller, vibratory compactor, vibrotamper.
Vibration plate
Vibratory roller
Compaction by Impact
Rammer
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Impact Roller
.
Dynamic Compaction
Pounder (Tamper)
solution cavities in
limestone
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Pounder (Tamper)
Mass = 5-30 tonne
Drop = 10-30 m
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Sept 2009
Vibroflotation
vibrator makes
a hole in the
weak ground
hole
backfilled
with sand
..and
compacted
..backfilling and
compaction
repeated until
hole is filled
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Accept
Accept
Reject
Moisture content
Reject
Moisture content
(b)
achieved d(field)
maximum d ( lab )
x 100%
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ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
AND SOIL MECHANICS
CHAPTER 3
Further Worked Examples
-",
'_"
~~"-\",
= ~E(X tI -
1)2
. (S-.ll) '-:
(8.9)
~,
"-
Sample
1
2
3
4
5
406
416
2800
2760
2820
2760
2760
444
488
483
~,
c;
14.5% ',",210.2
15.1%
~8.0
15.7%
24'&5
17.6%
309.11'-,_"
17.5%
1:1300.7
3062
..
~"""",
1300.7
= ~ --5= 16.13%
-.~
Bulk densily
(%)
(Mg/m J)
5
8
10
12
15
20
1.89
2.13
2.20
2.21
2.16
2.08
Show these results plotted as dry density against water content. On the
same axes, show the zero air voids (saturation) line for the soil.
What are the values of void ratio, porosity and degree of saturation
for the soil at its condition of optimum water content?
245
Page 28 of 35
VT
Page 29 of 35
\-
2.10
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
AND SOIL MECHANICS
2 00 Mg/m J
:::.:.~::'
I
Optimum water
,_,--
Vs
0.2
02
Vw==--=
. mJ
1.0
V.1
e
Pw' G,
IV
= 0.10
content:= 10%
V -
Vv
Vw -
Vs
When [he soil is saturated. A r = 0 and the line is known as the zero air voids
line or saturation line.
I +
M,
Figure 8.15
Pd -
2.00
== 0.74 mJ
1.00 X 2.7
w == M
w (%)
Masses
2.00 Mg/m 3
Ms
1.7010L-----!:----~10;-----715<---~20
.. ~- __~ __--J
M,('P d )
for V"" 1
Using these values, the zero air voids line has been plotted on Fig. 8.15, from
J
which Pd.ma. == 2.00 Mg/m and the optimum water content == 0.10.
3
Consider I m of the soil in this condition.
I
J
Figure 8.16
+~
Volumes
:! \++~
1.80
M A "-0
Mw
1.90
A
W
V-l
~~ _---+~\
2.00
VA
V
Vv
V
Sr
Vw
Vv
V,
I - 0.2 - 0.74
0.79
+ Vw = 0.26 = 0.35
Vs
0.26
1.00
0.74
= 0.06 m3
~
= 0,26
(8.12)
G,
1.0 Mg/m 3
= 0.20 = 0.77
0.26
2.7
Pd
2.7w
Substituting values of
IV
0.100
0.125
0.150
0.175
0.200
248
Pd
(Mg/m J)
8.13 Comparison of
optimum water
content obtaiiiable
in the laboratory
and in the field
2.13
2.02
1.92
1.84
1.75
10
12.5
16
20
Plot these results and on the same axes plot the zero air voids line.
What percentage of air voids (A r %) exists in the sample at optimum
water content?
Page 30 of 35
245
Page 31 of 35
1.676 Mg/m3
Mb
Md
Small
Samples
unit weight
Page 32 of 35
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ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
AND SOIL MECHANICS
\,
2.08
2.06
2.04
M
E
01
:;
2.02
;:-
.;;;
2.00
'\ +\
'\1
1.98
1.98
1.94
)~t+
Optimum
water
~=>/ I \X\'~'
,
;;
~
\
Enhancing the
compaction effort can
increase the dry
density obtainable
given the water content
w at 10%.
'0
I.
.+
1.92
10
\\ \ \
\
11
I?
';
13
15
14
Figure 8.21
~oblems
observ~~s
Sefllemenr, P (mm)
0.32
(Eo)
0.64
1.6
4.8
2.5
(Po)
4.5
95
175
Plot the settlement ratio p/Po ag,lim;'Njle breadth ratio B/Bo and compare
them with the Terzaghi expression
256
Page 34 of 35
Chapter 34 Soil
Soil Density
Density and
and Compaction
Compaction
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter34 Soil Density and Compaction
Class Practice
Q.1
The maximum and minimum volumes of 1.72 kg of a dry medium sand were
determined in a measuring cup to be 1.21 litres and 0.94 litres respectively. The
specific gravity of solid grains, Gs, was 2.70 and the density of water was 1000
kg/m3.
(i)
(ii)
Q.2
Calculate the maximum and minimum dry densities and the void ratio of the
sand at each density state.
(5 Marks)
Determine the dry density of this sand in the field if its relative density was
0.62?
(4 Marks)
A sand replacement test was performed to determine the in-situ density of the
compacted soil of a fill slope. The test results are summarized below:
Mass of sand in the cone
Mass of soil removed from the hole
Mass of dry soil after drying completely in the oven
Mass of sand and pouring cylinder before filling the hole
Mass of sand and pouring cylinder after filling the hole
Density of sand in cylinder
= 0.41 kg
= 1.98 kg
= 1.73 kg
= 8.9 kg
= 6.82 kg
= 1540 kg/m3
(i) Find the bulk density and dry density of the compacted soil. (3 marks)
(ii) Determine the in-situ moisture content of the compacted soil. (1 mark)
(iii) If 95% relative compaction is needed and the maximum dry density of the
(2 marks)
soil is 1675 kg/m3, will the compaction pass?
Chapter
Chapter 34 Soil
Soil Density
Density and
and Compaction
Compaction
2148
2198
2228
2213
2132
10.2
11.3
12.6
14.0
15.5
To investigate the likelihood of liquefaction of a fill slope, the density of the fill soils
was determined. A liquefaction potential was said to exist if the fill failed to attain a
relative compaction of 85%. Standard Proctor Test was carried out on samples of the
fill soils excavated from the slope. Results of the tests were tabulated in the following
table.
Bulk Density (kg/m3)
Water Content (%)
Gs = 2.70
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
1905
11.3
2012
12.5
2132
14.0
2152
15.5
2132
16.8
Calculate the dry density for each test and plot the dry density versus water
content of the fill. On the same graph, plot the dry density/water content curve
for zero air voids ratio.
(8 Marks)
Determine the maximum dry density, optimum water content and the
corresponding air void ratio of the fill.
(5 Marks)
3
Bulk density of the in-situ fill was 1780 kg/m with a water content of 13.5%.
Determine whether the fill slope has a liquefaction potential and provide reasons
for the answer.
(3 Marks)
Q.4
Q.5
Soil Density &
Compaction
You are given the following laboratory and field test results for a fill.
Laboratory Measurement
Compaction (Proctor) test of the borrowed fill:
Test No.
Moisture content m or w (%)
1
12
2
13
3
14
4
16
5
18
2041
1730 kg/m3
14.5 %
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4 3
CHAPTER
Home Exercise
A British Standard compaction test (Proctor test) was conducted on a fill soil
and the following data were collected:
GS = 2.70
Water Content (%)
Bulk Density (kg/m3)
5
8
10
13
16
19
1870 2040 2130 2200 2160 2090
Calculate the dry density for each test and plot the graph of dry density
against water content, and from it determine the maximum dry density
and optimum moisture content. Ans: w=12%, d =1950kg/m3
(b)
On the same graph, draw the dry density/water content curve for zero air
voids. Also determine the air void ratio at the maximum dry density. Ans: Ar=4.6%
(c)
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