Tachometer Using Frequency To Voltage Converter

TACHOMETER USING FREQUENCY TO VOLTAGE CONVERTER
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Tachometers or revolution counters on cars, aircraft, and other vehicles show the rate of
rotation of the engine's crankshaft, and typically have markings indicating a safe range of
rotation speeds. This can assist the driver in selecting appropriate throttle and gear settings for
the driving conditions. Prolonged use at high speeds may cause inadequate lubrication,
overheating (exceeding capability of the cooling system), exceeding speed capability of sub-parts
of the engine (for example spring retracted valves) thus causing excessive wear or permanent
damage or failure of engines. This is more applicable to manual transmissions than to
automatics. On analogue tachometers, speeds above maximum safe operating speed are typically
indicated by an area of the gauge marked in red, giving rise to the expression of "redlining" an
engine revving the engine up to the maximum safe limit. The red zone is superfluous on most
modern[specify] cars, since their engines typically have a revolution limiter which electronically
limits engine speed to prevent damage. Diesel engines with traditional mechanical injector
systems have an integral governor which prevents over-speeding the engine, so the tachometers
in vehicles and machinery fitted with such engines sometimes lack a redline.
In vehicles such as tractors and trucks, the tachometer often has other markings, usually a
green arc showing the speed range in which the engine produces maximum torque, which is of
prime interest to operators of such vehicles. Tractors fitted with a power take off (PTO) system
have tachometers showing the engine speed needed to rotate the PTO at the standardized speed
required by most PTO-driven implements. In many countries, tractors are required to have
a speedometer for use on a road. To save fitting a second dial, the vehicle's tachometer is often
marked with a second scale in units of speed. This scale is only accurate in a certain gear, but
since many tractors only have one gear that is practical for use on-road, this is sufficient.
Tractors with multiple 'road gears' often have tachometers with more than one speed scale.
Aircraft tachometers have a green arc showing the engine's designed cruising speed range.
In older vehicles, the tachometer is driven by the RMS voltage waves from the low tension (LT)
side of the ignition coil,[2] while on others (and nearly all diesel engines, which have no ignition
system) engine speed is determined by the frequency from the alternator tachometer output. This
Rajadhani Institute of Engineering and Technology
is from a special connection called an "AC tap" which is a connection to one of the stator's coil
output, before the rectifier. Tachometers driven by a rotating cable from a drive unit fitted to the
engine (usually on the camshaft) exist - usually on simple diesel-engined machinery with basic
or no electrical systems. On recent EMSfound on modern vehicles, the signal for the tachometer
is usually generated from an ECU which derives the information from either the crankshaft or
camshaft speed sensor.
In this project, we are developing a simple tachometer using a frequency to voltage
converter using BC337 and LM555. Here the LM555 is used as monostable multivibrator. The
entire circuit work like an amplitude modulation circuit in communication systems. ie; the
amplitude of carrier wave (here it is pulses produced by monostable multivibrator ) is modulated
as the variations in input frequency.
Now we are connecting the input terminal to the spark plug cable and terminal common
point should be connected to the vehicles ground.
Gasoline or petrol engines are also known as spark-ignition (S.I.) engines. Petrol engines
take in a flammable mixture of air and petrol which is ignited by a timed spark when the charge
is compressed. The first four stroke spark-ignition (S.I.) engine was built in 1876 by Nicolaus
August Otto, a self-taught German engineer at the Gas-motoreufabrik Deutz factory near
Cologne, for many years the largest manufacturer of internal-combustion engines in the world. It
was one of Otto's associates - Gottlieb Daimler - who later developed an engine to run on petrol
which was described in patent number 4315 of 1885. He also pioneered its application to the
motor vehicle
Four stroke Spark-ignition (S.I) engines require four piston strokes to complete one
cycle: an air-and-fuel intake stroke moving outward from the cylinder head, an inward
movement towards the cylinder head compressing the charge, an outward power stroke, and an
inward exhaust stroke.
Induction stroke (Fig. 1.11) The inlet valve is opened and the exhaust valve is closed. The piston
descends, moving away from the cylinder head (Fig. 1.11). The speed of the piston moving along
the cylinder creates a pressure reduction or depression which reaches a maximum of about 0.3
bar below atmospheric pressure at one-third from the beginning of the stroke. The depression
actually generated will depend on the speed and load experienced by the engine, but a typical
average value might be 0.12 bar below atmospheric pressure. This depression induces (sucks in)
a fresh charge of air and atomized petrol in proportions ranging from 10 to 17 parts of air to one
part of petrol by weight.
Fig 1.1 Induction stroke

An engine which induces fresh charge by means of a depression in the cylinder is said to be
'normally aspirated' or 'naturally aspirated'.
Compression stroke (Fig. 1.12) Both the inlet and the exhaust valves are closed. The piston
begins to ascend towards the cylinder head (Fig. 1.12). The induced air-and-petrol charge is
progressively compressed to something of the order of one-eighth to one-tenth of the cylinder's
original volume at the piston's innermost position. This compression squeezes the air and
atomized-petrol molecules closer together and not only increases the charge pressure in the
cylinder but also raises the temperature. Typical maximum cylinder compression pressures will
range between 8 and 14 bar with the throttle open and the engine running under load.
Fig 1.2 Compression stroke

Power stroke (Fig. 1.13) Both the inlet and the exhaust valves are closed and, just before the
piston approaches the top of its stroke during compression, a spark-plug ignites the dense
combustible charge (Fig. 1.13). By the time the piston reaches the innermost point of its stroke,
the charge mixture begins to burn, generates heat, and rapidly raises the pressure in the cylinder
until the gas forces exceed the resisting load. The burning gases then expand and so change the
piston's direction of motion and push it to its outermost position. The cylinder pressure then
drops from a peak value of about 60 bar under full load down to maybe 4 bar near the outermost
movement of the piston.
Fig 1.3 Power stroke

Exhaust stroke (Fig. 1.14) At the end of the power stroke the inlet valve remains closed but the
exhaust valve is opened. The piston changes its direction of motion and now moves from the
outermost to the innermost position (Fig. 1.14). Most of the burnt gases will be expelled by the
existing pressure energy of the gas, but the returning piston will push the last of the spent gases
out of the cylinder through the exhaust-valve port and to the atmosphere. During the exhaust
stroke, the gas pressure in the cylinder will fall from the exhaust-valve opening pressure (which
may vary from 2 to 5 bar, depending on the engine speed and the throttle-opening position) to
atmospheric pressure or even less as the piston nears the innermost position towards the cylinder
head
.
Fig 1.4 Exhaust stroke
CHAPTER 2
HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
2.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM
Fig 2.1 Block diagram

The input of the circuit is connected to the spark plug and ground to the ground of
vehicle. Input from sparkplug enters to the RC High Pass Filter. Then it proceeds to switching
circuit. The switching circuit consists of a diode a npn transistor and a capacitor. Diode will
eliminate the lower part of the signal. There is a parallel path to ground through a npn transistor
and capacitor. The transistor is acting as switch. At high pulse the transistor will conducts from
Vcc to ground. At low voltage transistor do not conducts, so the capacitor C2 charges. At next
pulse Vcc grounds through transistor and capacitor discharges to trigger pin of 555 timer. 555
timer is in monostable mode. The output of monostable passes through a RC integrator and the
integrator varies the output voltage with respect to time delay.
2.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Fig 2.2 Circuit Diagram for Tachometer using Frequency to voltage converter
2.3 COMPONENT DETAILS

2.3.1 RESISTOR
The flow of charge through any material encounters an opposing force similar to in many
respects to mechanical friction. This opposing force is called resistance of the material. In some
electric circuit resistance is deliberately introduced in the form of resistor. Resistor used fall in
three categories, only two of which are color coded which are metal films and carbon film
resistor. The third category is wire wound type, where values are generally printed on the
vitreous paint finish of the component. Un
Unit
it of resistance is ohms and is represented in Greek
letter omega ()
) looks as an upturned horseshoe. Most electronic circuit requires resistors to
make them work properly and it is obliviously important to find out something about the
different types of resistors
esistors available. 11
is quite small for electronics so resistances are often
given in K
and M. Resistors used in electronics can have resistances as low as 0.1 or as
high as 10 M . The figure 2.31
31 shows resistors.
Fig 2.3 : Resistors
2.3.2 CAPACITOR
In a way, a capacitor is a little like a battery. Although they work completely different
way, capacitor and batteries both store electrical energy. Inside the battery, chemical reactions
produce electrons on one terminal and absorb electrons at the other terminal. Like a battery, a
capacitor has two terminals. Inside the capacitor, the capacitor, the terminals connected to two
metal plates separated by dielectric. The dielectric can be air, paper, plastic or anything else that
does not conduct electricity and keeps the plates from touching each other. When you connects
capacitor to battery, the plate on the capacitor that attaches to the negative terminal of the battery
accepts electrons that the battery is producing. The pplate
late on the capacitor that attaches to the
positive terminal of the battery loses electrons to battery. Three capacitors are used in the circuit.
The figure 2.32 shows capaciors.
Fig 2.4 : Capacitors
2.3.3 555 TIMER IC

The 555 timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) used in a variety of timer, pulse
generation, and oscillator applications. The 555 can be used to provide time delays, as
an oscillator, and as a flip-flop
flop element
element.. Derivatives provide up to four timing circuits in one
package.
Depending on the manufacturer, the standard 555 package includes 25 transistors,
2 diodes and 15 resistors on a silicon chip installed in an 8-pin mini dual-in-line
line package (DIP(
8). Variants available include the 556 (a 14
14-pin DIP combining two 555s on one chip), and the
two 558 & 559s (both a 16-pin
pin DIP combining four slightly modified 555s with DIS & THR
connected internally, and TR is falling edge sensitive instead of level sensitive).

10
Fig 2. 5 Internal block diagram 555
Fig 2.6Pinout diagram

11
The connection of the pins for a DIP package is as follows:

Table 2.1 Connection of the pins for a 555 DIP package
Pin
Name
Purpose
GND
Ground reference voltage, low level (0 V)
TRIG
The OUT pin goes high and a timing interval starts when this input falls below
1/2 of CTRL voltage (which is typically 1/3 VCC, CTRL being 2/3 VCC by default
if CTRL is left open).
OUT
This output is driven to approximately 1.7 V below +VCC, or to GND.
A timing interval may be reset by driving this input to GND, but the timing does
RESET not begin again until RESET rises above approximately 0.7 volts. Overrides
TRIG which overrides THR.
CTRL
Provides "control" access to the internal voltage divider (by default, 2/3 VCC).
THR
The timing (OUT high) interval ends when the voltage at THR ("threshold") is
greater than that at CTRL (2/3 VCC if CTRL is open).
DIS
Open collector output which may discharge a capacitor between intervals. In

phase with output.
VCC
Positive supply voltage, which is usually between 3 and 15 V depending on the

variation.
Pin 5 is also sometimes called the CONTROL VOLTAGE pin. By applying a voltage to
the CONTROL VOLTAGE input one can alter the timing characteristics of the device. In most
applications, the CONTROL VOLTAGE input is not used. It is usual to connect a 10 nF
capacitor between pin 5 and 0 V to prevent interference. The CONTROL VOLTAGE input can
be used to build an astable multivibrator with a frequency-modulated output.

12
The IC 555 has three operating modes:

1. Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger the 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS pin is not
connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include bounce-free latched switches.
2. Monostable mode in this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot" pulse generator.
Applications include timers, missing pulse detection, bounce-free switches, touch
switches, frequency divider, capacitance measurement, pulse-width modulation (PWM)
and so on.
3. Astable (free-running) mode the 555 can operate as an electronic oscillator. Uses
include LED and lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation, security
alarms, pulse position modulation and so on. The 555 can be used as a simple ADC,
converting an analog value to a pulse length (e.g., selecting a thermistor as timing
resistor allows the use of the 555 in a temperature sensor and the period of the output
pulse is determined by the temperature). The use of a microprocessor-based circuit can
then convert the pulse period to temperature, linearize it and even provide calibration
means.
SPECIFICATIONS
Table 2.3 SPECIFICATIONS OF NE555
Supply voltage (VCC)
4.5 to 15 V
Supply current (VCC = +5 V)
3 to 6 mA
Supply current (VCC = +15 V)
10 to 15 mA

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Output current (maximum)
200 mA
Maximum Power dissipation
600 mW
Power consumption (minimum operating) 30 mW@5V, 225 mW@15V
Operating temperature
0 to 75 C
2.3.4 BC337 TRANSISTOR
The BC337 is a NPN General purpose transister.

FEATURES
High current (max. 500 mA)
Low voltage (max. 45 V).
APPLICATIONS
General purpose switching and amplification,
e.g. driver and output stages of audio amplifiers.
DESCRIPTION
NPN transistor in a TO-92; SOT54 plastic package.
PNP complement: BC327.

14
Fig 2.7 BC337
Fig 2.8 NPN TRANSISTOR
2.3.5 ZENER DIODE 1N4148

The 1N4148 is a standard silicon switching diode. It is one of the most popular and longlived switching diodes because of its dependable specifications and low cost.. The 1N4148 is
useful in switching applications up to about 100 MHz with a reverse-recovery time of no more
than 4 ns. The 1N4148 comes in a DO-35 glass package for through-hole mounting. This is
useful for breadboarding of circuits. A surface mount device, 1N4148WS, is available in a
plastic SOD package.
SPECIFICATIONS
VRRM = 75-100 V maximum repetitive reverse voltage

IO = 75-200 mA average rectified forward current

15
IF = 200-300 mA maximum direct forward current

VF = 1.0 V at 10 mA.[7]
IFSM = 1.0 A (pulse width = 1 s), 4.0 A (pulse width = 1 s) non-repetitive peak forward
surge current
PD = 500 mW power dissipation
TRR < 4 ns reverse-recovery time
Fig 2.9 ZENER DIODE 1N4148
2.3.6 ANALOG VOLTMETER

A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring electrical potential difference between
two points in an electric circuit. Analog voltmeters move a pointer across a scale in proportion to
the voltage of the circuit; digital voltmeters give a numerical display of voltage by use of an
analog to digital converter.
A
moving
coil galvanometer can
be
used
as
voltmeter
by
inserting
a resistor in series with the instrument. The galvanometer has a coil of fine wire suspended in a
strong magnetic field. When an electric current is applied, the interaction of the magnetic field of
the coil and of the stationary magnet creates a torque, tending to make the coil rotate. The torque
is proportional to the current through the coil. The coil rotates, compressing a spring that opposes
the rotation. The deflection of the coil is thus proportional to the current, which in turn is
proportional to the applied voltage, which is indicated by a pointer on a scale.

16
Fig 2.10 Analog Voltmeter

One of the design objectives of the instrument is to disturb the circuit as little as possible
and so the instrument should draw a minimum of current to operate. This is achieved by using a
sensitive galvanometer in series with a high resistance.
The sensitivity of such a meter can be expressed as "ohms per volt", the number of ohms
resistance in the meter circuit divided by the full scale measured value. For example, a meter
with a sensitivity of 1000 ohms per volt would draw 1 milliampere at full scale voltage; if the
full scale was 200 volts, the resistance at the instrument's terminals would be 200,000 ohms and
at full scale the meter would draw 1 milliampere from the circuit under test. For multi-range
instruments, the input resistance varies as the instrument is switched to different ranges.
Moving-coil instruments with a permanent-magnet field respond only to direct current.
Measurement of AC voltage requires a rectifier in the circuit so that the coil deflects in only one
direction. Moving-coil instruments are also made with the zero position in the middle of the scale
instead of at one end; these are useful if the voltage reverses its polarity.
Voltmeters operating on the electrostatic principle use the mutual repulsion between two charged
plates to deflect a pointer attached to a spring. Meters of this type draw negligible current but are
sensitive to voltages over about 100 volts and work with either alternating or direct current.

17
CHAPTER 3
PCB FABRICATION
3.1 PCB DESIGNING

A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and electrically
connect electronic components using conductive path ways, tracks or traces etched from copper
sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. It is also referred to a sprinted writing board
(PWD) or etched writing board. A PCB populated with electronic components is a printed circuit
assembly (PCA) also known as a printed circuit board assembly (PCBA) PCBs are inexpensive,
and can be highly reliable. They require much more layout effort and higher initial cost than
either wire-wrapped or point-to-point constructed circuits, but are much cheaper and faster for
high-volume production. Much of the electronics industrys PCB design assembly, quality
control needs are set by standards that are published by the IPC organization.
3.2 PCB MANUFACTURING

1. Pattern /Etching:
The majority of printed circuit boards are manufactured by applying a layer of
copper over the entire surface of the circuit board substrate either on one side or both sides. This
creates what is referred to as a blank printed circuit board, meaning the copper is everywhere on
the surface. From here the unwanted areas are removed, this is called a subtractive method, the
most common subtractive method is known as a photoengraving.
2. Photoengraving:
The photoengraving process uses a mask or photo mask combined with chemical
etching to subtract the copper areas from the circuit board substrate. The photo mask is created
with a photo plotter which takes the design from a CAD PCB software program. Lower
resolution photo masks are sometimes crated with the use of a laser printer using a transparency.

18
3. Lamination:
Many printed circuit boards are made up of multiple layers; these are referred to
as multi-layer printed circuit boards. They consist of several thin etched boards or trace layers
and are bonded together through the process of lamination.
4.Testing:
Unpopulated circuit boards are subjected to bare board test where each circuit
connection (as defined in a net list) is verified as correct on the finished circuit board. In high
volume circuit board production, a bed of nails tester or fixture is used to make contact with the
copper lands or holes on one or both sides of the board to facilitate testing. Computers are used
to control the electrical testing unit to send a small current through each contact point on the bed
of nails and verify that such current can be detected on the appropriate contact points.
1. Drilling:
Each layer of the printed circuit board requires the ability of one layer to connect
to another; this is achieved through drilling small holes called VIAS. These drilled holes
require precision placement and most commonly done with the use of an automated drilling
machine. These machines are driven by computer programs and files called numerically
controlled drill (NCD) files also referred to as excellent files. These files determine the position
and size of each file in the design.
3.3 SOLDERING PRECAUTIONS
The tip of soldering iron was kept clean with the help of a file from time to time.
The solder wire was of smaller thickness.
Extra solder was not used in order to avoid a cause of short circuit in the conductive
path.
The overheating of components was avoided to prevent component damage as a result

of excessive heat on the components due to the heat from the soldering iron.
The leads of the components were kept clean before soldering, with the use of sand
paper.

19
Fig 3.1 Soldering kit

20
CHAPTER 4
ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS
Frequency-to-voltage converters are used in a variety of industries and applications. For
example
1. Vehicle-monitoring applications use frequency-to-voltage converters to evaluate the
response times of clutches
2.
Air-conditioning compressors and anti-lock braking systems.
3. Driveline analysis and to monitor and control engine speeds.

4. Flowmeter monitoring
5.
Machine analysis and control
6.
Response time evaluation.

21
CHAPTER 5
RESULTS
Here we can consider the graph for our the frequency to voltage converter from the
following table
At
Vcc = 12V
Vin = 20V
Table 5.11 FREQUENCY TO VOLAGE
Frequenc
in Hz
30
50
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1500
2000

22
Voltage
in Volts
4.2
4.2
4.4
4.6
5
5.3
5.6
5.9
6.2
6.5
6.8
7.1
7.4
7.7
8
8.1
8.1
FREQUENCY TO VOLTAGE
9
8
7
Voltage
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Frequency
Fig5.1 Frequency to Voltage graph

The graph shows a linear variation for a wide range and is in our required range of operation.
RPM at a certain frequency = (frequency in Hertz 60 ) 2
(this is for a four stroke engine)

23
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION
The framework of the proposed system is developed for a tachometer suitable for
automobiles using a frequency to voltage converter. A tachometer is an instrument measuring the
rotation speed of a shaft or disk, as in a motor or other machine. The device usually displays
the revolutions per minute (RPM) on a calibrated analogue dial, but digital displays are
increasingly common.
From our observation it is clear that the variation of output voltage with frequency is
linear. The calculation of the RPM of the vehicle from the frequency is so very easy, because the
RPM directly proportional to the linearly varying voltage.

24
REFERENCES
[I] H. Berlin; 555 Timer Applications Sourcebook Experiments; BPB Publications
[II] Forrest Mims III; Timer, Op Amp, and Optoelectronic Circuits and Projects; Master
Publishing.
[III] Forrest Mims III; Radio Shack; Engineer's Mini-Notebook 555 Timer IC Circuits [4]IC
Timer Cookbook; 2nd Ed; Walter G Jung; Sams Publishing
[IV]Jonathan Oxer and Hugh Blemings (2009). Practical Arduino: Cool Projects for Open
Source Hardware.
[V] Michael Gasperi, Philippe E. Hurbain, and Philippe Hurbain (2009). Extreme NXT:
Extending the Lego Mindstorms NXT to the Next Level (2nd ed.).
[VI] The Semiconctor Data Library (Fourth ed.). Motorola Semiconductor Products, Inc. 1973.

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TACHOMETER USING FREQUENCY TO VOLTAGE CONVERTER

Rajadhani Institute of Engineering and Technology