RIZAL TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

Mandaluyong Campus

History of Architecture 4

Research Paper

Architectural Styles

Submitted to:

Arch. Lorna C. Binanitan

Submitted by:

Sagun, Remson B.

January 2014

TABLE CONTENTS

I.

Vernacular/ Asian Traditions

A. Vernacular (Folk/Ethnic/Native/Indigenous)
B. Chinese Traditions
C. Islamic

II.

Spanish Colonial/European Traditions

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.

III.

American Colonial/ Euro-American Traditions

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.

IV.

Mission Revival
Neoclassical
Palladian
Art Nouveau
Art Deco
Streamlined Moderne

Post- Independence/ Post-Colonial

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.

V.

Byzantine Romanesque
Gothic
Renaissance Revival
Baroque
Rococo
Mudejar
Italianate
Victorian

Modern
Bauhaus
Brutalism
Expressionism
International
Bungalow
Space Age
Orientalism
Bagong Lipunan Modernism

Contemporary/New Millennium
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.

I.

Post Modern
Folly
Globalism
Deconstruction
Minimalism
High Tech
Neomodern
Neovernacular
Green Architecture (Sustainable Architecture)

I. Vernacular/ Asian Traditions

A. Vernacular (Folk/Ethnic/Native/Indigenous)
B. Chinese Traditions
C. Islamic

A. Vernacular (Folk/Ethnic/Native/Indigenous)
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Vernacular architecture is a category of architecture based on local needs and construction, and
reflecting local traditions.
It tends to evolve over time to reflect the environmental, cultural, technological, and historical context in
which it exists. While often not thoroughly and academically planned, this kind of architecture played and still
plays a major role in the history of architecture and design, especially in local branches.
Vernacular architecture can be contrasted against polite architecture which is characterized by stylistic
elements of design intentionally incorporated for aesthetic purposes which go beyond a building's functional
requirements. For the similarities to "traditional architecture" see below.

Etymology

The term vernacular is derived from the Latin vernaculus, meaning "domestic, native, indigenous";
from verna, meaning "native slave" or "home-born slave". The word probably derives from an
older Etruscan word.
In linguistics, vernacular refers to language use particular to a time, place or group. In architecture, it refers to
that type of architecture which is indigenous to a specific time or place (not imported or copied from
elsewhere). It is most often applied to residential buildings.

Definitions
The terms vernacular, folk, traditional, and popular architecture are sometimes used synonymously.
However, Allen Noble wrote a lengthy discussion of these terms in Traditional Buildings: A Global Survey of
Structural Forms and Cultural Functions where he presents scholarly opinions that folk building or folk
architecture is built by "...persons not professionally trained in building arts..."; where vernacular architecture is
still of the common people but may be built by trained professionals such as through an apprenticeship, but still
using local, traditional designs and materials. Traditional architecture is architecture is passed down from
person to person, generation to generation, particularly orally, but at any level of society, not just by common
people. Noble discourages use of the term primitive architecture as having a negative connotation.[8] The term
popular architecture is used more in Eastern Europe and is synonymous with folk or vernacular architecture.
Ronald Brunskill has defined the ultimate in vernacular architecture as:
...a building designed by an amateur without any training in design; the individual will have been guided by a
series of conventions built up in his locality, paying little attention to what may be fashionable. The function of
the building would be the dominant factor, aesthetic considerations, though present to some small degree,
being quite minimal. Local materials would be used as a matter of course, other materials being chosen and
imported quite exceptionally.
The vernacular architecture is not to be confused with so-called "traditional" architecture, though there
are links between the two. Traditional architecture also includes buildings which bear elements of polite
design: temples and palaces, for example, which normally would not be included under the rubric of
"vernacular."

In architectural terms, 'the vernacular' can be contrasted with 'the polite', which is characterized by
stylistic elements of design intentionally incorporated by a professional architect for aesthetic purposes which
4

go beyond a building's functional requirements. Between the extremes of the wholly vernacular and the
completely polite, examples occur which have some vernacular and some polite content, often making the
differences between the vernacular and the polite a matter of degree.

The Encyclopedia of Vernacular Architecture of the World defines vernacular architecture as:
...comprising the dwellings and all other buildings of the people. Related to their environmental contexts and
available resources they are customarily owner- or community-built, utilizing traditional technologies. All forms
of vernacular architecture are built to meet specific needs, accommodating the values, economies and ways of
life of the cultures that produce them.
Vernacular architecture is a broad, grassroots concept which encompasses fields of architectural study
including aboriginal, indigenous, ancestral, rural, and ethnic architecture and is contrasted with the more
intellectual architecture called polite, formal, or academic architecture just as folk art is contrasted with fine art.

B. Chinese Culture
Chinese culture is one of the world's oldest cultures. The area in which the culture is dominant covers a
large geographical region in eastern Asia with customs and traditions varying greatly between provinces, cities,
and even towns. Important components of Chinese culture include literature, music, visual arts, martial
arts, cuisine, religion etc.

Architecture
Chinese architecture, examples for which can be found from over 2,000 years ago, has long been a
hallmark of the culture. There are certain features common to Chinese architecture, regardless of specific
region or use. The most important is its emphasis on width, as the wide halls of the Forbidden City serve as an
example. In contrast, Western architecture emphasize on height, though there are exceptions such
as pagodas.
Another important feature is symmetry, which connotes a sense of grandeur as it applies to everything from
palaces to farmhouses. One notable exception is in the design of gardens, which tends to be as asymmetrical
as possible. Like Chinese scroll paintings, the principle underlying the garden's composition is to create
enduring flow, to let the patron wander and enjoy the garden without prescription, as in nature herself. Feng
shui has played an important part in structural development.

C. Islamic Culture
The term "Islamic culture" could be used to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the religion, such as
festivals and dress code. It is also controversially used to mean the cultural products of traditionally Muslim
people.[235] Finally, "Islamic civilization" may also refer to the aspects of the synthesized culture of the early
Caliphates, including that of non-Muslims,[236] sometimes referred to as 'Islamicate'.

Architecture
Perhaps the most important expression of Islamic art is architecture, particularly that of
themosque (four-iwan and hypostyle).[237] Through the edifices, the effect of varying cultures within Islamic
civilization can be illustrated. The North African and Spanish Islamic architecture, for example, has RomanByzantine elements, as seen in the Great Mosque of Kairouan which contains marble and porphyry columns
from Roman and Byzantine buildings,[238] in the Alhambra palace at Granada, or in the Great Mosque of
Cordoba.

Art
The Ottoman campaign in Hungary in 1566, Crimean Tatars as vanguard, a Persian miniature
Islamic art encompasses the visual arts produced from the 7th century onwards by people (not
necessarily Muslim) who lived within the territory that was inhabited by Muslim populations.[239] It includes
fields as varied as architecture, calligraphy, painting, and ceramics, among others.
Making images of human beings and animals is frowned on in many Islamic cultures and connected with laws
against idolatry common to all Abrahamic religions, as 'Abdullaah ibn Mas'ood reported that Muhammad said,
"Those who will be most severely punished by Allah on the Day of Resurrection will be the image-makers"
(reported by al-Bukhaari, see al-Fath, 10/382). However this rule has been interpreted in different ways by
different scholars and in different historical periods, and there are examples of paintings of both animals and
humans in Mughal, Persian and Turkish art. The existence of this aversion to creating images of animate
beings has been used to explain the prevalence of calligraphy, tessellation and pattern as key aspects of
Islamic artistic culture.[citation needed

II. Spanish Colonial/ European

Traditions
A. Byzantine Romanesque
B. Gothic
C. Renaissance Revival
D. Baroque
E. Rococo
F. Mudejar
G.Italianate
H. Victorian

A. Byzantine Romanesque
Byzantine art is the artistic products of the Eastern Roman, or Byzantine, Empire, as well as the
nations and states that inherited culturally from the empire. Though the empire itself emerged from Rome's
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decline and lasted until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453,[1] many Eastern Orthodox states in Eastern
Europe, as well as to some degree the Muslim states of the eastern Mediterranean, preserved many aspects
of the empire's culture and art for centuries afterward.
A number of states contemporary with the Byzantine Empire were culturally influenced by it, without actually
being part of it (the "Byzantine commonwealth"), such as Bulgaria, Serbia, and the Russ, as well as
some non-Orthodox states the Republic of Venice and Kingdom of Sicily, which had close ties to the
Byzantine Empire despite being in other respects part of western European culture. Art produced by Eastern
Orthodox Christians living in the Ottoman Empire is often called "post-Byzantine." Certain artistic
traditions that originated in the Byzantine Empire, particularly in regard to icon painting and church
architecture, are maintained in Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Russia and other Eastern Orthodox
countries to the present day.

Romanesque architecture
Romanesque architecture is an architectural style of Europe characterized by semi-circular arches.
There is no consensus for the beginning date of the Romanesque architecture, with proposals ranging from the
6th to the 10th century. It developed in the 12th century into the Gothic, marked by pointed arches. Examples
of Romanesque architecture can be found across the continent, making it the first pan-European architectural
style since Imperial Roman Architecture. The Romanesque style in England is traditionally referred to
as Norman architecture.
Combining features of ancient Roman and Byzantine buildings and other local traditions, Romanesque
architecture is known by its massive quality, thick walls, round arches, sturdy piers, groin vaults, large towers
and decorative arcading. Each building has clearly defined forms, frequently of very regular, symmetrical plan;
the overall appearance is one of simplicity when compared with the Gothic buildings that were to follow. The
style can be identified right across Europe, despite regional characteristics and different materials.
Many castles were built during this period, but they are greatly outnumbered by churches. The most significant
are the great abbey churches, many of which are still standing, more or less complete and frequently in use.
[1]
The enormous quantity of churches built in the Romanesque period was succeeded by the still busier period
of Gothic architecture, which partly or entirely rebuilt most Romanesque churches in prosperous areas like
England and Portugal. The largest groups of Romanesque survivors are in areas that were less prosperous in
subsequent periods, including parts of southern France, northern Spain and rural Italy. Survivals of unfortified
Romanesque secular houses and palaces, and the domestic quarters of monasteries are far rarer, but these
used and adapted the features found in church buildings, on a domestic scale.

Definition
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word "Romanesque" means "descended from Roman"
and was first used in English to designate what are now called Romance languages (first cited 1715). The
French term "romane" was first used in the architectural sense by archaeologist Charles de Gerville in a letter
of 18 December 1818 to Auguste Le Prvost to describe what Gerville sees as adebased Roman architecture.
8

[Notes 2][3]

In 1824 Gerville's friend Arcisse de Caumont adopted the label "roman" to describe the "degraded"
European architecture from the 5th to the 13th centuries, in his Essai sur l'architecture religieuse du moyenge, particulirement en Normandie,[4] at a time when the actual dates of many of the buildings so described
had not been ascertained:[5][6][7]
The name Roman (esque) we give to this architecture, which should be universal as it is the same
everywhere with slight local differences, also has the merit of indicating its origin and is not new since it
is used already to describe the language of the same period. Romance language is degenerated Latin
language. Romanesque architecture is debased Roman architecture. [Notes 3]
The first use in a published work is in William Gunn's An Inquiry into the Origin and Influence of Gothic
Architecture (London 1819).[9][10] The word was used by Gunn to describe the style that was identifiably
Medieval and prefigured the Gothic, yet maintained the rounded Roman arch and thus appeared to be a
continuation of the Roman tradition of building.
The term is now used for the more restricted period from the late 10th to 12th centuries. The term " Preromanesque" is sometimes applied to architecture in Germany of the Carolingian and Ottonian periods
and Visigothic, Mozarab and Asturian constructions between the 8th and the 10th centuries in the Iberian
Peninsula while "First Romanesque" is applied to buildings in north of Italy and Spain and parts of France
that have Romanesque features but pre-date the influence of the monastery of Cluny.

B. Gothic

Gothic architecture is a style of architecture that flourished during the high and late medieval. It evolved
from Romanesque architecture and was succeeded by Renaissance.
Originating in 12th-century France and lasting into the 16th century, Gothic architecture was known during the
period as Opus Francigenum ("French work") with the term Gothic first appearing during the latter part of
the Renaissance. Its characteristics include the pointed arch, the ribbed vault and the flying buttress.
Gothic architecture is most familiar as the architecture of many of the great cathedrals, abbeys and churches of
Europe. It is also the architecture of many castles, palaces, town, guild halls, and universities and to a less
prominent extent, private dwellings.
It is in the great churches and cathedrals and in a number of civic buildings that the Gothic style was
expressed most powerfully, its characteristics lending themselves to appeals to the emotions, whether
springing from faith or from civic pride. A great number of ecclesiastical buildings remain from this period, of
which even the smallest are often structures of architectural distinction while many of the larger churches are
considered priceless works of art and are listed with UNESCO as World Heritage Sites. For this reason a study
of Gothic architecture is largely a study of cathedrals and churches.
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A series of Gothic revivals began in mid-18th-century England, spread through 19th-century Europe and
continued, largely for ecclesiastical and university structures, into the 20th century.
The term "Gothic architecture" originated as a pejorative description. Giorgio Vasariused the term
"barbarous German style" in his Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects to describe
what we now consider the Gothic style,[1] and in the introduction to the Lives he attributes various architectural
features to "the Goths" whom he holds responsible for destroying the ancient buildings after they conquered
Rome, and erecting new ones in this style.[2] At the time in which Vasari was writing, Italy had experienced a
century of building in the Classical architectural vocabulary revived in the Renaissance and seen as evidence
of a new Golden Age of learning and refinement.
The Renaissance had then overtaken Europe, overturning a system of culture that, prior to the advent
of printing, was almost entirely focused on the Church and was perceived, in retrospect, as a period of
ignorance and superstition. Hence, Franois Rabelais, also of the 16th century, imagines an inscription over
the door of his utopian Abbey of Thlme, "Here enter no hypocrites, bigots..." slipping in a slighting reference
to "Gotz" and "Ostrogotz."
In English 17th-century usage, "Goth" was an equivalent of "vandal", a savage despoiler with a
Germanic heritage, and so came to be applied to the architectural styles of northern Europe from before the
revival of classical types of architecture.
According to a 19th-century correspondent in the London Journal Notes and Queries:
There can be no doubt that the term 'Gothic' as applied to pointed styles of ecclesiastical architecture
was used at first contemptuously, and in derision, by those who were ambitious to imitate and revive the
Grecian orders of architecture, after the revival of classical literature. Authorities such as Christopher Wren lent
their aid in deprecating the old medieval style, which they termed Gothic, as synonymous with everything that
was barbarous and rude.[4][5]
On 21 July 1710, the Acadmie d'Architecture met in Paris, and among the subjects they discussed,
the assembled company noted the new fashions of bowed and cusped arches on chimneypieces being
employed "to finish the top of their openings. The Company disapproved of several of these new manners,
which are defective and which belong for the most part to the Gothic."

Definition and scope

Gothic architecture is the architecture of the late medieval period, characterized by use of the pointed
arch. Other features common to Gothic architecture are the rib vault, buttresses, including flying buttresses;
large windows which are often grouped, or have tracery; rose windows, towers, spires and pinnacles; and
ornate faades.

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As an architectural style, Gothic developed primarily in ecclesiastical architecture, and its principals and
characteristic forms were applied to other types of buildings. Buildings of every type were constructed in the
Gothic style, with evidence remaining of simple domestic buildings, elegant town houses, grand palaces,
commercial premises, civic buildings, castles, city walls, bridges, village churches, abbey churches, abbey
complexes and large cathedrals.
The greatest number of surviving Gothic buildings is churches. These range from tiny chapels to large
cathedrals, and although many have been extended and altered in different styles, a large number remain
either substantially intact or sympathetically restored, demonstrating the form, character and decoration of
Gothic architecture. The Gothic style is most particularly associated with the great cathedrals of Northern
France, England and Spain, with other fine examples occurring across Europe.

C. Renaissance Revival
Renaissance Revival (sometimes referred to as "Neo-Renaissance") is an all-encompassing designation
that covers many 19th century styles which were neither Grecian (see Greek Revival) nor Gothic (see Gothic
Revival) but which instead drew inspiration from a wide range of classicizing Italian modes. Under the broad
designation "Renaissance architecture" nineteenth-century architects and critics went beyond the architectural
style which began in Florence and central Italy in the early 15th century as an expression of Humanism; they
also included styles we would identify as Mannerist or Baroque. Self-applied style designations were rife in the
mid- and later nineteenth century: "Neo-Renaissance" might be applied by contemporaries to structures that
others called "Italianate", or when many French Baroque features are present (Second Empire).
The divergent forms of Renaissance architecture in different parts of Europe, particularly in France and Italy,
have added to the difficulty of defining and recognizing Neo-Renaissance architecture. A comparison between
the breadth of its source material, such as the English Wollaton Hall,[1] Italian Palazzo Pitti, the French Chteau
de Chambord, and the Russian Palace of Facets all deemed "Renaissance" illustrates the variety of
appearances the same architectural label can take.
Origins of Renaissance architecture
The origin of Renaissance architecture is generally accredited to Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446).
Brunelleschi and his contemporaries wished to bring greater "order" to architecture, resulting in strong
symmetry and careful proportion. The movement grew from scientific observations of nature, in particular
human anatomy.
Neo-Renaissance architecture is formed by not only the severe original Italian architecture but by the form in
which Renaissance architecture developed in France during the 16th century. During the early years of the
16th century the French were involved in wars in northern Italy, bringing back to France not just the
Renaissance art treasures as their war booty, but also stylistic ideas. In the Loire valley a wave
11

of chateau building was carried out using traditional French Gothic styles but with ornament in the forms of
pediments, arcades, shallow pilasters and entablatures from the Italian Renaissance.
In England the Renaissance tended to manifest itself in large square tall houses such as Longleat House.
Often these buildings had symmetrical towers which hint at the evolution from medieval fortified architecture.
This is particularly evident at Hatfield House built between 1607 and 1611, where medieval towers jostle with a
large Italian cupola. This is why so many buildings of the early English Neo-Renaissance style often have more
of a "castle air" than their European contemporaries, which can add again to the confusion with the Gothic
revival style.

D. Baroque
The Baroque (US /brok/ or UK /brk/) is a period of artistic style that used exaggerated motion and
clear, easily interpreted detail to produce drama, tension, exuberance, and grandeur in sculpture, painting,
architecture, literature, dance, and music. The style began around 1600 in Rome, Italy and spread to most of
Europe.[1]
The popularity and success of the Baroque style was encouraged by the Roman Catholic Church, which had
decided at the time of the Council of Trent, in response to the Protestant Reformation, that the arts should
communicate religious themes in direct and emotional involvement. [2] The aristocracy also saw the dramatic
style of Baroque architecture and art as a means of impressing visitors and expressing triumph, power and
control. Baroque palaces are built around an entrance of courts, grand staircases and reception rooms of
sequentially increasing opulence.

Etymology
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word baroque is derived from the Portuguese word
"barroco", Spanish "barroco", or French "baroque", all of which refer to a "rough or imperfect pearl", though
whether it entered those languages via Latin, Arabic, or some other source is uncertain. [3] The
1911 Encyclopedia Britannica 11th edition thought the term was derived from the Spanish barrueco, a large,
irregularly-shaped pearl, and that it had for a time been confined to the craft of the jeweller.[4] Others derive it
from the mnemonicterm "Baroco", a supposedly laboured form of syllogism in logical Scholastica.[5] The Latin
root can be found in bis-roca
In informal usage, the word baroque can simply mean that something is "elaborate", with many details, without
reference to the Baroque styles of the 17th and 18th centuries.

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The word "Baroque", like most periodic or stylistic designations, was invented by later critics rather than
practitioners of the arts in the 17th and early 18th centuries. It is a French transliteration of
the Portuguese phrase "prola barroca", which means "irregular pearl", and natural pearls that deviate from the
usual, regular forms so they do not have an axis of rotation are known as "baroque pearls".[7]
The term "Baroque" was initially used in a derogatory sense, to underline the excesses of its emphasis.
In particular, the term was used to describe its eccentric redundancy and noisy abundance of details, which
sharply contrasted the clear and sober rationality of the Renaissance. Although it was long thought that the
word as a critical term was first applied to architecture, in fact it appears earlier in reference to music, in an
anonymous, satirical review of the premire in October 1733 of Jean-Philippe Rameau's Hippolyte et Aricie,
printed in the Mercure de France in May 1734. The critic implied that the novelty in this opera was "du
barocque", complaining that the music lacked coherent melody, was filled with unremitting dissonances,
constantly changed key and meter, and speedily ran through every compositional device

Architecture
In Baroque architecture, new emphasis was placed on bold massing, colonnades, domes, light-andshade (chiaroscuro), 'painterly' color effects, and the bold play of volume and void. In interiors, Baroque
movement around and through a void informed monumental staircases that had no parallel in previous
architecture. The other Baroque innovation in worldly interiors was the state apartment, a sequence of
increasingly rich interiors that culminated in a presence chamber or throne room or a state bedroom. The
sequence of monumental stairs followed by a state apartment was copied in smaller scale everywhere in
aristocratic dwellings of any pretensions.
Baroque architecture was taken up with enthusiasm in central Germany (see, e.g.,Ludwigsburg
Palace and Zwinger Dresden), Austria and Russia (see, e.g., Peterhof). In England the culmination of Baroque
architecture was embodied in work by Sir Christopher Wren, Sir John Vanbrugh and Nicholas Hawksmoor,
from ca. 1660 to ca. 1725. Many examples of Baroque architecture and town planning are found in other
European towns, and in Latin America. Town planning of this period featured radiating avenues intersecting in
squares, which took cues from Baroque garden plans. In Sicily, Baroque developed new shapes and themes
as in Noto, Ragusa and Acireale "Basilica di San Sebastiano".
Another example of Baroque architecture is the Cathedral of Morelia Michoacan in Mexico. Built in the
17th century by Vincenzo Barrochio, it is one of the many Baroque cathedrals in Mexico. Baroque churches
are also seen in the Philippines, which were built during the Spanish period.
Francis Ching described Baroque architecture as "a style of architecture originating in Italy in the early 17th
century and variously prevalent in Europe and the New World for a century and a half, characterized by free
and sculptural use of the classical orders and ornament, dynamic opposition and interpenetration of spaces,
and the dramatic combined effects of architecture, sculpture, painting, and the decorative arts.

E. Rococo
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Rococo (/rkoko/ or /rokko/), less commonly rococo, or "Late Baroque", is an 18th-century artistic
movement and style, which affected several aspects of arts including painting, sculpture, architecture, interior
design, decoration, literature, music and theatre. The Rococo developed in the early part of the 18th century
in Paris, France as a reaction against the grandeur, symmetry and strict regulations of the Baroque, especially
that of the Palace of Versailles.[1] In such a way, Rococo artists opted for a more jocular, florid and graceful
approach to Baroque art and architecture. Rococo art and architecture in such a way was ornate and made
strong usage of creamy, pastel-like colors, asymmetrical designs, curves and gold. Unlike the more politically
focused Baroque, the Rococo had more playful and often witty artistic themes. With regards to interior
decoration, Rococo rooms were designed as total works of art with elegant and ornate furniture, small
sculptures, ornamental mirrors, and tapestry complementing architecture, reliefs, and wall paintings. The
Rococo additionally played an important role in theatre. In the book The Rococo, it is written that there was no
other culture which "has produced a wittier, more elegant, and teasing dialogue full of elusive and
camouflaging language and gestures, refined feelings and subtle criticism" than Rococo theatre, especially that
of France.[2]
Towards the end of the 18th century, Rococo started to fall out of fashion, and it was largely supplanted by
the Neoclassic style. In 1835 the Dictionary of the French Academy stated that the word Rococo "usually
covers the kind of ornament, style and design associated with Louis XV's reign and the beginning of that of
Louis XVI". It includes therefore, all types of art produced around the middle of the 18th century in France. The
word Rococo is seen as a combination of the French rocaille, meaning stone, and coquilles, meaning shell,
due to reliance on these objects as motifs of decoration.[3] The term Rococo may also be interpreted as a
combination of the Italian word "barocco" (an irregularly shaped pearl, possibly the source of the word
"baroque") and the French "rocaille" (a popular form of garden or interior ornamentation using shells and
pebbles), and may be used to describe the refined and fanciful style that became fashionable in parts of
Europe during the eighteenth century.[4] Owing to Rococo love of shell-like curves and focus on decorative arts,
some critics used the term to derogatively imply that the style was frivolous or merely modish. When the term
was first used in English in about 1836, it was a colloquialism meaning "old-fashioned". As a matter of fact, the
style received harsh criticism, and was seen by some to be superficial and of poor taste, [5][6] especially when
compared to neoclassicism; despite this, it has been praised for its aesthetic qualities,[5] and since the mid-19th
century, the term has been accepted by art historians. While there is still some debate about the historical
significance of the style to art in general, Rococo is now widely recognized as a major period in the
development of European art.

Architecture
Rococo architecture, as mentioned above, was a lighter, more graceful, yet also more elaborate version
of Baroque architecture, which was ornate and austere. Whilst the styles were similar, there are some notable
differences between both Rococo and Baroque architecture, one of them being symmetry,[10] since Rococo
emphasized the asymmetry of forms,[10] whilst Baroque was the opposite.[11] The styles, despite both being
richly decorated, also had different themes; the Baroque, for instance, was more serious, placing an emphasis
on religion, and was often characterized by Christian themes [12] (as a matter of fact, the Baroque began in
14

Rome as a response to the Protestant Reformation);[13] Rococo architecture was an 18th-century, more secular,
adaptation of the Baroque which was characterized by more light-hearted and jocular themes. [12] Other
elements belonging to the architectural style of Rococo include numerous curves and decorations, as well as
the usage of pale colors.[14]
There are numerous examples of Rococo buildings as well as architects. Amongst the most famous
include the Catherine Palace, in Russia, the Queluz National Palace in Portugal, the Augustus burg and
Falkenlust Palaces, Brhl, the Chinese House (Potsdam) theCharlottenburg Palace in Germany, as well as
elements of the Chteau de Versailles in France. Architects who were renowned for their constructions using
the style include Francesco, an Italian architect who worked in Russia [15] and who was noted for his lavish and
opulent works, Philip, who worked in both Danish and Dutch Rococo architecture, or Matthus Daniel
Pppelmann, who worked in the late Baroque style and who contributed to the reconstruction of the city
of Dresden, in Germany.
Rococo architecture also brought significant changes to the building of edifices, placing an emphasis on
privacy rather than the grand public majesty of Baroque architecture, as well as improving the structure of
buildings in order to create a healthier environment

Historical development
Although Rococo is usually thought of as developing first in the decorative arts and interior design, its
origins lie in the late Baroque architectural work of Borromini (15991667) mostly in Rome and Guarini (1624
1683) mostly in Northern Italy but also in Vienna, Prague, Lisbon, and Paris. Italian architects of the late
Baroque/early Rococo were wooed to Catholic (Southern) Germany, Bohemiaand Austria by local princes,
bishops and prince-bishops. Inspired by their example, regional families of Central European builders went
further, creating churches and palaces that took the local German Baroque style to the greatest heights of
Rococo elaboration and sensation.
An exotic but in some ways more formal type of Rococo appeared in France where Louis XIV's
succession brought a change in the court artists and general artistic fashion. By the end of the king's long
reign, rich Baroque designs were giving way to lighter elements with more curves and natural patterns. These
elements are obvious in the architectural designs of Nicolas Pineau. During the Rgence, court life moved
away from Versailles and this artistic change became well established, first in the royal palace and then
throughout French high society. The delicacy and playfulness of Rococo designs is often seen as perfectly in
tune with the excesses of Louis XV's reign.[7]
The 1730s represented the height of Rococo development in France. The style had spread beyond
architecture and furniture to painting and sculpture, exemplified by the works of Antoine Watteau and Franois
Boucher. Rococo still maintained the Baroque taste for complex forms and intricate patterns, but by this point,
15

it had begun to integrate a variety of diverse characteristics, including a taste for Oriental designs and
asymmetric compositions. The Rococo style was spread by French artists and engraved publications.
In Great Britain, Rococo was always thought of as the "French taste" and was never widely adopted as
an architectural style, although its influence was strongly felt in such areas as silverwork, porcelain, and silks,
and Thomas Chippendale transformed British furniture design through his adaptation and refinement of the
style. William Hogarth helped develop a theoretical foundation for Rococo beauty. Though not intentionally
referencing the movement, he argued in his Analysis of Beauty (1753) that the undulating lines and S-curves
prominent in Rococo were the basis for grace and beauty in art or nature (unlike the straight line or the circle
in Classicism). The development of Rococo in Great Britain is considered to have been connected with
the revival of interest in Gothic architecture early in the 18th century.
The beginning of the end for Rococo came in the early 1760s as figures like Voltaire and
Jacques began to voice their criticism of the superficiality and degeneracy of the art. Blondel decried the
"ridiculous jumble of shells, dragons, reeds, palm-trees and plants" in contemporary interiors. [8] By 1785,
Rococo had passed out of fashion in France, replaced by the order and seriousness of Neoclassical artists
like Jacques-Louis David. In Germany, late 18th century Rococo was ridiculed as Zopf und Percke ("pigtail
and periwig"), and this phase is sometimes referred to as Zopfstil. Rococo remained popular in the provinces
and in Italy, until the second phase of neoclassicism, "Empire style", arrived with Napoleonic governments and
swept Rococo away.
There was a renewed interest in the Rococo style between 1820 and 1870. The British were among the
first to revive the "Louis XIV style" as it was miscalled at first, and paid inflated prices for second-hand Rococo
luxury goods that could scarcely be sold in Paris. But prominent artists like Eugne Delacroix and patrons
like Empress Eugnie also rediscovered the value of grace and playfulness in art and design.

F. Mudejar
Mudjar (Spanish: [muexar, muehar], Portuguese: [mua], Catalan: Mudjar [mur],Arabic
: trans. Mudajjan, "domesticated") is the name given to individual Moors or Muslims of Al-Andalus who
remained in Iberia after the Christian Reconquista but were not converted to Christianity, unlike Moriscos who
had converted. It also denotes a style of Iberian architecture and decoration, particularly of Aragon and Castile,
of the 12th to 16th centuries, strongly influenced by Moorish taste and workmanship.

Etymology
The word Mudjar is a Medieval Spanish corruption of the Arabic word Mudajjan , meaning
"domesticated", in a reference to the Muslims who submitted to the rule of the Christian kings.
16

The Treaty of Granada (1491) protected religious and cultural freedoms for Muslims and Jews in the
imminent transition from the Emirate of Granada to a Province of Castile. After the fall in the Battle in
January 1492, Mudjars, unlike the Jews' Alhambra Decree (1492) expulsion, kept the protected religious
status along with Catholic converse efforts. However, in the mid-16th century, they were forced to convert
to Christianity. From that time, because of suspicions that they were not truly converted, or crypto-Muslims,
they were known as Moriscos. In 1610 those who refused to convert to Christianity were expelled or killed.
The distinctive Mudjar style is still evident in regional architecture, as well as in the music, art, and crafts,
especially Hispano-Moresque ware, lusterware pottery which was widely exported across Europe.

Mudjar style
In erecting Romanesque, Gothic, and Renaissance buildings, builders used elements of Islamic art and
often achieved striking results. Its influence survived into the 17th century.
The

Mudjar

style,

a symbiosis of

techniques

and

ways

of

understanding architecture resulting

from Muslim and Christian cultures living side by side, emerged as an architectural style in the 12th century on
the Iberian peninsula. It is characterized by the use of brick as the main material. Mudjar did not involve the
creation of new shapes or structures (unlike Gothic or Romanesque), but the reinterpretation of Western
cultural styles through Islamic influences.
The dominant geometrical character, distinctly Islamic, emerged conspicuously in the accessory crafts
using less expensive materials: elaborate tile work, brickwork, carving, plaster carving, and ornamental metals.
To enliven the planar surfaces of wall and floor, Mudjar style developed complicated tiling patterns that have
never been surpassed in sophistication. Even after Muslims were no longer employed in architecture, many of
the elements they had introduced continued to be incorporated into Spanish architecture, thereby giving it a
distinctive appearance. The term Mudejar style was first coined in 1859 by Jos Amador de los Ros, an
Andalusian historian and archeologist.
Historians agree that the Mudjar style developed in Sahagn, Len [1], as an adaptation of
architectural and ornamental motifs (especially through decoration with plasterwork and brick). Mudjar
extended to the rest of the Kingdom of Len, Toledo, vila, Segovia, etc., giving rise to what has been
called brick

Romanesque style.

Centers

of

Mudjar

art

are

found

in

other

cities,

such

in Teruel (although

also

as Toro, Cullar, Arvalo and Madrigal de las Altas Torres.

It

became

most

highly

developed

mainly

in

Aragon,

especially

inZaragoza, Utebo, Tauste, Daroca, Calatayud, etc.) During the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries, many imposing
Mudjar-style towers were built in the city of Teruel, changing the aspect of the city. This distinction has
survived to the present day. Mudjar led to a fusion between the incipient Gothic style and the Muslim
17

influences that had been integrated with late Romanesque. A particularly fine Mudjar example is the Casa de
Pilatos, built in the early 16th century at Seville.
Seville includes many other examples of Mudjar style. The Alczar of Seville is considered one of the greatest
surviving examples of the style. The Alczar expresses Gothic and Renaissance styles, as well as Mudjar.
The Palace originally began as a Moorish fort. Pedro of Castilecontinued the Islamic architectural style when
he had the palace expanded. The parish church of Santa Catalina (pictured) was built in the 14th century over
an old mosque.

Mudjar Architecture of Aragon

Mudjar Architecture of Aragon is an aesthetic trend in the Mudjar style, which is centered
in Aragon (Spain) and has been recognized in some representative buildings as a World Heritage Site by
UNESCO.
The chronology of the Aragonese Mudejar occupies 12th to the 17th century and includes more than a
hundred architectural monuments located predominantly in the valleys of the Ebro, Jaln and Jiloca. In this
area there was a large population of Muslim origin, although many of them were nominally Christian. Described
as Mudejar orMorisco, they kept their workshops and craft traditions, and rarely used stone as building
material.
The first manifestations of Aragonese Mudejar have two origins: on the one hand, a palatial architecture
linked to the monarchy, which amends and extends the Aljafera Palace maintaining Islamic ornamental
tradition, and on the other hand, a tradition which develops Romanesque architecture using brickwork rather
than masonry construction and which often displays Hispanic-rooted ornamental tracery. Examples of the latter
type of mudejar architecture can be seen in churches in Daroca, which were started in stone and finished off in
the 13th century with Mudejar brick panels.
From the construction point of view, the Mudejar architecture in Aragon preferably adopts functional
schemes of Cistercian Gothic, but with some differences. Buttresses are often absent, especially in
the apses which characteristically have an octagonal plan with thick walls that can hold the thrust from the roof
and which provide space to highlight brick decorations. On the other hand, buttresses are often a feature of the
naves, where they may be topped by turrets, as in the style of the Basilica of Our Lady of the Pillar. There may
be side chapels which are not obvious from the exterior. Churches in neighborhoods (such as San Pablo of
Zaragoza) or small towns do not usually have aisles, but locations for additional altars are provided by chapels
between the nave buttresses. It is common for these side chapels to have a closed gallery or ndite (walkway),
with windows looking to the outside and inside of the building. This constitution is called a church-fortress, and
his prototype could be the church of Montalbn.

18

Typically the bell towers show extraordinary ornamental development, the structure is inherited from the
Islamic minaret: quadrangular with central pier whose spaces are filled via a staircase approximation vaults, as
in the Almohad minarets. On this body stood the tower, usually polygonal. There are also examples of
octagonal towers.

G. Italianate
The Italianate style of architecture was a distinct 19th-century phase in the history of Classical
architecture. In the Italianate style, the models and architectural vocabulary of16th-century Italian Renaissance
architecture, which had served as inspiration for both Palladianism and Neoclassicism, were synthesized
with picturesque aesthetics. The style of architecture that was thus created, though also characterized as
"Neo-Renaissance", was essentially of its own time. "The backward look transforms its object," Siegfried
Giedion wrote of historicist architectural styles; [2] "every spectator at every periodat every moment, indeed
inevitably transforms the past according to his own nature."
The Italianate style was first developed in Britain about 1802 by John Nash, with the construction
of Cronkhill inShropshire. This small country house is generally accepted to be the first Italianate villa in
England, from which is derived the Italianate architecture of the late Regency and early Victorian eras.[3] The
Italianate style was further developed and popularized by the architect Sir Charles Barry in the 1830s.[4] Barry's
Italianate style (occasionally termed "Barryesque")[1] drew heavily for its motifs on the buildings of the Italian
Renaissance, though sometimes at odds with Nash's semi-rustic Italianate villas.
The style was not confined to England and was employed in varying forms, long after its decline in popularity in
Britain, throughout Northern and the British Empire. From the late 1840s to 1890 it achieved huge popularity in
the United States,[5] where it was promoted by the architect Alexander Jackson Davis

H. Victorian

Victorian in this sense refers to a period in the mid-to-late 19th century that features a series of architectural
revival styles. The name "Victorian" refers to the reign of Queen Victoria (18371901), during which period the
styles known as Victorian were used in construction. However, many elements of what is typically termed
19

"Victorian" architecture did not become popular until later in Victoria's reign. The styles often included
interpretations and eclectic revivals of historic styles mixed with the introduction of middle east and Asian
influences. The name represents the British and French custom of naming architectural styles for a reigning
monarch. Within this naming and classification scheme, it follows Georgian architecture and later Regency
architecture, and was succeeded by Edwardian architecture.

Queen Victoria
Queen Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria; 24 May 1819 22 January 1901) was the monarch of the United

Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death. From 1 May 1876, she used the
additional title of Empress of India.
Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn , the fourth son of King George

III. Both the Duke of Kent and King George III died in 1820, and Victoria was raised under close supervision
by her German-born mother Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. She inherited the throne at the age of
18, after her father's three elder brothers had all died, leaving no legitimate, surviving children. The United
Kingdom was already an established constitutional monarchy, in which the sovereign held relatively little direct
political power. Privately, Victoria attempted to influence government policy and ministerial appointments.
Publicly, she became a national icon, and was identified with strict standards of personal morality.
Victoria married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha , in 1840. Their nine married into
royal and noble families across the continent, tying them together and earning her the nickname "the
grandmother of Europe". After Albert's death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public
appearances. As a result of her seclusion, republicanism temporarily gained strength, but in the latter half of
her reign, her popularity recovered. Her Golden and Diamond Jubilees were times of public celebration.

Her reign of 63 years and seven months, which is longer than that of any other British monarch and
the longest of any female monarch in history, is known as the Victorian era. It was a period of industrial,
cultural, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great
expansion of the British Empire. She was the last British monarch of the House of Hanover. Her son and
successor, Edward VII, belonged to the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the line of his father

20

21

III American Colonial/

.

Euro-American Traditions
A. Mission Revival
B. Neoclassical
C. Palladian
D. Art Nouveau
E. Art Deco
F. Streamlined Moderne

A. Mission Revival
The Mission Revival Style was an architectural movement that began in the late 19th century for a
colonial style's revivalism and reinterpretation, which drew inspiration from the late 18th and early 19th
century Spanish missions in California.
The Mission Revival movement enjoyed its greatest popularity between 1890 and 1915, through numerous
residential, commercial, and institutional structures, particularly with schools and railroad depots, that used this
22

easily recognizable architectural style.[1] It evolved into and was subsumed by the more articulated Spanish
Colonial Revival Style, established in 1915 at the PanamaCalifornia Exposition.

B. Neoclassical
Neoclassical architecture is an architectural style produced by the neoclassical that began in the mid-18th
century, manifested both in its details as a reaction against the Rococo style of naturalistic ornament, and in its
architectural formulas as an outgrowth of some classicizing features of Late Baroque. In its purest form it is a
style principally derived from the architecture of Classical Greece and Rome and the architecture of the Italian
architect Andrea Palladio. In form, Neoclassical architecture emphasizes the wall rather than chiaroscuro and
maintains separate identities to each of its parts.

Neoclassicism
By the mid 18th century, the movement broadened to incorporate a greater range of Classical influences,
including those from Ancient Greece. The shift to neoclassical architecture is conventionally dated to the
1750s. It first gained influence in England and France; in England, Sir William Hamilton's excavations
at Pompeii and other sites, the influence of the Grand Tour and the work of William Chambers and Robert
Adam, was pivotal in this regard. In France, the movement was propelled by a generation of French art
students trained in Rome, and was influenced by the writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann. The style was
also adopted by progressive circles in other countries such as Sweden and Russia.
International neoclassical architecture was exemplified in Karl Friedrich Schinkel's buildings, especially
the Old Museum in Berlin, Sir John Soane's Bank of England in London and the newly built White
House and Capitol in Washington,

DC of

the

nascent American

Republic.

The

Scottish

architect

Charles created palatial Italianate interiors for the German-born Catherine II the Great in St. Petersburg.
A second neoclassic wave, more severe, more studied and more consciously archaeological, is associated
with the height of the Napoleonic. In France, the first phase of neoclassicism was expressed in the "Louis XVI
style", and the second in the styles called "Directoire" or Empire. The Rococo style remained popular in Italy
until the Napoleonic regimes brought the new archaeological classicism, which was embraced as a political
statement by young, progressive, urban Italians with republican leanings.[according to whom?]

23

In the decorative arts, neoclassicism is exemplified in French furniture of the Empire style; the English
furniture

of Chippendale, George

Hepplewhite and Robert

Adam, Wedgwood's bas

reliefs and

"black

basaltes" vases, and the Biedermeier furniture of Austria. The style was international; Scots architect Charles
Cameron created palatial Italianate interiors for the German-born Catherine II the Great, in Russian St.
Petersburg.

History
Intellectually, Neoclassicism was symptomatic of a desire to return to the perceived "purity" of the arts
of Rome, to the more vague perception ("ideal") of Ancient Greek arts and, to a lesser extent, 16thcentury Renaissance Classicism, which was also a source for academic Late Baroque architecture.
Many early 19th-century neoclassical architects were influenced by the drawings and projects of tienne-Louis
Boulle and Claude Nicolas Ledoux. The many graphite drawings of Boulle and his students depict spare
geometrical architecture that emulates the eternality of the universe. There are links between Boulle's ideas
and Edmund Burke's conception of the sublime. Ledoux addressed the concept of architectural character,
maintaining that a building should immediately communicate its function to the viewer: taken literally such
ideas give rise to "architecture parlante".

C. Palladian
A return to more classical architectural forms as a reaction to the Rococo style can be detected in some
European architecture of the earlier 18th century, most vividly represented in the Palladian architecture of
Georgian Britain and Ireland.
The baroque style had never truly been to the English taste. Four influential books were published in the
first quarter of the 18th century which highlighted the simplicity and purity of classical architecture: Vitruvius
Britannicus (Colen Campbell 1715), Palladio's Four Books of Architecture (1715), De Re Aedificatoria (1726)
and The Designs of Inigo Jones... with Some Additional Designs (1727). The most popular was the fourvolume Vitruvius Britannicus by Colen Campbell. The book contained architectural prints of famous British
buildings that had been inspired by the great architects fromVitruvius to Palladio. At first the book mainly
featured the work of Inigo Jones, but the later tomes contained drawings and plans by Campbell and other
18th-century architects. Palladian architecture became well established in 18th-century Britain.

24

At the forefront of the new school of design was the aristocratic "architect earl", Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of
Burlington; in 1729, he and William Kent, designed Chiswick House. This House was a reinterpretation of
Palladio's Villa Capra, but purified of 16th century elements and ornament. This severe lack of ornamentation
was to be a feature of the Palladianism. In 1734 William Kent and Lord Burlington designed one of England's
finest examples of Palladian architecture with Holkham Hall in Norfolk. The main block of this house followed
Palladio's dictates quite closely, but Palladio's low, often detached, wings of farm buildings were elevated in
significance.
This classicizing vein was also detectable, to a lesser degree, in the Late Baroque architecture in Paris,
such as in Perrault's east range of the Louvre. This shift was even visible in Rome at the redesigned facade
for S. Giovanni in Laterano.

D. Art Nouveau
Art

Nouveau (French

pronunciation: [a

nuvo], Anglicised to /rt nuvo/)

is

an

[1]

international philosophy and style of art, architecture and applied artespecially the decorative artsthat
was most popular during 18901910.[2]English uses the French name Art nouveau ("new art"), but the style has
many different names in other countries. A reaction to academic art of the 19th century, it was inspired by
natural forms and structures, not only in flowers and plants, but also in curved lines. Architects tried to
harmonize with the natural environment.[3]
Art Nouveau is considered a "total" art style, embracing architecture, graphic art, interior design, and most
of the decorative arts including jewellery, furniture, textiles, household silver and other utensils and lighting, as
well as the fine arts. According to the philosophy of the style, art should be a way of life. For many well-off
Europeans, it was possible to live in an art nouveau-inspired house with art nouveau furniture, silverware,
fabrics, ceramics including tableware, jewellery, cigarette cases, etc. Artists desired to combine the fine arts
and applied arts, even for utilitarian objects.[3]
Although Art Nouveau was replaced by 20th-century Modernist styles,[4] it is now considered as an
important transition between the eclectic historic revival styles of the 19th-century and Modernism.[5]

Origins
At its beginning, neither Art Nouveau nor Jugendstil was the common name of the style but was known
as this in some locations, and the style had different names as it was spread. [6] Those two names came from,

25

respectively, Siegfried Bing's gallery Maison de l'Art Nouveau in Paris and the magazine Jugend in Munich,
[5]

both of which promoted and popularised the style.[6]

Maison de l'Art Nouveau (House of New Art) was the name of the gallery initiated in 1895 by the German art
dealer Siegfried Bing in Paris that featured exclusively modern art.[7][8] The fame of his gallery was increased at
the 1900 Exposition Universelle, where he presented coordinatedin design and colorinstallations of
modern furniture, tapestries and objets d'art.[8] Thesedecorative displays became so strongly associated with
the style that the name of his gallery subsequently provided a commonly used term for the entire style. [8] Thus
the term "Art Nouveau" was created.
Part of the evolution of Art Nouveau was several international fairs which presented buildings and
products designed in the new style. So, the 1888 Barcelona Universal Exposition marks the beginning of
the Modernisme, with some buildings of Llus Domnech i Montaner. TheExposition Universelle of 1900 in
Paris, presented an overview of the 'modern style' in every medium. It achieved further recognition at
the Esposizione Internazionale d'Arte Decorativa Moderna of 1902 in Turin, Italy, where designers exhibited
from almost every European country where Art Nouveau was practiced.

Naming
Art

Nouveau

is

usually

known

as Jugendstil (pronounced [junttil

])

in

Germany,

asModern () in Russia, as Modernisme in Catalonia (Spain), as Secession in Austria-Hungary and

as Stile Liberty in Italy. The style was most popular in Europe, but its influence was global. Hence, it is known
in various guises with frequent localized characteristics.[9] Other local names were associated with the
characteristics of its forms, its practitioners and their works, and schools of thought or study where it was
popular. Many of these terms refer to the idea of "newness". Before the term "Art Nouveau" became common
in France, le style moderne("the modern style") was the more frequent designation. [6] Arte joven ("young art") in
Spain,Modernisme in Catalonia, Arte nova in Portugal ("new art"), Arte nuova in Italy (also "new art"),
and Nieuwe kunst ("new art") in the Netherlands, ("new", "contemporary") in Russia all continue this
theme.[5] Many names refer specifically to the organic forms that were popular with the Art Nouveau
artists: Stile Floreal ("floral style"), Lilienstil ("lily style"), Style Nouille("noodle style"), Paling Stijl ("eel style"),
and Wellenstil ("wave style").[6]
In other cases, important examples, well-known artists, and associated locations influenced the
names. Hector Guimard's Paris Mtro entrances, for example, provided the term Style Mtro, the popularity in
Italy of Art Nouveau designs from London's Co department store resulted in its being known as the Stile
Liberty ("Liberty style"), and, in the United States, it became known as the "Tiffany style" due to its association
with Louis Comfort Tiffany.[5][6] In Austria, a localised form of Art Nouveau was practiced by artists of the Vienna
Secession, and it is, therefore, known as the Sezessionstil ("Secession style").[10] As a stand-alone term,
however, "Secession" (German: Sezession, Hungarian: szecesszi, Czech: secese) is used frequently to
describe the general characteristics of Art Nouveau style outside Vienna, but mostly in areas of Austria26

Hungary at the beginning of the 20th century. In the United Kingdom, it is associated with the activities
of Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, and is often known as the "Glasgow" style.

E. Art Deco
Art Deco (/rt dko/), or Deco, is an influential visual arts design style which first appeared in
France after World War I, flourishing internationally in the 1930s and 1940s before its popularity waned
after World War II.[1] It is an eclectic style that combines traditional craft motifs with Machine Age imagery and
materials. The style is often characterized by rich colors, bold geometric shapes, and lavish ornamentation.
Deco emerged from the Interwar period when rapid industrialization was transforming culture. One of its major
attributes is an embrace of technology. This distinguishes Deco from the organic motifs favored by its
predecessor Art Nouveau.
Historian Bevis Hillier defined Art Deco as "an assertively modern style [that] ran to symmetry rather
than asymmetry, and to the rectilinear rather than the curvilinear; it responded to the demands of the machine
and of new material [and] the requirements of mass production".[2]
During its heyday, Art Deco represented luxury, glamour, exuberance, and faith in social and
technological progress.

Etymology
The first use of the term Art Deco has been attributed to architect Le Corbusier, who penned a series of
articles in his journal L'Esprit nouveau under the headline 1925 Expo: Arts Dco. He was referring to the
1925 Exposition International des Arts Dcoratifs et Industriels Modernes (International Exposition of Modern
Decorative and Industrial Arts).[3]
The term came into more general use in 1966, when a French exhibition celebrating the 1925 event
was held under the title Les Annes 25: Art Dco/Bauhaus/Stijl/Esprit Nouveau.[4] Here the term was used to
distinguish the new styles of French decorative crafts that had emerged since the Belle Epoque.[3] The term Art
Deco has since been applied to a wide variety of works produced during the Interwar (L'Entre Deux Guerres),
27

and even to those of the Bauhaus in Germany. However Art Deco originated in France. It has been argued that
the term should be applied to French works and those produced in countries directly influenced by France.[5]
Art Deco gained currency as a broadly applied stylistic label in 1968 when historian Bevis Hillier published
the first book on the subject: Art Deco of the 20s and 30s.[2] Hillier noted that the term was already being used
by art dealers and cites The Times (2 November 1966) and an essay on Les Arts Dco in Elle magazine
(November 1967) as examples of prior usage. [6] In 1971 Hillier organized an exhibition at the Minneapolis
Institute of Arts, which she details in her book about it, The World of Art Deco.

F. Streamlined Moderne
Streamline Moderne, or Art Moderne, was a late type of the Art Deco architecture and design that emerged
in the 1930s. Its architectural style emphasized curving forms, long horizontal lines, and sometimes nautical
elements.

Background
As the Great Depression of the 1930s progressed, Americans saw a new aspect of Art Decoi.e.,
streamlining, a concept first conceived by industrial designers who stripped Art Deco design of its ornament in
favor of the aerodynamic pure-line concept of motion and speed developed from scientific thinking. Cylindrical
forms and long horizontal windowing also may be influenced by constructivism. As a result an array of
designers quickly ultra-modernized and streamlined the designs of everyday objects. Manufacturers of clocks,
radios, telephones, cars, furniture, and many other household appliances embraced the concept.
The style was the first to incorporate electric light into architectural structure. In the first-class dining
room of the SS Normandie, fitted out 193335, twelve tall pillars of Lalique glass, and 38 columns lit from
within illuminated the room. The Strand Palace Hotel foyer (1930), preserved from demolition by the Victoria
and Albert Museum during 1969, was one of the first uses of internally lit architectural glass, and coincidentally
was the first Moderne interior preserved in a museum.
28

The Streamline Moderne was both a reaction to Art Deco and a reflection of austere economic times;
Sharp angles were replaced with simple, aerodynamic curves. Exotic woods and stone were replaced
with cement and glass.
Art Deco and Streamline Moderne were not necessarily opposites. Streamline Moderne buildings with a
few Deco elements were not uncommon but the prime movers behind streamline design (Raymond
Loewy, Walter Dorwin Teague, Gilbert Rohde, Norman Bel Geddes) all disliked Art Deco, seeing it as effete
and falsely modernessentially a fraud.

IV.

Post- Independence/
Post-Colonial
29

A. Modern
B. Bauhaus
C. Brutalism
D. Expressionism
E. International
F. Bungalow
G.Space Age
H. Orientalism
I. Bagong Lipunan Modernism

A. Modern
Modern architecture is generally characterized by simplification of form and an absence of applied
decoration. It is a term applied to an overarching movement, with its exact definition and scope varying widely.
[1]

In a broader sense, early modern architecture began at the turn of the 20th century with efforts to reconcile

the principles underlying architectural design with rapid technological advancement and the modernization of
society. It would take the form of numerous movements, schools of design, and architectural styles, some in
tension with one another, and often equally defying such classification.[1]
The concept of modernism is a central theme in these efforts. Gaining popularity after the Second World
War, architectural modernism was adopted by many influential architects and architectural educators, and
continues as a dominant architectural style for institutional and corporate buildings into the 21st century.
Modernism eventually generated reactions, most notably Postmodernism which sought to preserve premodern elements, while Neomodernism emerged as a reaction to Postmodernism.
30

Notable architects important to the history and development of the modernist movement include Le
Corbusier, Ludwig

Mies

van

der

Rohe, Walter

Gropius, Frank

Lloyd

Wright, Louis

Sullivan, Gerrit

Rietveld, Oscar Niemeyer and Alvar Aalto.

Characteristics
Common themes of modern architecture include:

the notion that "Form follows function", a dictum originally expressed by Frank Lloyd Wright's early
mentor Louis Sullivan, meaning that the result of design should derive directly from its purpose

simplicity and clarity of forms and elimination of "unnecessary detail"

materials at 90 degrees to each other

visual expression of structure (as opposed to the hiding of structural elements)

the related concept of "Truth to materials", meaning that the true nature or natural appearance of a
material ought to be seen rather than concealed or altered to represent something else

use of industrially-produced materials; adoption of the machine aesthetic

particularly in International Style modernism, a visual emphasis on horizontal and vertical lines

B. Bauhaus
Staatliches Bauhaus commonly known simply as Bauhaus, was a school in Germany that combined
crafts and the fine arts, and was famous for the approach to design that it publicized and taught. It operated
from 1919 to 1933. At that time the German term

Bauhaus (helpinfo), literally "house of construction", stood

for "School of Building".

The Bauhaus school was founded by Walter Gropius in Weimar. In spite of its name, and the fact that its
founder was an architect, the Bauhaus did not have an architecture department during the first years of its
31

existence. Nonetheless it was founded with the idea of creating a "total" work of art in which all arts, including
architecture, would eventually be brought together. The Bauhaus style became one of the most influential
currents in Modernist and modern design.[1] The Bauhaus had a profound influence upon subsequent
developments in art, architecture, graphic design, interior design, industrial design, and typography.
The school existed in three German cities: Weimar from 1919 to 1925, Dessau from 1925 to 1932
and Berlin from 1932 to 1933, under three different architect-directors: Walter Gropiusfrom 1919 to
1928, Hannes Meyer from 1928 to 1930 and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe from 1930 until 1933, when the school
was closed by its own leadership under pressure from theNazi regime. The Nazi government claimed that it
was a centre of communist intellectualism. Though the school was closed, the staff continued to spread its
idealistic precepts as they left Germany and emigrated all over the world.[2]
The changes of venue and leadership resulted in a constant shifting of focus, technique, instructors, and
politics. For instance: the pottery shop was discontinued when the school moved from Weimar to Dessau, even
though it had been an important revenue source; when Mies van der Rohe took over the school in 1930, he
transformed it into a private school, and would not allow any supporters of Hannes Meyer to attend it.

Architectural Input
The paradox of the early Bauhaus was that, although its manifesto proclaimed that the ultimate aim of
all creative activity was building, the school did not offer classes in architecture until 1927. During the years
under Gropius (19191927), he and his partner Adolf observed no real distinction between the output of his
architectural office and the school. So the built output of Bauhaus architecture in these years is the output of
Gropius: the Sommerfeld house in Berlin, the Otte house in Berlin, the Auerbach house in Jena, and the
competition design for the Chicago Tribune Tower, which brought the school much attention. The definitive
1926 Bauhaus building in Dessau is also attributed to Gropius. Apart from contributions to the 1923 Haus am
Horn, student architectural work amounted to un-built projects, interior finishes, and craft work like cabinets,
chairs and pottery.
In the next two years under Meyer, the architectural focus shifted away from aesthetics and towards
functionality. There were major commissions: one from the city of Dessau for five tightly designed
"Laubenganghuser" (apartment buildings with balcony access), which are still in use today, and another for
the headquarters of the Federal School of the German Trade Unions (ADGB) in Bernau bei Berlin. Meyer's
approach was to research users needs and scientifically develops the design solution.
Mies van der Rohe repudiated Meyer's politics, his supporters, and his architectural approach. As opposed
to Gropius's "study of essentials", and Meyer's research into user requirements, Mies advocated a "spatial
implementation of intellectual decisions", which effectively meant an adoption of his own aesthetics. Neither
van der Rohe nor his Bauhaus students saw any projects built during the 1930s.
32

The popular conception of the Bauhaus as the source of extensive Weimar-era working housing is not
accurate. Two projects, the apartment building project in Dessau and the Trten row housing also in Dessau,
fall in that category, but developing worker housing was not the first priority of Gropius nor Mies. It was the
Bauhaus contemporaries Bruno Taut,Hans Poelzig and particularly Ernst May, as the city architects of
Berlin, Dresden and Frankfurt respectively, who are rightfully credited with the thousands of socially
progressive housing units built in Weimar Germany. In Taut's case, the housing he built in south-west Berlin
during the 1920s, is still occupied, and can be reached by going easily from the U-Bahn stop Onkel Toms
Htte.

C. Brutalism
Brutalist architecture is a style of architecture that flourished from the 1950s to the mid-1970s, spawned
from the modernist architectural movement. Brutalism rapidly became popular with governmental and
institutional clients around the world, with numerous high style examples located in Britain, France, Germany,
Japan, United States, and Brazil. Examples are typically large buildings, massive in character, fortress like,
with a predominance of exposed concrete construction. The style was often selected for socialist government
sponsored projects for public structures, high-rise multi-family housing, and shopping to create an architectural
image that communicated strength, functionality, and frugal construction. Its popularity spread to include other
uses such as college buildings, but was rarely applied to corporate projects, whose leaders were concerned
about the association with socialism. It was typical for post-war government projects to be selected by public
building committees through competitions.
The English architects Alison and Peter Smithson coined the term in 1953, from the Frenchbton brut,
(beton for concrete, brut for rough, unrefined, raw), a phrase used by Le Corbusier to describe the exposed
concrete walls with which he constructed many of his post-World War II buildings. The term gained wide
currency when the British architectural historian Reyner Banham cleverly adjusted it with spin in the title of his
1966 book, The New Brutalism: Ethic or Aesthetic?, to characterize a somewhat recently established cluster of
architectural approaches, particularly in Europe.

Characteristics

33

Brutalist buildings usually are formed with repeated modular elements forming masses representing
specific functional zones, distinctly articulated and grouped together into a unified whole. Concrete is used for
its raw and unpretentious honesty, contrasting dramatically with the highly refined and ornamented buildings
constructed in the elite Beaux-Arts style. Surfaces of cast concrete are made to reveal the basic nature of its
construction, revealing the texture of the wooden planks used for the in-situ casting forms. Brutalist building
materials also include brick, glass, steel, rough-hewn stone, and gabions. Conversely, not all buildings
exhibiting an exposed concrete exterior can be considered Brutalist, and may belong to one of a range of
architectural

styles

including Constructivism, International

Style, Expressionism, Postmodernism,

and

Deconstructivism.
Another common theme in Brutalist designs is the exposure of the building's functionsranging from
their structure and services to their human usein the exterior of the building. In theBoston City Hall, designed
in 1962, the strikingly different and projected portions of the building indicate the special nature of the rooms
behind those walls, such as the mayor's office or the city council chambers. From another perspective, the
design of the Hunstanton School included placing the facility's water tank, normally a hidden service feature, in
a prominent, visible tower.
Brutalism as an architectural philosophy was often also associated with a socialist utopian ideology, which
tended to be supported by its designers, especially Alison and Peter Smithson, near the height of the style.
This style had a strong position in the architecture of the European socialist countries in the period of about
1975-1989 (Czechoslovakia, GDR, USSR). In Czechoslovakia brutalism was presented as an attempt to
create a "national" but also "modern socialist" architectonic style.

D. Expressionism
Expressionism was a modernist movement, initially in poetry and painting, originating in Germany at the
beginning of the 20th century. Its typical trait is to present the world solely from a subjective perspective,
distorting it radically for emotional effect in order to evoke moods or ideas. [1][2] Expressionist artists sought to
express meaning[3] or emotional experience rather than physical reality.[3][4]
Expressionism was developed as an avant-garde style before the First World War. It remained popular
during the Weimar Republic,[1] particularly in Berlin. The style extended to a wide range of the arts,
including expressionist architecture, painting, literature, theatre, dance, film and music.

34

The term is sometimes suggestive of angst. In a general sense, painters such as Matthias
Grnewald and El Greco are sometimes termed expressionist, though in practice the term is applied mainly to
20th-century works. The Expressionist emphasis on individual perspective has been characterized as a
reaction to positivism and other artistic styles such as Naturalism and Impressionism.[5]

Origin of the term

While the word expressionist was used in the modern sense as early as 1850, its origin is sometimes
traced to paintings exhibited in 1901 in Paris by an obscure artist Julien-Auguste Herv, which he
called Expressionismes. [6] Though an alternate view is that the term was coined by the Czech art historian
Antonin Matjek in 1910, as the opposite of impressionism: "An Expressionist wishes, above all, to express
himself... (an Expressionist rejects) immediate perception and builds on more complex psychic structures...
Impressions and mental images that pass through mental peoples soul as through a filter which rids them of all
substantial accretions to produce their clear essence [...and] are assimilated and condense into more general
forms, into types, which he transcribes through simple short-hand formulae and symbols." [7]
Important precursors of Expressionism were: the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900),
especially his philosophical novel Thus Spoke Zarathustra (1883-92); the later plays of the Swedish
dramatist August
Play (1902), The

Strindberg (1849-1912),
Ghost

including

Sonata (1907); Frank

the

trilogyTo

Damascus 1898-1901, A

Wedekind (1864-1918),

especially

Dream

the

"Lulu"

playsErdgeist (Earth Spirit) (1895) and Die Bchse der Pandora (Pandora's Box) (1904); the American
poet Walt Whitman (1819-92): Leaves of Grass (1855-91); the Russian novelist Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821-81);
Norwegian

painter Edvard

Munch (1863-1944);

Dutch

painterVincent

van

Gogh (1853-90);

Belgian

painter James Ensor (1860-1949); [8] Sigmund Freud (1856-1939).

In 1905, a group of four German artists, led by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, formed Die Brcke (the Bridge)
in the city of Dresden. This was arguably the founding organization for the German Expressionist movement,
though they did not use the word itself. A few years later, in 1911, a like-minded group of young artists
formed Der Blaue Reiter (The Blue Rider) in Munich. The name came from Wassily Kandinsky's Der Blaue
Reiter painting of 1903. Among their members were Kandinsky, Franz Marc, Paul Klee, and Auguste Macke.
However, the term Expressionism did not firmly establish itself until 1913.

[9]

Though initially mainly a German

artistic movement, [10]most predominant in painting, poetry and the theatre between 1910-30, most precursors
of the movement were not German. Furthermore there have been expressionist writers of prose fiction, as well
as non-German speaking expressionist writers, and, while the movement had declined in Germany with the
rise of Adolf Hitler in the 1930s, there were subsequent expressionist works.
Expressionism is notoriously difficult to define, in part because it "overlapped with other major 'isms' of
the

modernist

period:

with Futurism, Vorticism, Cubism, Surrealism andDada." [11] Richard

Murphy

also

comments: "the search for an all-inclusive definition is problematic to the extent that the most challenging

35

expressionists such as Kafka, Gottfried Benn and Dblin were simultaneously the most vociferous "antiexpressionists." [12]
What, however, can be said, is that it was a movement that developed in the early twentieth-century mainly in
Germany in reaction to the dehumanizing effect of industrialization and the growth of cities, and that "one of
the central means by which expressionism identifies itself as an avant-garde movement, and by which it marks
its distance to traditions and the cultural institution as a whole is through its relationship to realism and the
dominant conventions of representation." [13] More explicitly: that the expressionists rejected the ideology of
realism. [14]
The term refers to an "artistic style in which the artist seeks to depict not objective reality but rather the
subjective emotions and responses that objects and events arouse within a person."

[15]

It is arguable that all

artists are expressive but there are many examples of art production in Europe from the 15th century onward
which emphasize extreme emotion. Such art often occurs during times of social upheaval, such as
the Protestant Reformation, German Peasants' War, Eight Years' War, and Spanish Occupation of the
Netherlands, when the rape, pillage and disaster associated with periods of chaos and oppression are
presented in the documents of the printmaker. Often the work is unimpressive aesthetically, [citation needed] yet has
the capacity to cause the viewer to experience extreme emotions with the drama and often horror of the
scenes depicted.
Expressionism has been likened to Baroque by critics such as art historian Michel Ragon and German
philosopher Walter Benjamin.[17] According to Alberto Arbasino, a difference between the two is that
"Expressionism doesn't shun the violently unpleasant effect, while Baroque does. Expressionism throws some
terrific 'fuck yous', Baroque doesn't. Baroque is well-mannered."

E. International Style
The International Style is a major architectural style that emerged in the 1920s and 1930s, the formative
decades of modern architecture.
The term originated from the name of a book by Henry-Russell Hitchcock and Philip Johnson, The
International

Style

that

identified,

categorized

and

expanded

upon

characteristics

common

to

Modernism across the world and its stylistic aspects. The authors identified three principles: the expression of
volume rather than mass, the emphasis on balance rather than preconceived symmetry, and the expulsion of
applied ornament. The aim of Hitchcock and Johnson was to define a style that would encapsulate this modern
architecture, doing this by the inclusion of specific architects.

36

The book was written to record the International Exhibition of Modern Architecture held at the Museum in
New York City in 1932. All the works in the exhibition were carefully selected, only displaying those that strictly
followed these rules.[1] Previous uses of the term in the same context can be attributed to Walter
Gropius in Internationale Architektur, and Ludwig Hilberseimer in Internationale neue Baukunst.

F. Bungalow
A bungalow is a type of building. Across the world, the meaning of the word bungalow varies. Common
features of

many bungalows

include verandas and being low-rise.

In Australia, the California

bungalow was popular after the First World War. In Britain and North America a bungalow today is a
residential building, normally detached, which is either single-storey or has a second storey built into a sloping
roof, usually with dormer windows (one-and-a-half storeys). Full vertical walls are therefore only seen on
one storey, at least on the front and rear elevations. Usually the buildings are relatively small, especially from
recent decades; although, early examples may be large, in which case the term bungalow tends not to be used
today.

Etymology
The term originated in India, deriving from the Gujarati bagalo, which in turn derives
from Hindi bagl, meaning "Bengali" and used elliptically for a "house in the Bengal style". Such houses
were traditionally small, only one storey and detached, and had a wide veranda. The term was first found in
English from 1696, where it was used to describe "bungales or hovells" in India for English sailors of the East
India Company, which do not sound like very grand lodgings. Later it became used for the spacious homes or
official lodgings of officials of the British Raj, and was so known in Britain and later America, where it initially
had high status and exotic connotations, and began to be used in the late 19th century for large country or
suburban houses built in an Arts and Crafts or other Western vernacular styleessentially as large cottages, a
term also sometimes used. Later developers began to use the term for smaller houses.

Design Considerations
Bungalows are very convenient for the homeowner in that all living areas are on a single-storey and
there are no stairs between living areas. A bungalow is well suited to persons with impaired mobility, such as
the elderly or those in wheelchairs.
Neighborhoods of only bungalows offer more privacy than similar neighborhoods with two-storey houses. With
bungalows, strategically planted trees and shrubs are usually sufficient to block the view of neighbors. With
two-storey houses, the extra height requires much taller trees to accomplish the same, and it may not be
practical to place such tall trees close to the house to obscure the view from the second floor of the next door
neighbor. They are a very cost-effective way of living. On the other hand, even closely spaced bungalows
37

make for quite low-density neighborhoods, contributing to urban sprawl. In Australia, bungalows have
broad verandas and as a result are often excessively dark inside, requiring artificial light even in daytime
.
Cost and space considerations
On a per unit area basis (e.g. per square foot or per square meter), bungalows are more expensive to
construct than two-storey houses because a larger foundation and roof area is required for the same living
area. The larger foundation will often translate into larger lot size requirements as well. This is why bungalows
are typically fully detached from other houses and do not share a common foundation or party wall: if the
homeowner can afford the extra expense of a bungalow relative to a two-storey house, they can typically afford
to be fully detached as well.
The smaller size however may be desirable for elderly people (perhaps with grown children) as it
requires less cleaning, etc.
Though the 'footprint' of a bungalow is often a simple rectangle, any foundation is possible. For bungalows
with brick walls, the windows are often positioned high and are right to the roof. This avoids the need for
special arches or lintels to support the brick wall above the windows. In two-storey houses, there is no choice
but to continue the brick wall above the window (and the second-storey windows may be positioned high and
right to the roof.)

G. Space Age
The Space Age is a time period encompassing the activities related to the Space Race, space
exploration, space technology, and the cultural developments influenced by these events. The Space Age is
generally considered to have begun with Sputnik (1957). Furthermore it is argued that this age brought a new
dimension to the Cold War.

Googie architecture
Googie architecture is a form of modern architecture, a subdivision of architecture influenced by car
culture, jets, the Space Age, and the Atomic Age. Originating in Southern during the late 1940s and continuing
approximately

into

the

mid-1960s,

Googie-themed

architecture

was

popular

among motels, coffee

houses and gas stations. The school later became widely known as part of the Mid-Century modern style,
elements of which represent the populuxe aesthetic, as in Eero Saarinen's TWA Flight Center. The term
38

"Googie" comes from a now defunct coffee shop and cafe built in West Hollywood[4]designed by John
Lautner. Similar architectural styles are also referred to as Doo Wop.
Features

of

Googie

include

upswept

roofs,

curvaceous, geometric shapes,

and

bold

use

of

glass, steel and neon. Googie was also characterized by Space Age designs symbolic of motion, such
as boomerangs, flying saucers, atoms and parabolas, and free-form designs such as "soft" parallelograms and
an artist's palette motif. These stylistic conventions represented American society's fascination with Space Age
themes and marketing emphasis on futuristic designs. As with the Art Deco style of the 1930s, Googie became
less valued as time passed, and many buildings in this style have been destroyed. Some examples have been
preserved, though, such as the oldest McDonald's stand (located in Downey) that was put on the National
Register of Historic Places in 1983.

H. Orientalism
Orientalism is a term used by art historians and literary and cultural studies scholars for the imitation or
depiction of aspects of Middle Eastern and East Asian cultures (Eastern cultures) by writers, designers and
artists from the West. In particular, Orientalist painting, depicting more specifically "the Middle", [1] was one of
the many specialisms of 19th-century Academic art, and the literatures of European countries took a similar
interest in Oriental themes.
Since the publication of Edward Said's Orientalism in 1978, much academic discourse has begun to use the
term "Orientalism" to refer to a general patronizing Western attitude towards Middle Eastern, Asian and North
African societies. In Said's analysis, the West essentializes these societies as static and undeveloped
thereby fabricating a view of Oriental culture that can be studied, depicted, and reproduced. Implicit in this
fabrication, writes Said, is the idea that Western society is developed, rational, flexible, and superior.[2]

Definition of the term

"Orientalism" refers to the Orient or East,[3] in contrast to the Occident or West, and often, as seen by
the West. Orient came into English from Middle French orient (the root word is orins, L). Orins has related
meanings: the eastern part of the world, the part of the sky in which the sun rises, the east, the rising sun,
daybreak, and dawn. Together with the geographical concepts of different ages, its reference of "eastern part"
has changed. For example, when Chaucer wrote "That they conquered many regnes grete / In the orient, with
many a fair citee" in Monk's Tale (1375), the "orient" refers to countries lying immediately to the east of the
Mediterranean or Southern Europe; while in Aneurin Bevan's In Place of Fear (1952) this geographical term
had already expanded to East Asia "the awakening of the Orient under the impact of Western ideas".

39

"Orientalism" is widely used in art to refer to the works of the many Western 19th-century artists, who
specialized in "Oriental" subjects, often drawing on their travels toWestern Asia. Artists as well as scholars
were already described as "Orientalists" in the 19th century, especially in France, where the term, with a rather
dismissive sense, was largely popularized by the critic Jules-Antoine Castagnary.[4] Such disdain did not
prevent the Socit des Peintres Orientalistes ("Society of Orientalist Painters") being founded in 1893,
with Jean-Lon Grme as honorary president;[5] the word was less often used as a term for artists in 19th
century England.[6]
Since the 18th century, Orientalist has been the traditional term for a scholar ofOriental studies;
however the use in English of Orientalism to describe the academic subject of "Oriental studies" is rare;
the Oxford English Dictionary cites only one such usage, by Lord Byron in 1812. The academic discipline
of Oriental studies is now more often called Asian studies.
In 1978, the Palestinian-American scholar Edward Said published his influential and controversial
book, Orientalism, which "would forever redefine" the word; [7] he used the term to describe what he argued was
a pervasive Western tradition, both academic and artistic, of prejudiced outsider interpretations of the East,
shaped by the attitudes of European imperialism in the 18th and 19th centuries. Said was critical of this
scholarly tradition and of some modern scholars, particularly Bernard Lewis. Said's Orientalism elaborates
Antonio Gramsci's concept of hegemony and Michel Foucault's theorisation ofdiscourse and relationship
between knowledge and power. Said was mainly concerned with literature in the widest sense, especially
French literature, and did not cover visual art and Orientalist painting. Others, notably Linda Nochlin, have tried
to extend his analysis to art, "with uneven results". Said's work became one of the foundational texts
of Postcolonialism or Postcolonial studies.

40

41

V. Contemporary/New Millennium
A. Post Modern
B. Folly
C. Globalism
D. Deconstruction
E. Minimalism
F. High Tech
G.Neomodern
H. Neovernacular
I. Green Architecture
(Sustainable Architecture)

A. Post Modern
Postmodernism is a late-20th-century movement in the arts, architecture, and criticism that was a
departure from modernism. Postmodernism includes skeptical interpretations of culture, literature, art,
philosophy, history, economics, architecture, fiction,
and literary
criticism.
It
is
often
associated
with deconstruction and post-structuralism because its usage as a term gained significant popularity at the
same time as twentieth-century post-structural thought.

42

Architecture
The idea of Postmodernism in architecture began as a response to the perceived blandness,
inhumanity, and failed Utopianism of the Modern movement. Modern Architecture, as established and
developed by Walter Gropius and Le Corbusier, was focused on the pursuit of a perceived ideal perfection,
and attempted harmony of form and function, and dismissal of "frivolous ornament." Critics of modernism
argued that the attributes of perfection and minimalism themselves were subjective, and pointed
out anachronisms in modern thought and questioned the benefits of its philosophy.[14] Definitive postmodern
architecture such as the work of Michael Graves and Robert Venturi rejects the notion of a 'pure' form or
'perfect' architectonic detail, instead conspicuously drawing from all methods, materials, forms and colors
available to architects.
Modernist Ludwig Mies van der Rohe is associated with the phrase "less is more"; in contrast Venturi famously
said, "Less is a bore." Postmodernist architecture was one of the first aesthetic movements to openly challenge
Modernism as antiquated and "totalitarian", favoring personal preferences and variety over objective, ultimate
truths or principles.
It is this atmosphere of criticism, skepticism, and emphasis on difference over and against unity that
distinguishes the postmodernism aesthetic. Among writers defining the terms of this discourse is Charles
Jencks, described by Architectural Design Magazine as "the definer of Post-Modernism for thirty years" and the
"internationally acclaimed critic..., whose name became synonymous with Post-modernism in the 80s".

B. Folly
In architecture, a folly is a building constructed primarily for decoration, but either suggesting by its
appearance some other purpose, or merely so extravagant that it transcends the normal range of garden
ornaments or other class of building to which it belongs. In the original use of the word, these buildings had no
other use, but from the 19th to 20th centuries the term was also applied to highly decorative buildings which
had secondary practical functions such as housing, sheltering or business use.[dubious discuss]
18th century English gardens and French landscape gardening often featured Roman temples, which
symbolized classical virtues or ideals. Other 18th-century garden follies represented Chinese temples,
Egyptian pyramids, ruined abbeys, or Tatar tents, to represent different continents or historical eras.
Sometimes they represented rustic villages, mills and cottages, to symbolize rural virtues. [1] Many follies,
43

particularly during famine, such as the Irish potato famine, were built as a form of poor relief, to provide
employment for peasants and unemployed artisans.

Characteristics
General properties
Hagley Castle is in the grounds of Hagley Hall. It was built by Sanderson Miller forGeorge, Lord
Lyttleton in the middle of the 18th century to look like a small ruined medieval castle.[2]
The concept of the folly is highly ambiguous and it has been suggested that the definition of a folly "lies in the
eyes of the beholder".[3] At best, some general guidelines can be produced, all of which have exceptions.

They have no purpose other than as an ornament. [4] Often they have some of the appearance of a
building constructed for a particular purpose, but this appearance is a sham.

They are buildings, or parts of buildings.[4] Thus they are distinguished from other garden
ornaments such as sculpture.

They are purpose-built. Follies are deliberately built as ornaments.

They are often eccentric in design or construction. This is not strictly necessary; however, it is common
for these structures to call attention to themselves through unusual details or form.

There is often an element of fakery in their construction. The canonical example of this is the sham ruin:
a folly which pretends to be the remains of an old building but which was in fact constructed in that state.

They were built or commissioned for pleasure.[4]

What follies are not

Follies fall within the general realm of fanciful and impractical architecture, and whether a particular
structure is a folly is sometimes a matter of opinion. However, there are several types which are related but
which can be distinguished from follies.

Fantasy and novelty buildings are essentially the converse of follies. Follies often look like real, usable
buildings, but never are; novelty buildings are usable, but have fantastic shapes. The many American
shops and water towers in the shapes of commonplace items, for example, are not properly follies.

44

Eccentric structures may resemble follies, but the mere presence of eccentricity is not proof that a
building is a folly. Many mansions and castles are quite eccentric, but being purpose-built to be used as
residences, they are not properly follies.

Some structures are popularly referred to as "follies" because they failed to fulfil their intended use.
Their design and construction may be foolish, but in the architectural sense, they are not follies.

Visionary art structures frequently blur the line between artwork and folly, if only because it is rather
often hard to tell what intent the artist had. The word "folly" carries the connotation that there is something
frivolous about the builder's intent. Some works (such as the massive complex by Ferdinand Cheval) are
considered as follies because they are in the form of useful buildings, but are plainly constructions of
extreme and intentional impracticality.

Amusement parks, fairgrounds, and expositions often have fantastical buildings and structures. Some
of these are follies, and some are not; the distinction, again, comes in their usage. Shops, restaurants, and
other amusements are often housed in strikingly odd and eccentric structures, but these are not follies.

History
Follies began as decorative accents on the great estates of the late 16th century and early 17th century
but they flourished especially in the two centuries which followed. Many estates had ruins of monastic houses
and (in Italy) Roman villas; others, lacking such buildings, constructed their own sham versions of
these romantic structures.
In English, such structures came to be called follies: "a popular name for any costly structure considered to
have shown folly in the builder" according to one authority,[5] and were often named after the individual who
commissioned or designed the project. The connotations of silliness or madness in this definition is in accord
with the general meaning of the French word "folie"; however, another older meaning of this word is "delight" or
"favorite abode"
However, very few follies are completely without a practical purpose. Apart from their decorative aspect,
many originally had a use which was lost later, such as hunting towers. Follies are misunderstood structures,
according to The Folly Fellowship, a charity that exists to celebrate the history and splendor of these often
neglected buildings.

C. Globalism

45

The concept of globalism now is most commonly used to refer to different ideologies of globalization. The
clearest rendition of this use is Manfred Steger's. He distinguishes different globalism such as justice
globalism, jihad globalism, and market globalism. Market globalism include the ideology of neoliberalism.
In some hands, the reduction of globalism to market globalism and neoliberalism has led to confusion.
For example, in his 2005 book The, Canadian philosopher John Ralston Saul treated globalism as coterminous
with neoliberalism and neoliberal globalization. He argued that, far from being an inevitable force, globalization
is already breaking up into contradictory pieces and that citizens are reasserting their national interests in both
positive and destructive ways.
American political scientist Joseph Nye, co-founder of the international relations theory of neoliberalism,
generalized the term to argue that globalism refers to any description and explanation of a world which is
characterized by networks of connections that span multi-continental distances; while globalization refers to the
increase or decline in the degree of globalism.[2] This more general use of the concept is much less influential.

D. Deconstruction
Deconstruction (French: dconstruction) is a form of philosophical and literary analysis derived principally
from Jacques Derrida's 1967 work Of Grammatology.[1] In the 1980s it designated more loosely a range of
theoretical enterprises in diverse areas of the humanities and social sciences, includingin addition to
philosophy

and

literaturelaw

anthropology, historiography, linguistics,

sociolinguistics psychoanalysis,

political theory, feminism, gay and lesbian studies. Deconstruction still has a major influence in the academe
of Continental Europe and South America where Continental philosophy is predominant, particularly in debates
around ontology, epistemology, ethics, aesthetics, hermeneutics, and the philosophy of language. It also
influenced architecture (in the form of deconstructivism), music, art, and art critics.
A central premise of deconstruction is that all of Western literature and philosophy implicitly relies on
a presence, where intrinsic meaning is accessible by virtue of pure presence. Deconstruction denies the
possibility of a pure presence and thus of essential or intrinsic and stable meaning and thus a
relinquishment of the notions of absolute truth, unmediated access to "reality" and consequently of conceptual
hierarchy. "From the moment that there is meaning there is nothing but signs. We think only in
signs." Language, considered as a system of signs, as Ferdinand de Saussure says,[24] is nothing but
differences. Words have meaning only because of contrast-effects with other words. 'Red' means what it does
only by contrast with 'blue', 'green', etc. 'Being' also means nothing except by contrast, not only with 'beings'
but with 'Nature', 'God', 'Humanity', and indeed every other word in the language. No word can acquire
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meaning in the way in which philosophers from Aristotle to Bertrand Russell have hoped it mightby being the
unmediated expression of something non-linguistic (e.g., an emotion, a sense-datum, a physical object, an
idea, a Platonic Form). Derrida terms logo centrism the philosophical commitment to pure, unmediated,
presence as a source of self-sufficient meaning.
Due to this impossibility of pure presence and consequently of intrinsic meaning, any given concept is
constituted in reciprocal determination,in terms of its oppositions, e.g. perception/reason, speech/writing,
mind/body, interior/exterior, marginal/central, sensible/intelligible, intuition/signification, nature/culture.[29][30]
Further, Derrida contends that "in a classical philosophical opposition we are not dealing with the
peaceful coexistence of a vis-a-vis, but rather with a violent hierarchy. One of the two terms governs the other
(axiologically, logically, etc.), or has the upper hand": signified over signifier; intelligible over sensible; speech
over writing; activity over passivity, etc. The first task of deconstruction, starting with philosophy and afterwards
revealing it operating in literary texts, juridical texts, etc, would be to overturn these oppositions. But it is not
that the final objective of deconstruction is to surpass all oppositions, because it is assumed they are
structurally necessary to produce sense. They simply cannot be suspended once and for all. The hierarchy of
dual oppositions always reestablishes itself. But this only points to "the necessity of an interminable analysis"
that can make explicit the decisions and arbitrary violence intrinsic to all texts.
Finally, Derrida argues that it is not enough to deconstruction to expose the way oppositions work and how
meaning and values are produced and stop there in a nihilistic or cynic position regarding all meaning, "thereby
preventing any means of intervening in the field effectively". [33] To be effective, deconstruction needs to create
new terms, not to synthesize the concepts in opposition, but to mark their difference and eternal interplay. This
explains why Derrida always proposes new terms in his deconstruction, not as a free play but as a pure
necessity of analysis, to better mark the intervals. Derrida called undecidables, that is, unities of simulacrum,
"false" verbal properties (nominal or semantic) that can no longer be included within philosophical (binary)
opposition: but which, however, inhabit philosophical oppositions, resisting and organizing it, without ever
constituting a third term, without ever leaving room for a solution in the form of speculative dialectics
(e.g. difference, archi-writing, pharmakon, supplement, hymen, gram, spacing).

E. Minimalism
In the visual arts and music, minimalism is a style that uses pared-down design elements.

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Minimalism in the arts began in postWorld War II Western Art, most strongly with American visual arts in
the 1960s and early 1970s. Prominent artists associated with this movement include Donald Judd, John
McCracken, Agnes Martin, Dan Flavin, Robert Morris,Anne Truitt, and Frank Stella.[1] It derives from the
reductive aspects of Modernism and is often interpreted as a reaction against Abstract expressionism and a
bridge to Postminimalart practices.
Minimalism in music features repetition and iteration such as those of the compositions ofLa Monte
Young, Terry Riley, Steve Reich, Philip Glass, and John Adams. Minimalist compositions are sometimes known
as systems music. The term "minimalist" often colloquially refers to anything that is spare or stripped to its
essentials. It has also been used to describe the plays and novels of Samuel Beckett, the films of Robert
Bresson, the stories of Raymond Carver, and the automobile designs of Colin Chapman. The word was first
used in English in the early 20th century to describe "a 1913 composition by the Russian painter Kasimir
Malevich of a black square on a white ground
The term minimalism is also used to describe a trend in design and architecture wherein the subject is
reduced to its necessary elements. Minimalistic design has been highly influenced by Japanese traditional
design and architecture. The work of De Still artists is a major source of reference for such work: De Stijl
expanded the ideas that could be expressed by very particularly organizing such basic elements as lines and
planes.
Architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe adopted the motto "Less is more" to describe his aesthetic tactic of
arranging the numerous necessary components of a building to create an impression of extreme simplicity by
enlisting every element and detail to serve multiple visual and functional purposes (for example, designing a
floor to also serve as the radiator, or a massive fireplace to also house the bathroom). Designer Buckminster
Fuller adopted the engineer's goal of "Doing more with less", but his concerns were oriented towards
technology and engineering rather than aesthetics. A similar sentiment was industrial designer Dieter Rams'
motto, "Less but better" adapted from Mies. The structure uses relatively simple elegant designs;
ornamentations are good rather than many. Lighting, using the basic geometric shapes as outlines, using only
a single shape or a small number of like shapes for components for design unity, and using tasteful non-fussy
bright color combinations, (usually natural textures and colors) and clean and fine finishes also influence a
structure's beauty. Sometimes using the beauty of natural patterns on stone cladding and real wood
encapsulated within ordered simplified structures along with real metal produces a simplified but prestigious
architecture and interior design. Color brightness balance and contrast between surface colors can improve
visual aesthetics. The structure would usually have industrial and space age style utilities (lamps, stoves,
stairs, technology, etc.) neat and straight components (like walls or stairs) that appear to be machined with
equipment, flat or nearly flat roofs, pleasing negative spaces, and large windows to let in much sunlight.
Minimalism and science fiction may have contributed to the late twentieth century futuristic architecture
design and modern home decor. Modern minimalistic home architecture probably led to the popularity of the
open plan kitchen and living room style by removing unnecessary internal walls
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Luis Barragn is another exemplary modern, minimalist designer. Minimalist architectural designers focus
on the connection between 2 perfect planes, elegant lighting, and careful consideration of the void spaces left
by the removal of three-dimensional shapes from an architectural design. More attractive minimalistic home
designs are not truly minimalistic because these use more expensive building materials and finishes and are
larger.
Contemporary minimalist architects include John Pawson, Eduardo Souto de Moura, lvaro Siza
Vieira, Tadao Ando, Alberto Campo Baeza, Yoshio Taniguchi, Peter Zumthor, Hugh Newell Jacobsen, Vincent
Van Duysen, Claudio Silvestrin, Michael Gabellini, andRichard Gluckman.

Architecture
The term minimalism is a trend from early 19th century and gradually became an important movement in
response to the over decorated design of the previous period. Minimalist architecture became popular in the
late 1980s in London and New York,[4] where architects and fashion designers worked together in the
boutiques to achieve simplicity, using white elements, cold lighting, large space with minimum objects and
furniture. Minimalist architecture simplifies living space to reveal the essential quality of buildings and conveys
simplicity in attitudes toward life. It is highly inspired from the Japanese traditional design and the concept
of Zenphilosophy.

F. High Tech
High-tech architecture, also known as Late Modernism or Structural Expressionism, is an architectural
style that emerged in the 1970s, incorporating elements of high-tech industry and technology into building
design. High-tech architecture appeared as a revamped modernism, an extension of those previous ideas
helped by even more technological advances. This category serves as a bridge between modernisms
and post-modernism, however there remain gray areas as to where one category ends and the other begins. In
the 1980s, high-tech architecture became more difficult to distinguish from post-modern architecture. Some of
its themes and ideas were later absorbed into the style of neo-futurism art and architectural movement.
Like Brutalism, Structural Expressionist buildings reveal their structure on the outside as well as the inside,
but with visual emphasis placed on the internal steel and/or concrete skeletal structure as opposed to exterior
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concrete walls. In buildings such as the Pompidou Centre, this idea of revealed structure is taken to the
extreme, with apparently structural components serving little or no structural role. In this case, the use of
"structural" steel is a stylistic or aesthetic matter.
The style's premier practitioners include American architect Bruce Graham[citation
Sir Norman

Foster,

Sir Richard

Rogers,

Sir Michael

needed]

Hopkins, Italian

,British architects
architect Renzo

Piano and Spanish architect Santiago Calatrava, known for his organic, skeleton-like designs. Early high-tech
buildings were referred to by historian Reyner Banhamas "serviced sheds" due to their exposure of mechanical
services in addition to the structure. Most of these early examples used exposed structural steel as their
material of choice. As hollow structural sections had only become widely available in the early 1970s, high-tech
architecture saw much experimentation with this material.

G. Neomodern
Neomodern art is a reaction to the complexity of postmodern architecture and eclecticism, seeking greater
simplicity.Neomodern architecture continues modernism as a dominant form of architecture in 20th and 21st
centuries, especially in corporate offices. It tends to be used for certain segments of buildings. Residential
houses tend to embrace neo-historical and neo-eclectic styles, for instance, and major monuments today most
often opt for starchitect inspired uniqueness.
Neomodern architecture shares many of the basic characteristics of modernism. Both reject the
postmodern ornamentation, decorations, and deliberate attempts to imitate the past. Neomodern buildings, like
modern ones, are designed to be largely monolithic and functional.

H. Neovernacular

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Neo-Vernacular. Architecture that drew on brick, tile, and other traditional materials and even
on vernacular forms in a general reaction against International in the 1960s and 1970s. It was called the NeoShingle style or the Shed Aesthetic in the USA.
Neo-Vernacular Architecture is a kind of architecture that improves vernacular tradition. However, architecture
is a little different from the other categories of culture. Vernacular architecture is always restricted by the
undeveloped technology. I mean that it is a wrong conception what handicaps us applying new or high
technology when we conceive a building in neo-vernacular style. At the age of agricultural civilization the
natural environment and the instruments limited the appearance of all architecture. Communion between
different areas is very difficult so each area had its own vernacular architecture. And after a long time they
become a component of vernacular culture. This condition leads to the primary disadvantage of vernacular
architecture, the limited technology. It seems inevitable.

I.

Green Architecture
Sustainable architecture is architecture that seeks to minimize the negative environmental impact of

buildings by efficiency and moderation in the use of materials, energy, and development space. Sustainable
architecture uses a conscious approach to energy and ecological conservation in the design of the built
environment.
The idea of sustainability, or ecological design, is to ensure that our actions and decisions today do not
inhibit the opportunities of future generations Energy over the entire life cycle of a building is the single

most important goal of sustainable architecture. Architects use many different techniques to reduce
the energy needs of buildings and increase their ability to capture or generate their own energy.

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