Soil Survey Guidelines

(FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY)
GOVERNMENT OF MAHARASHTRA
WATER RESOURCES DEPARTMENT
SOIL SURVEY GUIDELINES
DIRECTORATE OF IRRIGATION RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

PUNE - 411 001
2014
FOREWORD
The work of Soil Survey is being carried out in the Directorate of

Irrigation Research and Development, Pune, for irrigation Commands, since
long. However, with the development in soil science as well as in irrigation
techniques, Soil Survey procedures were updated from time to time and the
data on various aspects like soil morphology, phases etc. are collected.
Hence the need was felt to present the collection of information related to Soil
Survey for the benefit of personnel associated with this work and this unpriced manual is expected to serve as source of information on Soil Survey
techniques.
The technical information given in this manual has been collected from
several books, manuals of IARI, New Delhi and NBSS & LUP Nagpur and
others. I sincerely acknowledge the help received from several authors and
researchers in the form of their published literature.
Our sincere thanks are due to Dr. M. S. Mane, Professor and Head,
Dept. of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, Kokan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli
and Dr. A.L. Farande, Head, Dept. of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry,
M.P.K.V. Rahuri for their valuable guidance and suggestions regarding
chapter on Post Irrigation Soil Survey.
I acknowledge the strenuous efforts put in by a team of experienced

field officers at grass root level for the preparation of these guidelines.
Pune
28 th April 2014
II
INDEX
Sr.
No.
Chapter
Page No.
History of Soil Survey for irrigation in

Maharashtra State and present status
Objective of soil survey precise
Various types of soil survey
Preliminary requirements for commencing soil

survey of command area.
13
Procedure of soil survey for Pre-Irrigation.
16
Soil Sample Analysis
74
Soil Taxonomy
90
Norms for soil survey
102
Interpretation and utility of soil survey
105
10
Preparation of soil survey Report
139
11
Cartography
161
12
Post Irrigation Soil Survey
178
13
Government Circulars & Resolutions
183
III
Remarks
A. LIST OF TABLES
Sr.
No.
Chapter
No.
Table
No.
Description
5.1
Slope Classification
26
5.2
Surface Stonniness classes
27
5.3
Rock outcrop classes
28
5.4
Rock formations
36
5.5
Horizons
41
5.6
Horizon suffix
42
5.7
Assessment of soil texture
54
5.8
Soil structure
57
5.9
Soil structure sizes
58
10
5.10
Consistency
61
11
5.11
Plasticity classes
62
12
5.12
Stickiness classes
62
13
5.13
Roots quantity
64
14
5.14
Roots sizes
64
15
5.15
Cylinder infiltration test data
67
16
9.1
Criteria for classifying soils into irrigability

classes in semi arid and arid regions
110
17
9.2
Soil texture, structure, permeability and

irrigability class
116
18
9.3
Specification for land irrigability classes
123
19
9.4
Criteria for soil and land irriga bility classification

in humid and sub-humid regions of tropics and
131
IV
Page
No.
Sr.
No.
Chapter
No.
Table
No.
Description
Page
No.
sub-tropics
20
10
Climatological data
144
21
10
Existing crop pattern in rain fed area
145
22
10
Cropping pattern in the area irrigated on

dug wells
146
23
10
Comprehensive tabulation of soils, suitable

and unsuitable area for irrigation
147
24
10
4A
Soil and water properties
149
25
10
Textural classification
150
26
10
Analytical data of typical profiles
151
27
10
Distribution of areas under different land

irrigability classification with major constraints
152
28
10
Rate of infiltration in cm/hr.
153
29
10
Distribution of area as per soil irrigability class
154
30
10
10
Distribution of area as per I.A.R.I. depth norms
155
31
10
11
Distribution of area according to slope classes
156
32
10
12
Properties of river eater sample
157
33
10
13
Distribution of area under different mapping units
158
B. LIST OF FIGURES
Sr.
No.
Chapter
No.
Fig.
No.
Description
5.1
Severe sheet erosion
29
5.2
Rills and incipient gullies in black cotton soils
30
5.3
Designation for horizons
38
5.4
Abrupt boundary
46
5.5
Clear smooth boundary
46
5.6
Topography of the soil boundaries as seen in

the field
47
5.7
The complete colour notation as arranged in the

colour chip 5YR conditions for measuring soil
colour
49
5.8
Graphic chart for estimating the percent of area

covered by mottels
50
5.9
Black irregular blocks that are usually 1.5 to 5.0

cm in diameter
59
10
5.10
Columnar - vertical columns, of soil that have a

salt cap at the top found in arid climate
59
11
5.11
Prismatic - long vertical columns, usually found

in lower horizons
60
12
5.12
Granular - resembles cookie crumbs and is

usually < 0.5 cm in diameter commonly found in
surface horizons
60
13
5.13
Platy - Flat plates of soil that lie horizontally

usually found in compacted soils
60
14
5.14
No structure, hard to break, seen in large clods
60
15
9.1
Agro-ecological regions of Maharashtra
129
VI
Page
No.
Sr.
No.
Chapter
No.
Fig.
No.
Description
16
11
11.1
Graphical scale
162
17
11
11.2
Pentagraph
163
18
11
11.3
Planimeter
166
19
11
11.4
Division into squares
168
20
11
11.5
Division into trapezoids
168
21
11
11.6
Layout of sheets
170
22
11
11.7
Relief features
173
VII
Page
No.
C. LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS
Sr.
No.
Chapter
No.
Plate
No.
Description
6.1
Mechanical analysis set up
75
6.2
Saturation moisture percentage set up
76
6.3
Hydraulic conductivity set up
78
6.4
Measurement of pH
79
6.5
Determination of organic carbon
81
VIII
Page
No.
ABBREVIATIONS
USBR
United States Bureau of Reclamation
FAO
Food and Agriculture Organization
USDA
United States Department of Agriculture
I.A.R.I.
Indian Agriculture Research Institute
ACAR
Indian Council of Agricultural Research
MBSS & LUP
National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning
NATP
National Agricultural Training Project
PIC
Pune Irrigation Circle
DIRD
Directorate of Irrigation Research and Development
Sq.km.
square Kilometer
Km.
Kilometer
DSR
District Schedule Rates
EC
Electrical Conductivity
pH
Sterngth of Hydrogen ion concentration
M.A.
Mechanical Analysis
CEC
Cation Exchange Capacity
SAR
Sodium adsorption Ratio
Meter
EW
East West
Kg.
Kilogram
C.S.
Cross Section
Dy.SSO
Deputy Soil Survey Officer
IX
CHAPTER 1
HISTORY OF SOIL SURVEY FOR IRRIGATION IN
MAHARASHTRA STATE AND PRESENT STATUS
1.1
HISTORY OF SOIL SURVEY INVESTIGATIONS FOR IRRIGATION
INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE, NATIONAL AND STATE :
The history of soil survey investigation for irrigation can be traced back to first
quarter of twentieth century. The literature that follow give a brief outline of history of
soil survey investigations for irrigation.
1.2
INTERNATIONAL SCENEREO :
In 1951, United States Department of Agriculture issued handbook No. 18,
Soil Survey Manual. This manual mainly dealt with soil survey for Agriculture, but it
was all purpose manual and the treatment given to cartography, morphology,
classification and mapping is very detailed and hence this manual forms standard
reference book for all kinds of soil survey, may be rainfed agriculture or irrigated
agriculture. The 1951 edition of the manual was second edition and the first edition
was published in 1937. With advent of new technologies, new soil taxonomy, the
manual was recently revised and the new manual with same title was published in
1993.
Soil Surveys in irrigated areas were dealt by the US Bureau of Reclamation
(USBR) Land Classification System in Reclamation Manual 1951.
The Irrigation
suitability classification is an economic system for selecting and categorizing the

quality of lands considered for irrigation development. Within this system lands are
delineated into classes which reflect capacity of land to support adequately a farm
family and pay water charges. Thus it can be seen that the approach of this system
is capitalistic or private ownership and this approach may not always suit to welfare
state like ours.
In 1979, Soil Resources, Management and Conservation Service, Land and
Water Division, prepared Soil Survey Investigations for Irrigation for Food and
1
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). This publication describes

special requirements of soil survey for Irrigation development.
All the above manuals along with Soil Taxonomy by USDA forms the basis of
guidelines.
1.3
NATIONAL PERSPECTIVE :
On the national scene, the soil survey investigations for irrigation were
covered in Soil Survey Manual by All India Soil and Land Use Survey Organisation
of I.A.R.I., New Delhi in 1960. The manual was later revised in 1966 and 1970. This
manual deals with various types of Soil Surveys, field work, interpretation, correlation,
classification of soils for engineering purpose etc.
Also the Bureau of Indian
Standards (then Indian Standards Institute) came up with a nomograph for soil
surveys in the command of Irrigation Projects.
The Soil survey procedure given in this standard is on the same lines as per
Soil Survey Manual of All India Soil and Land Use Survey Organization, I.A.R.I.,
New Delhi.
1.4
NATIONAL BUREAU OF SOIL SURVEY & LAND USE PLANNING, INDIAN
COUNCIL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH, INDIA.

Government of India established All India Soil Survey Organisation in 1956
with the Headquarters at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute Nagpur with five
Regional Soil correlation Centres at Bangalore, Delhi, Kolkata, Jorhat and Udaipur.
Later in 1958, this scheme was integrated with the Land Use Planning Scheme of the
Central Soil Conservation Board primarily to carry out detailed soil surveys in the
catchment areas of major River Valley projects, catchment areas of major River
Valley projects, with setting-up the organisation, "All India Soil and Land Use
Survey".
In 1969, it was re-organized and the research aspects of soil survey,

classification and correlation was transferred to the Indian Council of Agricultural
Research (ICAR), and the developmental activities was retained under the
Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Food and Agriculture. In 1976 it became an

independent Institute of ICAR named as National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land
Use Planning (NBSS&LUP) and continued to function at the IARI, New Delhi. In June
1978, the Headquarters of the Bureau, was shifted to Nagpur. It is located in a new
and spacious buildings situated on Amravati Road, 7 km away from main railway
station and 1.5 km from Nagpur University Campus.
The NBSS & LUP is one among the chain of ICAR Institutes. In line with the
recommendations of the Task Force on Land and Soil Resources (1972) which
suggested the need for soil correlation, uniform nomenclature and proper soil
mapping and also the presidential notification on 15th December,1973 the duties with
respect to research, training, correlation, classification, mapping and interpretation
were allotted to the NBSS & LUP.
1.5
STATE PERSPECTIVE :
The history of soil survey works in irrigated areas starts from 1924 when
Technical paper No. 13 entitled Soil and Sub Soil Surveys in the Deccan Trap Area
was published by Sir C.C. Inglis, I.S.E. This technical paper deals with various types
of soils, their vernacular names, depths and indicator weeds, suitability of these soil
types for various irrigation crops. Presently in Maharashtra State Soil Survey is
carried out by Directorate of Irrigation Research & Development, Pune in irrigation
command area. Other than this organization soil survey with respect to agriculture
(Productivity, fertility and crop management) is carried out by state agricultural
department.
Soil Department of Agricultural Universities in Maharashtra also carried out
soil Survey from their soil department but with respective to any research perspective
of post graduate or doctorate candidate and other wise as per the project
requirement of NATP, ICAR survey soil whole as Maharashtra or project as a whole.
1.6
HISTORY OF SOIL SURVEY ORGANIZATION IN WATER RESOURCES
DEPARTMENT :
The history of soil survey organization under Water Resources Department

dates back to 1959. when one Soil Survey Division was started at Pune with seven
sub divisions : two sub divisions in Western Maharashtra, One each in Marathwada
and Vidarbha and three in Gujarat. Bilingual Bombay State was in existence. The
Soil Survey Division was established under the control of Deccan Irrigation Circle,
Pune (presently working as PIC at Pune but later on the division was brought under
the control of Maharashtra Engineering Research Institute, Nasik.
The State of Maharashtra came into existence in 1960 and the Soil Survey
Division, Pune started working with four sub divisions at Pune, Ahmednagar,
Aurangabad and Nagpur.
During second and third five year plans, new irrigation projects started coming
up and one new Soil Survey Division was started at Nagpur in 1965. Also new sub
divisions at Jalgaon, Basmathnagar and Bhandara were started. The sub divisions
were distributed amongst two divisions as under
Soil Survey Division, Pune Works in Western Maharashtra with sub divisions
at Pune, Ahmednagar and Jalgaon.
Soil Survey Division, Nagpur Works in Marathwada and Vidarbha region with
sub divisions at Nagpur, Basmathnagar, Aurangabad and Bhandara.
The present Directorate of Irrigation Research and Development was started
in 1970 at Pune. Also during the same year, three new sub divisions at Thane,
Kolhapur and Chandrapur were started to complete soil surveys of the command of
major irrigation projects. Presently DIRD, Pune organization conduct, pre irrigation
and post irrigation soil survey. [which include detailed/reconnaissance/updating and
some time brief note of soil survey]
1.7
THE PRESENT SET UP OF SOIL SURVEY WING IS AS UNDER
Directorate Of Irrigation Research & Development, Pune.

Superintending Engineer & Director
Soil Survey Officer,

Soil Survey Division,
Pune.
Executive Engineer,
Irrigation Research Dn.,
Aurangabad
Soil Survey Officer,

Soil Survey Division,
Nagpur.
Soil Surveys in Western

Maharashtra, Konkan &
North Maharashtra
Soil Surveys in
Marathwada region
Soil Surveys in
Vidarbha region
Soil Survey
Sub Division,
Pune.
Soil Survey
Sub Division,
Aurangabad
Soil Survey
Sub Division,
Nagpur
Soil Survey
Sub Division,
Kolhapur.
Soil Scientist Unit,

Basmathnagar
Soil Survey Sub Division,

Amravati.
Soil Survey
Sub Division,
Ahmednagar
Soil Survey
Sub Division,
Wardha
Soil Survey
Sub Division, Kalwa,
Thane
Soil Survey
Sub Division, Bhandara
Soil Survey
Sub Division, Jalgaon
CHAPTER - 2
OBJECTIVES OF SOIL SURVEY PRECISE
2.1
Introduction :
Soil Survey investigations to determine the suitability of land for irrigation
require the co-operative efforts of a team of specialists. The work of soil survey is
being carried out in the Directorate of Irrigation Research & Development, Pune, for
irrigation commands in Maharastra. The soil information collected during survey was
used for limiting the perennials with a view to avoid indiscriminate irrigation and
consequent damages to the land. Further this data is used to plan the drainage
schemes when the area gets damaged.
2.2
Role of soil survey in Irrigation Investigations.
2.2.1 The need for soil survey (objectives of soil survey)

The knowledge of the soils within a potential irrigation command is essential
for economic and technical reasons. The high cost of development of irrigated
agriculture requires justification by assessment of risks and benefits, and the design
of the irrigation scheme itself is dependent on detailed knowledge of soils, lying within
the irrigable area.
1.
To ensure selection of soils for irrigation that are productive.
2.
Nature and distribution of soils and their irrigability.
3.
To determine irrigation needs of specific soil types.
4.
To determine drainage needs of specific soil types.
5.
To determine saline / alkaline reclamation needs.
6.
To determine overall land leveling needs.
7.
To aid in determining crops suitable for particular soils.
8.
Agro-climatic features.
9.
To aid in the location of canals & other irrigation works.
10.
Surface and sub-surface drainage.
11.
A broad description of infra-structural features like transport, godown,

manufacturing and marketing facilities etc.
12.
Ecological aspects related salinity status and water logging of the command
area.
13.
Scheduling of irrigation.
2.3
Environmental Aspects :
One of the main factors, which contributed to green revolution in the country
during the post-independence period
was water resources projects, both for hydro
power and irrigation. However, like any other developmental
activity, the water
resources projects have certain environmental impacts, both harmful and beneficial.
The environmental effects of water resources projects are being experienced and
observed carefully in many developed as well as developing countries. A need has
also been felt to adopt various measures for minimising their negative effects while
maximising the benefits. The objective of environmental impact assessment is to
assess both the positive and negative impacts of a project so that necessary
environmental management measures can be adopted, wherever necessary, to
minimise the adverse impacts.
References
1)
Soil Survey manual All India Soil and Land use Survey Organization, I.A.R.I.,
New Delhi (1970)
2)
Improved Utilization of Soil Survey under Maharashtra Irrigation Technology &

Management (MIT & M USAID) (Dec. 1987)
CHAPTER - 3
VARIOUS TYPE OF SOIL SURVEYS
3.1
BASIS FOR DISTINCTION :

Soil
survey
are
distinguished
by
three
types
of
surveys
as
(a) Reconnaissance, (b) Detailed and (c) Detailed-Reconnaissance, depending upon

the method, the intensity of survey and the resulting detail and precision of mapping.
In deciding upon the type of survey to be undertaken, the terrain features, time and
personnel available for the survey and the purposes to which the surveyed land will
be put to, are some of the factors that will require to be considered.
3.2
RECONNAISSANCE SOIL SURVEY :

The scale of mapping used in this type of survey is 1" = 1 mile (1:63,360), or
1:50.000, using the toposheets of the survey of India as base maps or aerial
photographs of similar scale wherever they are available. The field work will involve
studies of open profiles at intervals of 5 sq.km. or shorter intervals depending upon
the soil heterogeneity. Auger sampling for every 1 sq. km, is carried out to study the
variations in profile characters. The processes of soil formation leave their imprint in
the soil profile as are evident in characteristic variations in different horizons of the
soil profile. The distinctive arrangement of the horizons which distinguish the
morphology of the structure, nature of parent material or parent rock and related in
the case of each of the profiles studied. Profiles showing similar horizontal characters
within narrowly defined limits are grouped together into series. This is an important
part of correlating the character of the different profiles studied and fixing the
classification units at the series level. Association of series or group of series is
normally the classification unit in which the mapping units in reconnaissance soil
surveys are named after the place (location, village or town) near where the typical
soil profile, representative of the series, is first recognized and described.
In reconnaissance mapping, the extensive or major soil series (taxonomic or

classification units) are sought out, defined and named in the same manner as in the
detailed soil survey, Soil series of Minor extent or those which occur in small
scattered areas are not defined or named until the detailed soil survey is taken up.
In mapping on the reconnaissance scale base map, it is unusual that areas
large enough to delineate on the map would be dominantly of one series. In most
case it is found that more than one series occurs in a limited area mixed up in a
manner which is difficult to distinguish in the scale of 1" = 1 mile (or 1 : 50,000 scale)
mapping. For this reason the mapping unit used generally in reconnaissance soil
surveys is the soil association, The series occurring together in a regularly repeating
geographic pattern are grouped into an association and in mapping the boundary
showing the occurrence of this geographic association of series, delineated. It is
usual that two or three series need to be defined and named to describe each
association which may be needed. Such geographic associations of groups of series
may contain several sharply contrasting soil types and phases. Each association is
defined in terms of the named taxonomic units, their relative proportion and their
pattern. The name of the association is in terms of the two or three major series
which occur in the association.
In mapping on the reconnaissance scale base map, all the contiguous areas
where the proportion of profiles and pattern which define a particular "association" of
series occur, are delineated by a common boundary. Such a representation, which is
made possible by a combination of the studies of the individual profiles and the auger
samples through field traverse, help to demarcate the
areas where the soil
associations occur in the surveyed area.

The delineation of soil association boundaries in such surveys is made partly
by extrapolation. The process of extrapolation of the soil boundaries consists in filling
up the gaps in such boundaries which are not drawn by actual traverse but observed
or inferred from study of surface characters and features of changing terrain
conditions.
In the course of the field survey, monoliths of representative profiles

considered as the "typical profile" of the series may be collected and kept on record.
As an alternative, "Micromonoliths", where representative samples from each of to be
distinctive horizons are collected and arranged in reduced scale can serve for
reference purposes and for checking the characters of the soil series association.
Such monoliths and micro monoliths can help in guiding workers in the area in
recognizing the soil characters more accurately than is possible in simple description.
Reconnaissance surveys serve the important purpose of
fixation
of
the
nature of soils occurring in an area and also help to determine the areas suitable for
intensive development or recognizing the area which require attention or amelioration
because of erosion, salinity, alkalinity and such factors affecting soil fertility and
consequently their capacity for crop production Reconnaissance surveys can furnish
the information to precede detailed surveys and serve the important purpose of
furnishing information useful for broad land use planning and agricultural
development.
3.3
DETAILED SOIL SURVEY :

In this survey, maps with scale adequately large so as to permit demarcation
of types and phases within a soil series are used. Cadastral maps on the scale of 8' =
I mile or larger are used as base maps. The scales of such map may be 16"=1 mile
or as in the case of hilly areas in the Punjab and the Himachal Pradesh, l may be
29.3'= 1 mile or 58.6= 1 mile Cadastral maps show all details in regard to the size
and location of individual holdings with the village as a unit. Prominent landmarks like
lakes, ponds, tanks, roads; stream courses, village sites and prominent ridges or
hillocks are usually indicated in these maps. However, such maps lack in
topographical details like contour lines.
Depending upon the soil heterogeneity and variations in the terrain the profile
sites for characterization of the soils would be located, but there can be 2 to 3 profiles
for every 600 acres. Auger samplings are at shorter intervals compared to
reconnaissance surveys and they may be at intervals of 200 - 400 meters to 1/4 to
10
1/2 Km., to enable variations in the surface soil texture and soil depth to be noted
and demarcated. The delineation of the boundaries are done in greater detail
compared to reconnaissance surveys and these are done with actual observations
throughout the course of traverse. The details in the soil series are further taken
down to soil types to indicate variations in the texture of the surface soil and phases
representative of soil depth, or any special features of the soil, like salinity, erosion
etc. Such detailed surveys are conducted to furnish the detailed information required
for a proper assessment of the soil properties, terrain features, erosional aspects and
related factors which can help working out the details about use capability and the
management practices that would be needed for conservation and better crop
production. Units in these case are narrowly defined to detect differences that can be
significant in their use and management. Areas that would require to be put under
intensive use under irrigated agriculture or high fertilizer use and other priority areas
would qualify for such surveys. Under the conditions of our country, the command
areas under irrigated projects, the areas under intensive management and
conservation practices, would be among those which call for detailed or high intensity
surveys.
The detailed soil surveys furnish information needed for understanding the
soils and the land problems under intensive cultivation and for working out measures
needed for conservation of soil and maintenance of the soil fertility without
deterioration. Such surveys can also furnish the information required for management
of the agricultural and other lands above the dams of river valley projects which can
help to reduce the silt discharge into the reservoir beds.
Reconnaissance surveys preceding the detailed surveys furnish useful
information for locating the areas for such high intensity work and for eliminating the
areas which would not deserve such detailed attention either because of inherent
conditions prevailing in them or because they are not suitable for development in an
intensive manner. Because of the greater attention paid to map the different kinds of
soils and the narrower limits within which the variations in the soil properties and
formations are studied, it is possible that a large number of soil series are defined,
compared to those arrived at reconnaissance survey. In detailed soil mapping, the
minimum area of the occurrence of a soil whose profile characters would warrant the
11
differentiation into a separate series, would be in the region 15 acres. It would

normally not be advisable or necessary to distinguish soils by splitting into separate
series if the areas of their occurrence is less than about 5 acres.
3.4
DETAILED RECONNAISSANCE SOIL SURVEY :

This type of survey, actually, is not a separate kind of survey, but this
combines both detailed and reconnaissance surveys carried out on individual areas
best suited to each of these types. A reconnaissance survey is carried out over an
area in the usual way classifying and grouping the soils into soil series, or
associations. As necessary, followed by mapping. The areas which obviously do not
require anything more than the low intensity survey thus carried out, because of the
limited
potentialities
for
intensive
'elopement,
are
eliminated
from further
consideration. The remaining areas which may be large pockets within area covered
by low intensity or else contiguous areas of large blocks which show potentialities for
priority attention, could then be taken up by detailed or high intensity surveys in the
standard pattern. The resultant mapping would thus represent low intensity survey
and mapping of areas with low priority requirements, and also high intensity or
detailed surveys of such areas as to indicate a high priority requirement.
References
1)
Soil Survey Manual All India Soil and Land use Survey Organisation, I.A.R.I.,
New Delhi (1970)
12
CHAPTER - 4
PRELIMINARY REQUIREMENTS FOR COMMENCING
SOIL SURVEY OF COMMAND AREA
Before proceeding to soil survey work certain administrative, technical &
manpower requirements are to be made which are detailed below.
4.1
Administrative requirements
1)
Demand request letter for soil survey work may be given by DIRD in the month
of January to Executive Directors of various corporations, concern Chief
Engineers, Superintending Engineers & Executive Engineers of Irrigation
Projects.
2)
The projects recommended for soil survey by authorities will be included in

Soil Survey Programme of particular financial year by DIRD after due scrutiny.
3)
Data such as Salient features, Index Plan, Command Plans and copy of
administrative approval of the project or reference may be collected from
project authority.
4)
Yearly Programme for Soil Survey work must be approved by S.E. & Director,
DIRD, Pune.
5)
After approval of soil survey programme, the projectwise estimates are

prepared by Sub-Division as per sanctioned DSR. Estimates are submitted
through Division to DIRD for administrative approval. Approved estimates are
then technically sanctioned by Divisions or appropriate authorities.
6)
As per the sanctioned estimate soil survey work should be carried out by
respective Sub-Division.
At the time of detailed soil survey work the manpower for field work execution,
official field team for observation / supervision and material required is as follows.
13
Field Team :
Senior Scientific Assistant - Supervision & recording the work done.
Junior Scientific Assistant - Observation, Supervision & recording the data.
4.2
Senior Survey Assistant
- Observation & recording the data in pit book
Junior Survey Assistant
- Observation & recording the data in pit book
Tracer
- Preparation of working map & soil map
Driver
- Driving inspection vehicle
Man power requirements

The items executed on field at the time of soil survey work such as Auger pit,
Open pit, Well observation, Nala survey, Phase level mapping, collection of rock
specimen, collection of soil & water samples, storing & taking protective care of soil,
water samples & camp equipments etc. Skilled, Semi-skilled & Un-skilled labours or
agencies are required.
4.3
1)
Skilled Labour
2)
Semi-skilled labour
3)
Un-skilled labour
Material requirements
While carring out soil survey work following material is required.
14
Digging Tools
Spade
Shovel
Khurpi
Plastic tray
Field kit bag
Auger ( Hand ) or Probe
Light tables ( portable )
Map board
Sieves
Soil test kit bag
Knife
Soil Description
Hand lens ( 10X )
Acid Bottle ( 1N HCl )
Water Bottle
Colour Charts ( Munsell )
Picture Tapes for Photographs
Tape Measure ( metric )
Fine Point Permanent Marker Pens
Pocket pH ( pocket size ) meter
Pocket Thermometer
Camera
Sample Bags (both polythene and cloth)
Plastic bottles for well water samples
Pedon Description Forms
Polythene sheet for spreading
EC meter ( pocket size )
Site Description
Field Note Book
Abney level
Compass, Magnetic
Thermometer
Field and Camp use

Toposheets
Cadastral Maps
Imagery of the area
Geology Maps
Soil Survey Maps and Reports of the area
Field Notebook for any additional notes
Soil Survey Manual
Field Guide Book for soil-site description
Others
Laptops
Mobile Phone
Hats ( Broad one )
First Aid Box
Towels
Sunscreen
Umbrella
Pens / Pencils
Drinking water
Iron Box
15
CHAPTER - 5
PROCEDURE OF SOIL SURVEY
5.1
Preparatory Requirements before going to field :

Before commencing the soil survey it is necessary to compile the following
preliminary drawing work and working plan.

1)
The index map of command showing location of dam, canal alignment, river
and major transverse nallas in the command. This map is generally prepared
from toposheet: (Scale 1: 63,360) or as supplied by project authority.
2)
Cadastral maps of villages to the scale of 1:7,920, 1:10,000 as available.
3)
The cadastral maps of villages in the command are used as base maps in the
field, on which' the soil survey data is marked. Such maps are made available
by management officers, on demand.
4)
A working map of the command is prepared by reducing cadastral maps and

joining them together. These maps are made to the scale of 1:20,000 or even
smaller and are attached with the report with soil survey data duly marked on
them.
5)
Take two copies of the base map and mark permanent features like water
bodies, streams etc. with blue colour and roads and habitations with black
colour. Other features like rocky areas, forests, salt pans, burial ground etc.
can also be marked.
6)
Use one copy of the base map for traversing, updating the map, location of
profile sites, delineation of phases and preparation of soil map and another for
marking land uses observed in individual fields.
16
7)
The marked copy is to be used for traversing. During the traverse mark the
actual extent of habitations and new permanent features like roads, tanks etc.
8)
Start the traverse. During the traverse observe any change in slope, surface
texture, colour, erosion, gravelliness and stoniness, salinity, alkalinity etc. and
mark their boundaries (phases) on the base map.
9)
Equipments and other essential material as mentioned shall be taken

alongwith before proceeding to soil survey .
5.2
Identification of Different Sub-catchment and planning of soil survey
work in the Command :

Command area is divided in Sub-catchment. These sub-catchment are
numbered serially from dam line to tail end of canals. . The soil survey data is
therefore, presented village wise and sub-catchment wise. one should carry out
Reconnaissance survey of whole command and get aquainted with major features
such as soil type , main canal , River , Tributaries morphological features mark on the
working plan . One should draw rough sketch all above features. The actual working
of day to day activities of soil survey should be planned and prepare dated
programme.
5.3
Establishing the grid for Soil Survey :

On the command map cross section lines, Generally in north- south direction
or parallel to dam site are marked at a distance of (400) meters for major, medium
project, 200 meter for minor and are numbered serially from the dam line to the tail
end of the canal. Horizontal lines perpendicular to cross section are drawn at regular
interval of 400 m. & 200 m. respectively according to the project, to reproduce a grid.
Then auger pits are marked on the intersecting point from river to canal and are
numbered.
17
5.4
Field work :
5.4.1. Taking Auger Bores and Recording the Observations :

Auger bores are taken on each grid point marked on working map, upto a
depth of 250 cm. or hard strata if met first. Auger bores are taken to provide a check
on exact position of boundaries between soil units. The intensity of auger pits thus
taken is 6.25 pits / 100 ha. The depths as per effective soil depths as per I.A.R.I.
classification are also determined.
Records :
For recording observations of soil such as colour, texture, reaction, concretion,
depth of soil, and land slope, erosion status, natural vegetation, standing crops etc.
pit book is used. ( As per proforma given below.)
Material :
10 cm dia post hole auger set, measuring tape, Munsell colour chart, HCl,
water bottle, soil sample bags, information card, compass, base map, abney level.
Sample collection :
Soil samples are collected from every fourth auger bore on alternate cross
section as well as from first three pits near the river for depth interval of (0-20), (2040), (40-80), (80-120), (120-160), (160-200) and (200-250)cm. or upto hard strata if
met first. These collected samples are properly labelled and sent to laboratory for
analysis of EC, pH, M.A, % saturation, % free lime, CEC, SAR etc.
18
PIT DATA
Project
Sub Catchment No. ..
Cross Section No. ..
Village .
Pit Ni. .
Survey No. .
Standing Crops .
Depth
cm.
Soil
Colour
Other
Contents
SuibStrata
Remarks
Texture
00-20
20-40
40-80
80-120
Sketch
120-160
160-200
Soil Samples
Collected / Not Collected
200-250
Date :
Signature
Designation
Verification and Remarks
By Jr. Sc. Asst./ Sr. Sc. Asst.
By Dy. Soil Survey Officer
Remarks :
Dated Initials
Remarks
19
Description of the above proforma :

1)
Project : Write down the name of project which you are surveying.
2)
Sub catchment : Write down the sub catchment number, if the command is
divided.
3)
Cross Section : Write down the cross section number on which you are
observing pit.
4)
Village : Note down the name of village.
5)
Pit No : Write down the pit number which you are observing.
6)
Survey No : Identify and note down the survey number where you are
observing pit.
7)
Standing Crop : Note down the existing crop around the pit from the field.
8)
Depth in cm. : Measure the depth of the auger pit with the help of measuring
tape.
9)
Soil Colour : Identify the colour of the soil with the help of Munsell soil colour
chart and note down the colour.
10)
Soil Texture : Examine the soil texture by feel method as mentioned in field
handbook.
11)
Sub strata : While noting the details of auger pit identify that the material you
are observing is soil, soft murum, hard murum or lime kankar and note it down
in pit book
12)
Sketch : Draw a rough sketch of auger pit position representing with slope
direction and permanent features.
13)
% Free Lime : Note down the % of lime with the 3N HCl
20
5.4.2. Taking Open Profile Observing and Recording. ( Refer field hand book.)
With the use of topo analysis, identified physiographic units are transferred on
cadastral map which is used as a base map for conducting soil survey. Open profiles
are taken at least one profile per 100 ha. The intensity of open profiles can be
increased if the area is heterogeneous and complex physiography. The purpose of
taking open profile is to obtain detailed information of the morphology, physical &
chemical characteristics of each units occupying a significant area of the project.
Technique : Open pits are excavated at predetermined locations. The dimensions of
open pit are 2.5 m x 1.2 m. and the depth is 2.5 m. or upto hard strata if met first. The
length is aligned along "EW" direction. The open pit should not be excavated near
tree, field bund or well. Site characteristics and morphology observations such as
colour, texture, structure, consistency, motteles, slickenside, cutans, soil reaction,
pores & root distribution, hard pans, concretions, krotovina activity and horizon
boundary are noted for each identified horizon and are noted on standard format.
Infiltration tests are carried out at surface, 1.20 m, 2.50 m. depths. Soil samples are
collected for each horizon and sent to laboratory for detailed investigations.
Record : Standard format for open pit observations. ( As per proforma given below.)
Materials : Tape, Pickaxe, Spade, Crowbar, Ghamela, Dagger, Wooden peg,
Munsell soil colour chart, 3N HCl, Water bottles, magnifying glass, camera, compass,
abney level, base map, soil sample bags, Concentric ring infiltrometer.
Sample Collection : A sample of 1 Kg. from each identified horizon.
21
22
23
5.5
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF OPEN PROFILE :
5.5.1 Site characteristics Location & Access :

To identify homogenous areas in the field, which is the objective of soil survey,
we need to have not only a detailed description of the soil characteristics (which is
represented by a pedon), but also that of the landform or site characteristics. This
chapter provides the necessary guidelines for identifying and describing various site
characteristics observed in the field.
A standard format to describe the various soil-site characteristics in the field is
necessary to avoid missing some of the features and to maintain the sequence of
recording by the surveyor. The pedon description form lists the important site
characteristics to be recorded in the first page and soil characteristics on the reverse
side. The features indicated in the proforma are neither complete in itself nor specific
to any area. So always there is scope for observing new features in the area, and if
so observed, they have to be recorded in detail, either in the proforma itself or in the
field note book.
1)
Name of village :
Write the name of village.
2)
Survey No. or Gut No. : Write the appropriate Survey No. or Gut No. of the
field by enquiring responding farmer or from authentic data (working map) provided
by corresponding Revenue( Tehsil ) office or as supplied by project authority.
3)
Taluka and District : Write the name of Taluka and District.
4)
Cross Section No. (C.S.) and Pit No. : Write the appropriate Cross Section
No.(C.S.) and Pit No. of the field from the authentic data (working map) provided by
corresponding Revenue( Tehsil ) office or as supplied by project authority.
5)
Series Classification : Soil series is considered as the most important
category in the system as it is the fundamental unit of classification and is also the
basic unit for most soil mapping Study of morphology of soil profile, enables to group
the profiles of the same character into soil series. Each soil series is identified by the
name of the village where it occurred first. The soil series classification is very useful
in, management practices as the management practices for areas under same series
are similar.
24
6)
Physiographic Position.
Topography of the Surrounding Area - The surrounding land of the profile
will normally have complex slopes and the terms used to describe the topography of
the surrounding country are indicated below. In contrast to this only simple slopes are
used to describe the location of the profile in the pedon description form.
Landform - Any physical, recognisable feature on the Earths surface, having
a characteristic shape that is produced by natural processes and mappable at
common survey scales. Examples of major landforms are given below.
Marine landforms
Beach, beach ridge, dunes, salt pans, swamp, coastal

plain, island, gulf, marsh, etc.
Alluvial landforms
Delta, alluvial fan, delta plain, flood plain, plain, etc.
Inland and Hilly

landforms
Mountains, mountain slope, mountain valley, hills, high

hills, low hills, hill slope, peak, ridge, dyke, tors, inselberg,
escarpment, gorge, ravine, valley, etc.
7)
Relief :
Profile Position - In a hilly area the profile position can be indicated as summit,
shoulder, backslope, footslope or toeslope, as the case may be. In uplands, the
profile position can be indicated as summits, upper, middle and lower part of the
upland and lowlands or valleys.
8)
Soil Slope :
Soil slope refers specifically to the slope of the land immediately surrounding
the profile (i.e. within 100 m of the profile pit) or representative section of the
landscape from which the profile is described. Since soil slope is generally in one
direction, it is considered as simple slope. Slope has gradient, complexity, length,
form and aspect.
25
Slope gradient - is the inclination of the surface of the soil from the horizontal.
It indicates the direction of the surface water flow at the site. The difference in
elevation between two points is expressed as a percentage of the distance between
those points. For example, if the difference in elevation is 1 meter over a horizontal
distance of 100 meters, then the slope gradient is expressed as 1 per cent.
The slope gradient is measured at the profile site by using Abney level and
ranging rods. Obseravtions should be taken facing downslope to avoid any errors
associated with the clinometer. The Abney level readings, degrees of inclination or
declination, can be converted into slope percentages, and slope classes. The
equivalence between percentage gradient, degree of slope angle and class of slope
used are as follows :
Table 5.1 : Slope Classification
Class of
slope
Range of slope
%
Abney level reading
0-1
0-35 min
1-3
35 min to 1 degree 44 min
3-5
1 degree 44 min to 2 degrees 52 min
5 - 10
2 degrees 52 min to 5 degrees 43 min
10 - 15
15 - 25
25 - 33
33 - 50
Slope Complexity - refers to the relative uniformity (smooth linear or

curvilinear = simple slopes) or irregularity (complex) of the ground surface. Complex
slopes are groups of slopes that have definite breaks in several different directions,
which results in different slope gradients within the areas delineated. Complex slopes
are used to describe the landform of the surrounding country.
26
Slope length - indicates the distance up to which there is no break in the

slope. For example, the length of B slope is 100 m, which indicates that the distance
between the starting point of the slope and the point where it breaks is about 100 m
in length.
Slope form - refers to the form of the slope along the direction of slope. It is
described as convex, concave or straight.
9)
Surface condition :
Observe the surface condition by visually e.g.Dry / Moist
10)
Stoniness :
The approximate amount of stones and boulders present at the surface has to
be assessed separately and reported.The stoniness classes used are indicate
bellow.
Table 5.2 : Surface Stoniness Classes
Class
Symbol
Description
Class 0
St 1
No stones or too few to interfere with tillage.(Stones cover

less than 0.01% of the area).
Class 1
St 2
Stones interfere with tillage but do not make intertilled crops

impractical.(Stones occupy 0.01 to 0.1 of surface)
Class 2
St 3
Sufficient stones to make intertillage impracticable but not

prevent working for hay crops or improved pasture.(Stony0.1 to 3.0% of surface covered)
Class 3
St 4
Sufficient stones to make use of machinery other than very

light machinery or hand tools , impracticable.(Very stony or
stony land - 3 to 15 % of surface covered)
Class 4
St 5
Sufficient stones to make all use of machinery impracticable.

(Stony land or very stony land - 15 to 90% of surface
covered)
Class 5
St 6
Land essentially paved with stones occupying more than

90% of surface.
27
11) Rockiness (Rock Outcrops) :

The distance between the rock outcrops and their percentage coverage in the
field is to be recorded as indicate below.
Table 5.3 : Rock outcrop classes
Class
Symbol
Class 0
Description
No bedrock exposures or too few to interfere with tillage
(less than 2% of area)
Class 1
R1
Bedrock exposures interfere with tillage but do not make

intertilled crops impractical.(Rocky- exposures roughly 100 to
300 ft. apart and cover 2 to 10% of surface.)
Class 2
R2
Sufficient exposures to make intertillage impractical but not to

prevent working for hay crops or improved pastures.(Very rocky
exposures 30 to 100 ft. apart and cover 10 to 25% of surface.)
Class 3
R3
Sufficient rock outcrops to make the use of machinery,oher

than very light machinery and hand tools,
impracticable.(Extremely rocky- or rock land- exposures or thin
soil 10 to 30 ft. apart covering 25 to 30% of surface)
Class 4
R4
Sufficient outcrop or very thin soil to make all use of machinery

impracticable.(Rock land- exposures 10 ft. apart or less and
covering 50 to 90% of surface)
Class 5
R5
Over 90% exposed bedrock.(Rock outcrop)
12)
Erosion :
The detachment and movement of soil materials from one place to another is
known as soil erosion. Depending on the landscape position, vegetation and rainfall,
soil erosion may be very slow or very rapid. It is very rapid in the deforested barren
hills of the Western Ghats and very slow in the delta or gangetic plains. The agents
28
responsible for erosion are water and wind. Sheet, rill and gully erosions are very
widespread in our country.
Sheet erosion : is responsible for the almost uniform removal of soil from an area
without leaving any significant marks at the surface. It is difficult to notice in the early
stages, but it is a serious one on many upland soils.
Rill erosion : is the removal of soil through many small incipient channels or rills. It is
intermediate between sheet and gully erosion.
Gully erosion : is the consequence of water that cuts down into the soil along the
line of flow. Gullies form in exposed natural drainage ways, in plough furrows, in
animal trails, in roads, between rows of crop plants and below broken man-made
terraces. In contrast to rills, they cannot be obliterated by tillage.
Wind erosion : is a serious problem in the arid and semi-arid regions, particularly in
the rainfed tracts of the country.
Fig. 5.1 : Severe Sheet Erosion
29
Fig. 5.2 : Rills and incipient gullies in black cotton soils

Soil erosion classes :
The erosion classes are estimated in the field based on the proportion of
upper horizons/layers that have been removed. Since these horizons may range
widely in their thickness, estimating absolute amount of erosion in the field is not
possible. The erosion classes indicated bellow are applicable for both water and wind
erosion.
Class 1 ( Slight erosion ) (e1) :
This class consist of soils that have lost some, but on the average less than
25%,of the original A and /or E horizons or of the uppermost 20 cm of the original A
and /or E horizons if they were less than 20 cm thick. Evidence for class 1 erosion
includes (1) a few rills,(2) an accumulation of sediment at the base of slopes or in
depressions, (3) scattered small areas where the plough layer contains material from
below, and (4) evidence of the formation of widely spaced, deep rills or shallow
gullies without consistently measurable reduction in thickness or other change in
properties between the rills or gullies.
30
Class 2 ( Moderate erosion ) (e2) :

This class consist of soils that have lost, on the average,25 to 75% of the
original A and /or E horizons or of the uppermost 20 cm if the original A and /or E
horizons were less than 20 cm thick. In cultivated areas with class 2 erosion,the
surface layer consist of a mixture of the original A and /or E horizons and material
from below. Some areas may have intricate patterns, ranging from un eroded small
areas to severely eroded small areas. Where the original A and /or E horizons were
thick,little or no mixing with underlying material is common.
Class 3 ( Severe erosion ) (e3) :
This class consist of soils that have lost, on the average, 75% or more of the
original A and /or E horizons or of the uppermost 20 cm if the original A and /or E
horizons were less than 20 cm thick.In the most areas of class 3 erosion,material
below the original A and /or E horizons is exposed at the surface in cultivated areas;
The plough layer consists entirely of this material. Even where the original A and /or
E horizons were very thick, at least some mixing with underlying material is common.
Class 4 ( Very severe erosion ) (e4) :
This class consist of soils that have lost, all of the original A and /or E horizons
or of the uppermost 20 cm if the original A and /or E horizons were less than 20 cm
thick. In addition, Class 4 includes loss some or all of the deeper horizons throughout
most of the area.The original soil can be intricate pattern of gullies. Indicate the kind
or degree and of erosion observed at the profile site in the proforma.
13) Surface drainage ( Surface runoff ) :
Surface runoff or external soil drainage refers to the loss of water (includes
both rainfall and water flowing from other or nearby soils) from an area by flow over
the land surface. Six runoff classes are recognized based on the characteristics of
the soil profile, soil slope, climate and vegetative cover.
31
Ponded - None of the water added to the soil as precipitation or by flow from
surrounding areas escapes as runoff. This condition occurs normally in depressions.
Very slow - Surface water flows away very slowly that free water lies on the
surface for long periods or enters immediately into the soil. In very slow condition,
most of the water either passes through the soil or evaporates into the air. This
condition is observed normally in level to nearly level areas or in very porous sandy
soils.
Slow - Surface water flows away slowly that free water lies on the surface for
significant periods or enters rapidly into the soil. In very slow condition, large part of
the water either passes through the soil or evaporates into the air. This condition is
observed normally in nearly level or very gently sloping areas or in sandy soils.
Normally there is little or no erosion hazard.
Medium - Surface water flows away at such a rate that a moderate proportion
of the water enters the soil and free water lies on the surface for only short periods. In
this condition, large part of the rainfall is absorbed by the soil and used for plant
growth. The erosion hazard may be slight to moderate when these soils are brought
under cultivation.
Rapid - A large part of the rainfall moves rapidly over the surface of the soil
and a small part moves through the soil profile. In this condition, water runs off nearly
as fast as it is added on the surface. Rapid runoff areas are observed normally in
moderately steep to steep areas and in soils with low infiltration capacity. The erosion
hazard is normally moderate to high.
Very rapid - A very large part of the rainfall moves rapidly over the surface of
the soil and a very small part moves through the soil profile. In this condition, water
runs off as fast as it is added on the surface. Rapid runoff areas are observed
normally in steep to very steep areas and in soils with low infiltration capacity. The
erosion hazard is normally high or very high.
32
Natural Drainage Classes

Natural drainage class refers to the frequency and duration of wet periods
under conditions similar to those under which the soil developed. Alteration of the
water regime, either through drainage or irrigation, is not a consideration unless the
alterations have significantly changed the morphology of the soil.
14)
Subsurface drainage
These are a summation of :

a)
Run-off;
b)
Internal Soil Drainage;
c)
Permeability;
For each of which separate defined terms are given in the Soil Survey Manual
( page-166 to 168)
i)
Very Poorly Drained

Water leaves soil so slowly that water table is at or above surface for most of
the time. Usually occupy level or depressed sites; frequently ponded.

ii)
Poorly Drained
Soil remains wet for a large part of the time. Water table commonly at or near
surface for considerable part of the time.

iii)
Imperfectly Drained
Water leaves soil slowly enough to keep it wet for significant periods but not all
of the time . Often gley mottled in the lower A,or immediately below A horizon.
33
iv)
Moderately well drained

Water removal is somewhat slow and profiles are wet for small but significant
periods. Often gley mottled in the B horizon.

v)
Well Drained
Water removed readily but not rapidly.May be gley mottled deep in the C
horizon or below depths of several feet.

vi)
Somewhat excessively drained

Water is removed from soil rapidly. Solum is normally free of gley mottling.
vii)
Excessively drained
Water is removed from the soil very rapidly.May be steep,very porous, or
both.Profile free of gley mottling.

15)
Salt and Alkali (% surface coverage)
The presence of salinity or alkalinity can be identified based on the occurrence

of barren areas, presence of salt tolerant crops like prosopis and very poor or stunted
growth of
plants. Presence of white encrustation on the surface of the soil is an
indication of salinity and smooth or fluffy feel to the feet indicates alkalinity in the field.
Observe the extent of the area covered by the saline or alkali areas and indicate the
per cent surface cover in the column provided.
16)
Parent Material
The loose unconsolidated mineral material formed by the weathering of rocks,

from which the soils form, is known as the parent material of the soil. The parent
material is designated as C horizon in the soil profile. The parent materials can be
grouped into those formed in place through the disintegration and decomposition of
rocks (Residual) and those that have been transported from the place of their origin
by various agents like water, wind, gravity etc.(Transported). The presence of
multiple parent materials should be described in the proforma (colluvium, over
residual).
34
Transported Material
By Wind
-eolian deposit, eolian sands, loess.
By gravity
Movement/gravity colluvium,
fall/flow deposit, rock
talus,
landslide
(debris
fall deposit, soil fall deposit), mine spoil or earthy fill

deposits.
By Water
-alluvium, fluviomarine deposit, marine deposit, swamp

deposit, beach sand, estuarine deposit, lacustrine deposit.
Residual or in-place or
in-situ deposits
residuum (weathered granite/basalt etc.), saprolite
17)
Geology
Geology of Maharashtra state is practically the geology of Deccan traps which

occurs in all the districts of the state excepting in Bhandara. The other geological
formations older and younger than Deccan traps occur in the district of Bhandara,
Chandrapur, Nagpur, Yeotmal, Wardha, Buldhana, Akola, Amravati, Dhule, Jalgaon,
Nanded, Kolhapur and Ratnagiri, In the remaining 13 districts, Deccan traps are the
only geological formation occurring in them. Sometimes, the Deccan traps are
capped by laterites as in Kolaba, Ratnagiri, Satara and Kolhapur districts and minor
alluvial deposits along some of the major river valleys.
The Deccan trap is an important geological formation in the Indian sub
continent. The largest part of this is in Maharashtra state where it occupies an area of
about 96,400 square miles consisting 81 % of the of the state in Maharashtra state.
The Deccan trap is seen upto a height of about 5,370 feet above mean sea level and
in all likelihood to a considerable depth below mean sea level.
The Deccan trap is a vast pile of volcanic lava flows lying one over the other
and is more or less uniform in composition. It includes other volcanic products such
as tuffs, breccias, ash beds and also sedimentary strata.
A brief description of the important rock formations commencing from the most
ancient group viz. Archeans is given in the following table.
35
Table 5.4 : Rock Foundations

Age
Recent, Sub-recent
and Pleistocene
Rock formation
Alluvium, Laterite soil, sand etc.
Geographic distribution in
the state.
Part of Akola, Jalgaon,
Buldhana, Dhule and
Amravati districts.
Laterites in Kolhapur,
Satara, Ratnagiri, Sangli,
Kolaba and Thane districts.
Lower Eocene
Upper cretaceous
Deccan Trap, Volcanic lava flows

with intertrapeans and
infratrappeans.(lamete,Baghbed)
All the districts of the state

excepting Bhandara.
Jurassic (Upper
Gondwana)
Chikiala and Kota stage :

Limestone.
Sironchi thasil of
Chandrapur district.
Traissic
Pachmari and Makri stage : Clays,

Sandstones
Sironchi thasil of
Chandrapur district.and
Achalpur tahsil of Amravati
district.
Precambrian
(Lower Gondwana)
Mangli beds: Sandstones and coal.
Warora tahsil Chandrapur

district.
Kamthi series : Sandstones, shales

and coal
Barakar series : Sandstones,
Shales and coal.
Nagpur, Chandrapur and

Yeotmal district.
Yeotmal district.
Upper
Carboniferous
Talchir series

Yeotmal district.
Pre-Cambrian
Vindhyan system : Limestone,

Shale and Sandstone.
Yeotmal and Chandrapur

district.
Cuddapah system : Limestone and

Shales.
Sironcha tahsil Chandrapur

district
Kaladgi series : Sandstones,

Conglomerates, quartzites and
Shales.
Ratnagiri district.
36
Archean
Middle Dharwar
Sakoli series: Iron ore series
Chandrapur, Nagpur,
Bhandara and Ratnagiri
districts.
Lower Dharwar
Sauser series
Nagpur & Bhandara
Archean
Older Schists ( Unclassified

crystallines._
Chandrapur, Nagpur,
Bhandara and Ratnagiri
districts.
18)
Natural vegetation
The type of vegetation observed should be described first in simple terms, like
evergreen, deciduous or shrub forests, grasslands, etc., and then their common
names and their species names wherever possible. Generally, a close relationship
exists between native vegetation and kinds of soil. The growth and stand of native
vegetation and cultivated crops will be of great help in recognizing soil boundaries.
Even within a field, differences of vigour, stand, or colour of the crop or of weeds
commonly mark soil differences and as such are valuable clues to the location of soil
boundaries in the field to the surveyor.
19)
Land Use
Indicate the name of the crop/crops (common names like bajra, ragi etc. are
preferred) cultivated in the current season and wherever possible the crops cultivated
in the previous season, if they are different from the present one. Also provide the
approximate yield/ha and management level (low, medium or high) followed by the
farmer for the major crops cultivated. If the crop is irrigated, indicate the method of
irrigation and indicate the major and minor crops if it is a mixed one.
20)
Ground Water table

Indicate the depth of the water table and seasonal fluctuations of the profile
site area. The water table measurements can be taken from the nearest open or bore
wells or by enquiring with the farmers of the area.
37
5.5.2 Morphology :
Demarcation of Horizons.
a)
Horizons
Horizon development indicates the extent and degree of soil genesis. It varies
widely from soil to soil. In the early stages of soil formation, horizon development may
be weak. As the age increases, horizons develop slowly and exhibit distinct
characteristics in well developed soils.
Ap
Bt1
Bt2
Bt3
BC
C
Fig. 5.3 : Designations for horizons

Layers and horizons of different kinds are identified by symbols. Three kinds of
symbols are used to designate them. Capital letters (O, A, E, B, C, R and W) are
used to designate the master horizons and layers. Lower case letters are used as
suffixes to indicate specific characteristics of master horizons and layers. Arabic
numerals are used both as suffixes to indicate vertical subdivisions within a horizon
or layer and as a prefix to indicate discontinuities.
38
Master Horizons and Layers

O horizons or layers : This layer is dominated by organic material. They consist of
undecomposed or partially decomposed litter, deposited on the surface of either
mineral or organic soils. The O layer may be present on the surface of a mineral soil
or at any depth beneath the surface, if it is buried. A horizon formed by illuviation of
organic material into mineral subsoil is not considered as an O horizon.
A horizon : It is a mineral horizon formed at the surface or below O horizon. They
exhibit obliteration of all or much of the original rock structure and show an
accumulation of humified organic matter intimately mixed with the mineral fraction.
This horizon is not dominated by properties of either E or B horizons or properties
resulting from cultivation, pasturing, or similar kinds of disturbance.
E horizons : Mineral horizon in which the main feature is loss of silicate clay, iron,
aluminium, or some combination of these, leaving a concentration of sand and silt
particles. These horizons exhibit obliteration of all or much of the original rock
structure. This horizon is usually lighter in colour than B and A horizons. The organic
matter is normally less than A horizon and occurs commonly near the surface (below
O or A horizon and above B horizon).
B horizons : Horizons that formed below an A, E, or O horizon and are dominated by
obliteration of all or much of the original rock structure and show one or more the
following:
1.
alluvial concentration of silicate clay, iron, aluminium, humus, carbonates,

gypsum, or silica, alone / in combination
2.
evidence of removal of carbonates
3.
residual concentration of sesquioxides
4.
coatings of oxides that make the horizons lower in value, higher in chroma, or
redder in the hue than overlying and underlying horizons without any illuviation
of iron.
39
5.
alteration that forms silicate clay or liberates oxides or both and that forms
granular, blocky or prismatic structure
6.
brittleness or gleying
C horizons: Horizons or layers, excluding hard bedrock, that are little affected by
pedogenic processes and lack properties of O, A, E, or B horizons. The material of C
layers may be either like or unlike that from which the solum persumably formed. The
C horizon may have been modified even if there is no evidence of pedogenesis.
R layers (Hard Bedrock): The R layer is sufficiently coherent when moist to make
hand digging with a spade impractical, although it may be chipped or scrapped.
Granite, gniess, quartzite, sandstone, indurated limestone etc are some examples of
the bedrock seen in the profile and are designated as R.
Transitional Horizons
Horizons dominated by properties of one master horizon but having
subordinate properties of another. Two capital letter symbols are used to designate
the transitional horizons (AB, EB, BE, BC, CB). The master horizon symbol that is
given first designates the kind of horizons whose properties dominate the transitional
horizon.
Combination Horizons
Horizons in which distinct parts have recognizable properties of the two kinds
of master horizons indicated by the capital letters. The two capital letters are
separated by a slash as A/B, E/B, B/E, B/C.
40
Table 5.5 : Horizons

Summary of Master,
transitional and common
horizon combinations
Horizon
Criteria
Organic soil materials
Mineral; organic matter (humus) accumulation, loss

of Fe, Al, clay
AB (or AE)
Dominantly A horizon characteristics but also

contains some characteristics of the B (Or E) horizon
AC
Dominantly A horizon characteristics but also

contains some characteristics of C horizon
Mineral; loss of Fe, Al, clay, or organic matter
Subsurface accumulation of clay, Fe, Al, Si, humus,

CaCO3, CaSO4; or loss of CaCO3; or accumulation
of sesquioxides; or subsurface soil structure
BC
Dominantly B horizon characteristics but also

contains some characteristics of the C horizon
Little or no pedogenic alteration, unconsolidated

earthy material; soft bedrock
Limnic soil materials
Bedrock, Strongly Cemented to Indurated
A layer of liquid water (W) or permanently frozen

water (Wf) within the soil (excludes water/ice above
soil)
Subordinate Distinctions within Master horizons:

They are referred earlier as Horizon Suffixes or Subscripts. Lower case letters are
used as suffixes to designate specific kinds of master horizons and layers. The
symbols used commonly are indicated in the table below.
41
Table 5.6 : Horizon Suffix

Horizon
Suffix
Criteria
Highly decomposed organic matter. Used with O horizon
Buried genetic horizon (not used with C horizons)
Concretions or nodules
Densic layer (physically root restrictive)
Moderately decomposed org. matter
Strong gley (Fe reduced and pedogenically removed); chroma 2 or less;

may have other redoximorphic (RM F) features.
Illuvial organic matter accumulation, seen as coatings on sand and silt

particles and filling of the pores
Slightly decomposed organic matter, rubbed fiber content

is >40% by vol.
Jarosite accumulation, e.g., acid sulfate soils.
Accumulation of (pedogenic) carbonates
Strong cementation (pedogenic, massive)
Pedogenic, exchangeable sodium accumulation
Residual sesquioxide accumulation (pedogenic)
Plow layer or other artificial disturbance
Secondary (pedogenic) silica accumulation
Weathered or soft bedrock
Illuvial accumulation of sesquioxides
ss
Presence of slickensides
Illuvial accumulation of silicate clay
Presence of plinthite
Weak color or structure within B (used only with B)
Fragipan characteristics
Pedogenic accumulation of gypsum
Pedogenic accumulation of salt more soluble than gypsum
42
Conventions for using letter suffices
Master horizon symbol (capital letter) should be followed by one or more lower
case letters.
Normally upto two suffices are used and more than three suffices are rarely
used.
When more than one suffix is used, a, e, h, i, r, t and w are given preference
and written first after the capital letter followed by other suffixes.
B horizon with significant accumulation of clay and also showing evidence of

colour or structure, or both, is designated as Bt and not as Btw or Bts or Btws
(t has precedence over w, s, and h).
Soil Characteristics : (Pedon Description)

Systematic description of soil characteristics is essential to understand the
formation of soils in a study area, grouping similar soils and for mapping their extent.
Soil properties are studied in the field by excavating a profile or augering in a
representative area.
After the excavation, the sides of the pit are cleaned carefully and ped faces
are exposed to the sunlight by using a pocket knife or khurpi. The exposed profile
face is examined carefully, starting from the top and working downward, to identify
any changes in the properties of the soil. Based on the changes observed,
boundaries between layers are marked on the face of the pit, and the layers are
identified and described. Photographs are to be taken immediately after identifying
the layers or horizons and before attempting the study of soil properties. Also
estimation of the volume of stones and features that may be destroyed during the
study of the soils should be completed before the layers/horizons are disturbed.
43
Apart from the excavated profiles, road cuts, quarries, well cuts and any other
fresh cuts can also be used to describe the soils of the survey area. However,
caution is necessary in studying very old pits or disturbed areas and they have to be
indicated as such in the proforma.
( b ) Depth (cm)
Soil Depth
Soil depth indicates the depth of the solum, which includes A and B horizons,
occurring above the parent material or hard rock. Depth is measured from the soil
surface. For soils with a cover of 80 per cent or more rock fragments on the surface,
the depth is measured from the surface of the rock fragments. Generally all the four
faces of the pit will not be uniform and care is necessary to select the typical or
representative face of the pit for the study of the profile. Also the thickness of each
horizon or layer may vary within a pedon and this variation can be indicated by
recording the average thickness and range in thickness of the horizon; e.g. 12 cm
(10- 15 cm). The depth classes used are:
Very shallow
0 - 20 cm
Shallow
20 - 40 cm
Medium I
40 -120 cm
Medium II
120 - 250 cm
Deep
> 250 cm
( c ) Thickness (cm)
Measure the thickness of horizons and write the measurement in profile data.
( d ) Boundary
Boundaries of Horizons and Layers - A transitional area or layer present between
two adjoining horizons or layers is known as the boundary. Boundraies vary in
distinctness (contrast) and in topography.
44
Distinctness :
Distinctness is the distance through which one horizon grades into another. It
refers to the thickness of the zone within which the boundary can be located. The
distinctness depends on the degree of contrast between the layers and thickness of
the transitional zone. Distinctness is defined in terms of thickness of the transitional
zone.
Very Abrupt or sharp
Less than 0.5 cm
Abrupt
0.5 to < 2 cm
Clear
2 to < 5 cm
Gradual
5 to < 15 cm
Diffuse
More than 15 cm
Topography : Topography is the lateral undulation and continuity of the boundary

between horizons. Topography refers to the irregularities of the surface that divides
the horizons
Smooth
The boundary is a plane one with few or no irregularities
Wavy
The boundary has undulations in which depressions are wider

than they are deep
Irregular
The boundary has pockets that are deeper than they are wide
Broken
Discontinuous horizons; discrete but intermingled, or irregular

pockets
45
Fig. 5.4 : Abrupt boundary
Fig. 5.5 : Clear Smooth Boundary
46
Fig. 5.6 : Topography of the soil boundaries as seen in the field
47
( e ) Colour
Soil Colour - Soil colours are measured in the field by comparing peds with Munsell
colour chart. Colour names are indicated in the opposite page of the colour chips.
The notation is recorded in the form: hue, value and chroma - for example, 5YR 5/3.
Hue - is a measure of the chromatic composition of light that reaches the eye.
Value - indicates the degree of lightness or darkness of a colour in relation to a
neutral grey scale. It is a measure of the amount of light that reaches the eye under
standard lighting conditions. Grey is perceived as about halfway between black and
white and has a value notation of 5/.
Chroma - is the relative purity or strength of the spectral colour. The scales of
chroma for soils extend from /0 for neutral colours to a chroma of /8 as the strongest
expression of colour used for soils.
48
Fig. 5.7 : The complete colour notation as arranged in the colour chip 5YR
Conditions for measuring soil colour
Measurement of soil colour is affected by the quality and intensity of light,
moisture content and roughness of the sample selected. Determination done either
early in the morning or late in the evening will not be accurate. Also, when the sun is
low or the atmosphere is smoky, the light reaching the sample and the light reflected
49
will be more towards redder colour. Colours also appear different in the subdued light
of a cloudy day than in bright sunlight. Hence, determination of soil colour is
undertaken in shade by utilising the shadow of the person holding the colour chart.
( f ) Mottles
Mottles Mottles are spots of different colours which are different from colour
variation associated with ped surfaces, worm holes, concretions, nodules, etc.
Redoximorphic features are a type of mottling that is associated with wetness.
Redoximorphic features and ped and void surface features like clay films are
excluded from mottles description. Mottles are described by quantity, size, contrast,
colour, moisture state and shape in that order. A complete example is: few, medium,
distinct, reddish yellow, moist, irregular mottles or f, 2, d, 7.5YR 7/8, m, z mottles.
Quantity indicates the per cent of horizon area covered by mottles.
Quantity Class
Symbol
Criteria : range in per cent
Few
< 2 % of surface area
Common
2 to < 20 % of surface area
Many
> 20 % of surface area
Fig. 5.8 : Graphic chart for estimating the percent of area covered by mottles
50
Mottling size refers to dimensions as seen on a plane surface. It is measured

along the greatest dimension except in linear forms. The size classes used are
Fine
< 2 mm
Medium
2 to < 5 mm
Coarse
5 to < 20 mm
Very Coarse
> 20 mm
Mottling Contrast refers to the degree of visual distinction that is evident

between associated colours. Faint mottles are evident only on close examination.
They commonly have the same hue as the colour to which they are compared and
differ by no more than 1 unit of chroma or 2 units of value. Distinct mottles are readily
seen but contrast only moderately with the colour to which they are compared.
Prominent mottles contrast strongly with the colour to which they are compared.
( g ) Coarse fragments
Surface Fragments
This refers to the presence of coarse fragments (>2 mm in size) on or near the
soil surface. The classes used are pebbles, cobbles, stones and boulders. Gravel is a
collection of pebbles that have diameters ranging from 2 to 75 mm. The size of the
cobbles range from 75 to 250 mm (3 to 10 inches), stones from 250 to 600 mm (10
to 24 inches) and boulders above 600 mm (>24 inches).Assessment for the surface
fragments is done separately for the gravel and for stones and boulders. Indicate the
size of the fragments observed in the field. The following classes, based on the areal
coverage are used for gravel.
Rock Fragments (described earlier as coarse fragments)
The discrete unattached pieces of rock, 2 mm in diameter or larger that are
strongly cemented or more resistant to rupture are known as rock fragments. Rock
fragments are described by their size, shape, and kind of rock. The various size rock
fragments and terms used to describe them in the soil are given below.
51
Shape and size
Noun
Adjective
Spherical, cubelike, or equi-axial

2 - 75 mm diameter
Pebbles
Gravelly
75 250 mm dia.
Cobbles
Cobbly
250 600 mm
Stones
Stony
> 600 mm
Boulders
Bouldery
2 150 mm long
Channers
Channery
150 380 mm long
Flagstones
Flaggy
380 600 mm long
Stones
Stony
> 600 mm long
Boulders
Bouldery
Flat shape
Based on the volume of the rock fragments present (< 15 %, 15 to 35 %, 35 to

60 %, 60 to 90 % and > 90 %), appropriate adjectives (as indicated in texture section)
are used as a modifier to describe the texture of the soil (e.g. loam, gravelly loam,
very gravelly loam and extremely gravelly loam).
Finely Disseminated Materials are physically small precipitates (e.g. salts,
carbonates) dispersed throughout the matrix of a horizon. The materials cannot be
readily seen (l0X lens), but can be detected by a chemical reaction (e.g.
effervescence of CaCO3 by HCI).
Masses are non cemented bodies of accumulation of various shapes that
cannot be removed from the soil as discrete units, and do not have a crystal
structure. Most accumulations consist of calcium carbonate, fine crystals of gypsum
or more soluble salts, or iron and manganese oxides.
Crystals are macro-crystalline forms of relatively soluble salts (e.g. halite,
gypsum, carbonates) that form in situ by precipitation from soil solution. The
crystalline shape and structure is readily discernible in the field with a l0X hand lens.
52
Plinthite is iron-enriched reddish bodies that are low in organic matter and are
coherent enough to be separated readily from the surrounding soil. Plinthite
commonly occurs within and above reticulately mottled horizons. It is firm or very firm
when moist, hard and very hard when air dry, and become moderately cemented on
repetitive wetting and drying. They occur as discrete nodules or plates. Horizons
containing plinthite are more difficult to penetrate with an auger than adjacent
horizons.
Ironstone is an in-place concentration of iron oxides that is at least weakly
cemented. Ironstone nodules are commonly found in layers above plinthite. These
ironstone nodules are apparently plinthite that has cemented irreversibly as a result
of repeated wetting and drying.
Field Description of Concentrations
The description of concentrations is similar to that of the mottles or
redoximorphic features present in the soil. The important attributes to be described
are Kind, Quantity Size, Contrast, Color, Moisture State, Shape, Location,
Hardness, and Boundary. In the field it may not be possible to describe all the
attributes indicated above.
( h ) Soil Texture
Soil texture refers to the relative proportion (per cent by weight) of sand, silt
and clay present in a soil. Texture is estimated in the field by feel method or
quantitatively measured in the lab by hydrometer or pipette method. Soil texture
includes only the fine earth fraction (< 2 mm, like sand, silt and clay).
The texture classes range from sand to clay and normally, sand particles feel
gritty and the grains can be seen with the naked eye. Silt cannot be seen with the
naked eye, but they have a smooth feel to the fingers both in dry and wet conditions.
Clayey soils exhibit sticky and plastic characteristics. Guidelines for the assessment
of soil texture in the field are indicated in the table.
53
Table 5.7 : Assessment of Soil Texture

Sr.
No.
Texture
Class
Feel
Coherence
of the bolus
at sticky
point
Ribbon
Length
[mm]
Other
features
Approx
clay %
Sand [s]
Very gritty
Nil
Nil
Single sand
grains adhere
to fingers
<5
Loamy sand
[ls]
Very gritty
Slight
Discolors
fingers with
an organic
stain
5-10
Sandy
Loam [sl]
Gritty
Just
coherent
15-25
Medium sand
readily visible
10-20
4.
Loam [l]
Neither
very gritty
nor very
smooth
Coherent
About
25
No obvious
sandiness
25
5.
Silt Loam
[sil]
Smooth or
buttery
Coherent
About
25
Silky; very
smooth when
manipulated
25
6.
Sandy Clay
Loam [scl]
Moderately
gritty
Strong
25-40
Medium sand
in fine matrix
20-30
7.
Clay
Loam [cl]
Slightly
Gritty
Strong
40-50
No obvious
sand grains
30-35
8.
Silty Clay
Loam [sicl]
Very
smooth
Coherent
40-50
Silky feeling
30-35
[>25% silt]
9.
Sandy Clay
[sc]
Sticky
Coherent
50-75
Fine to
medium
10.
Silty Clay
[sic]
Sticky
Coherent
50-75
Smooth and
Silky
35-40
[>25% Silt]
11.
Clay [c]
Sticky
Coherent
>75
Smooth with
slight to fair
resistance to
shearing
35-50
12.
Heavy Clay
[hc]
Very sticky
Coherent
>75
Firm
resistance to
shearing
>50
54
[>25% silt]
35-40
Modifiers used for describing soil texture

If the soil (fine earth) contains various rock fragments, their quantity and size
are recorded and used as a modifier in describing the texture of the soil.
Rock fragments
% by volume
Modifier used for texture description
< 15
No texture adjective is used (noun only; e.g. loam)
15 to < 35
Use adjective for appropriate size; e.g. gravelly
35 to < 60
Use very with the appropriate size adjective; e.g.

very gravelly
60 to < 90
Use extremely with the appropriate

adjective; e.g. extremely gravelly
> 90
size
No adjective or modifier, If the soil contains < 10

% fine earth, use the appropriate noun for the
dominant size class; e.g. gravel (used in lieu of
texture).
55
56
Clay Per cent in the Soil: Based on the feel method, it is possible to indicate
the approximate amount of clay present in the soil.
( i ) Structure
Soil Structure : The arrangement of primary soil particles into aggregates is
known as structure in soils. The individual structural unit is called as ped. Peds are
separated from each other by voids or natural surfaces of weakness. Clods and
fragments present in the soil are not considered as structural units, since they are not
influenced or formed from any soil forming processes. Soils lacking structure are
considered as structureless soils. Structureless soils, when pressed or under stress,
will break into soil fragments or single grains, or both. The structures of these soils
are described as single grain or massive.
The presence of structure in the soil is described based on the shape (type)
and grade (distinctness) of the units or peds observed.
Table 5.8 : Soil structure based on shape (type)

Platy
The units are flat and plate like and horizontally oriented
Prismatic
Vertically elongated units with flat tops, the individual units are
bounded by flat to rounded vertical faces.
Columnar
The units are similar to prisms and are bounded by flat or slightly
rounded vertical faces. The tops of columns are very distinct and
normally rounded.
Blocky
The units are block like or polyhedral. They are bounded by flat or
slightly rounded surfaces that are casts of the faces of the
surrounding surfaces. The structure is angular blocky if the faces
intersect at relatively sharp angles; subangular blocky if the faces
are a mixture of rounded and plane faces and the corners are
mostly rounded.
Granular
The units are approximately spherical or polyhedral and are

bounded by curved or very irregular faces that are not casts of
adjoining peds
57
Sizes : Based on the size, the structural units are described as very fine, fine,
medium, coarse, and very coarse. The size limits of the classes differ according to
the shape of the units. The size limits refer to the smallest dimension of plates,
prisms, and columns. In describing plates, thin is used instead of fine and thick
instead of coarse.
Table 5.9 : Soil Structure - Sizes
Size classes
Criteria: structural unit size1 (mm)
Symbol
Granular,
Platy2Prismatic,
columnar and wedge
Angular and
subangular blocky
Very fine
vf
<1
< 10
<5
Fine
1 to < 2
10 to < 20
5 to < 10
Medium
2 to < 5
20 to < 50
10 to < 20
Coarse
co
5 to < 10
50 to < 100
20 to , 50
Very coarse
vc
10
100 to < 500
50
Extr. coarse
500
Denotes always the smallest dimension of the structural units
For platy structure, substitute thin for fine and thick for coarse in the size class
names
Grades - Grades describe the degree of ped development in the soil. It is
distinguished in the field by the portion of the soil appearing as peds and by the
frequency and distinctiveness of natural surfaces that persist through wetting and
drying cycles. It is assessed by the ease with which the soil separates into peds and
their durability. It varies with soil-water state and normally determined at the water
state in which it normally occurs in the field. Three classes are used to describe the
grade.
Weak - The units are barely observable in place. When gently disturbed, the
soil material parts into a mixture of whole and broken units and most of the material
40 exhibit no planes of weakness. Differentiating structureless from weak structure is
sometimes difficult.
58
Moderate - The units are well formed and evident in undisturbed soil. When
disturbed, the soil material parts into a mixture of mostly whole units, some broken
units, and material that is not in units.
Strong - The units are distinct in undisturbed soil. They separate when the soil
is disturbed. When removed, the soil material separates mainly into whole units.
Peds have distinctive surface properties
Fig. 5.9 : Blocky irregular blocks that are usually 1.5 to 5.0 cm in diameter
Fig. 5.10 : Columnar - Vertical columns of soil that have a salt cap at the top,
found in arid climate
59
Fig. 5.11 : Prismatic Long vertical columns, usually found in lower horizons
Fig. 5.12 : Granular - Resembles cookie crumbs and is usually < 0.5 cm in
dia. Commonly found in surface horizons
Fig. 5.13 : Platy - Flat plates of soil that lie

horizontally. Usually found in compacted
soil
60
Fig. 5.14 : No structure, hard to break,

seen in large clods
( j ) Consistancy
Consistence : Soil consistence refers to the degree and kind of cohesion and
adhesion and/or the resistance of soil to deformation or rupture when stress is
applied. Every soil has this property, irrespective of their nature and moisture status.
In the field, consistence is evaluated based on the following parameters. resistance
of soil material to rupture, resistance to penetration, plasticity, toughness, and
stickiness of puddled soil material, and the manner in which the soil material behaves
when subject to compression.
Consistence is highly dependent on the soil-water state and the description
should specify the water state observed in the field. Consistence of the soil material
is observed for dry and moist soil in the field separately. Stickiness and plasticity are
estimated at the appropriate moisture content in the soil.
Table 5.10 : Consistency
Dry Class
Moist Class
Specimen fails under
Loose
Loose
Intact specimen not available
Soft
Very friable
Very slight force between fingers
Slightly hard
Friable
Slight force between fingers
Mod. hard
Firm
Moderate force between fingers
Hard
Very firm
Strong force between fingers
Very hard
Extremely firm
Moderate force between hands
Extremely hard
Slightly rigid
Foot pressure by full body weight
Rigid
Rigid
Cannot be failed underfoot by full body weight
Very rigid
Very rigid
Cannot be failed underfoot, but by blow of 2 kg

weight dropped from 15 cm above
Plasticity : Plasticity is the degree to which puddled soil material is

permanently deformed without rupturing by force applied continuously in any
direction. The determination is made on thoroughly puddled soil material at water
content where maximum plasticity is expressed. This water content is above the
61
plastic limit, but it is less than the water content at which maximum stickiness is
expressed. The water content is adjusted by adding water or removing it during hand
manipulation.
Table 5.11 : Plasticity Classes
Plasticity Class
Code
Description
Non-plastic
so
Will not form a 6 mm diameter roll, or if formed,

cannot support itself if held on end
Slightly plastic
sp
6 mm diameter roll supports itself, 4mm diameter

roll does not
Moderately plastic
mp
4 mm diameter roll supports itself, 2 mm diameter

roll does not
Very plastic
vp
2 mm diameter roll supports itself with its weight
Stickiness - refers to the capacity of a soil to adhere to other objects. The

determination is made on puddled < 2 mm soil material at the water content at which
the material is most sticky. The sample is crushed in the hand, water is applied while
manipulation is continued between thumb and forefinger until maximum stickiness is
reached.
Table 5.12 : Stickiness Classes
Code
Criteria-Description
Non-sticky
so
After release of pressure, practically no soil material

adheres to fingers
Slightly sticky
ss
Soil adheres to both fingers, after release of pressure.

Soil stretches little on separation of fingers.
Moderately Sticky
ms
Soil adheres to both fingers, after release of pressure.

Soil stretches some on separation of fingers.
Very Sticky
vs
Soil adheres firmly to both fingers, after release of

pressure. Soil stretches greatly on separation of
fingers.
Stickiness Class
62
( k ) Concretions
Nodules or Concretions (Size, Shape, Abundance)
Nodules are cemented bodies of various shapes (commonly spherical or
tubular) that can be removed as discrete units from soil. Crystal structure is not
discernible with l0X hand lens.
Concretions are cemented bodies similar to nodules, except for the presence
of visible concentric layers of material around a point line, or plane.
Cemented bodies of iron-manganese(Fe-Mn) oxides.
1) Size-Very fine, Fine, Medium, Coarse.
2) Quantity-Few, Common, Many.
( l ) Soil Reaction (Effervescence with HCL)
The gaseous response(seen as bubbles) of soil to applied HCL(carbonate test),
H2O2 (MnO2 test ), or other chemicals. Normally, cold dilute (about 1:10 dilution)
hydrochloric acid (HCL) is used to test the presence of carbonates in the field. The
amount and expression of effervescence is affected by size distribution and
mineralogy as well as the amount of carbonates present in the soil. Apply the
chemical to the soil matrix (Effervescence class refers only to the matrix, do not
inclue carbonate masses)and record the observed response.
Four classes of effervescence are used:
Very slightly effervescent :
few bubbles seen
Slightly effervescent
bubbles readily seen
Strongly effervescent
bubbles form low foam
Violently effervescent
thick foam forms quickly
( m ) Roots
Quantity size, and location of roots in each layer are to be recorded in the
proforma. Any other features like root length, nodulation, and and the relationships to
special soil attributes or to structure may be recorded as notes in the field book.
63
Describe the quantity(number) of roots for each size class in a horizontal

plane.But in the field, normally, this is done across a vertical plane.Record the
average quantity from 3 to 5 representative unit areas. The unit areas that is
evaluated varies with the Size Class of the roots being considered. The unit area for
different root size classes are : 1 sq.cm for very fine roots, 1 sq.dm (10 x 10 cm) for
medium and coarse roots,and 1 sq.m for very coarse roots.
Quantity
Table 5.13 : Roots - Quantity
Quantity Class
Code
Average Count (per assessed area)
Few
<1 per area
(Very Few
(<0.2 per area
Moderately few)
0.2 to 1 per area)
Common
1 to< 5 per area
Many
>5 per area
The very few and Moderately few sub-classes are optional and used only for
roots and not applied pores.
Size of Roots ( and Pores)
Table 5.14 : Roots - Size
Size Class
Symbol
Diameter
Soil area to be assessed
Very fine
Vf
<1 mm
1 sq.cm
Fine
1 to <2 mm
1 sq.cm
Medium
2 to <5 mm
1 sq.dm (10x10)
Coarse
5 to <10 mm
1 sq.dm
Very Coarse
Vc
>10 mm
1 sq.m
64
Location of roots : Identify where the roots occur, whether it is between

peds, in cracks, throughout,in mat at top of horizon, matted around rock fragments,
etc. The location of roots within a layer may be described in relation to other features.
In some soils, the pattern or root growth may not correspond to soil horizons or
layers; therefore, a summary statement of root development by increments of 15 cm
or 30 cm or some other convenient thickness is often helpful. In other soils, root
distribution may be summarized by grouping layers. For annual plants, the time of the
root observation may be indicated.
5.5.3 INFILTRATION TEST CARRIED OUT ON THE FIELD :
Infiltration refers to the process of downward entry of water in to the soil . This
is an important process because its rate often determines the amount of
accumulation or runoff over the soil surface during irrigation or precipitation.
The double-ring infiltrometer is often used for measuring infiltration rates. Ring
infiltrometer consist of a single metal cylinder that is driven partially into the soil. The
ring is filled with water, and the rate at which the water moves into the soil is
measured. This rate becomes constant when the saturated infiltration rate for the
particular soil has been reached.
There are two operational techniques used with the double-ring infiltrometer
for measuring the flow of water into the ground. In the constant head test, the water
level in the inner ring is maintained at a fixed level and the volume water used to
maintain this level is measured. In the falling head test, the time that the water level
takes to decrease in the inner ring is measured In both constant and falling head test
the water level in the outer ring is maintained at a constant level to prevent leakage
between rings and to force vertical infiltration from the inner ring.Numerical modeling
has shown that falling head and constant head methods give very similar results for
fine textured soils, but the falling head test underestimates infiltration rates for coarse
textured soils.
65
Test Procedure for Infiltration : ( Cylinder infiltrometer Method )

In this method, two cylinders, one of 30 cm dia. And the other og 60 cm dia.
are driven concentrically into the depth of about 10 cm. The inner cylinder is fixed
with a hook guage and scale to read the water levels. The least count of the scale is
normally one mm. The purpose of the outer cylinder is to restrict the lateral infiltration
of water from the inner cylinder. The arrangement is shown schematically in figure
given below. The cylinder are of mild steel with 2 mm thick walls and beveled edges
at the bottom. Other equipment is water container, a measuring flask, wooden plank
and hammer, plastic sheet, stop watch, etc. The detailed test procedure is described
below.
Procedure :
(a)
Level the ground on which test is to be taken and break clods. Clean the
surface.
(b)
Drive the inner cylinder in the ground to a depth of 10 cm by placing the

wooden plank on the cylinder and hammering gently on the plank.
(c)
Drive the outer cylinder concentrically to a depth of 10 cm similarly.
(d)
Fix the hook guage to the inner cylinder.
(e)
Place a plastic sheet in both the cylinder.
(f)
Pour water in the inner and outer cylinder to a depth of about 12 cm.
(g)
Note the initial reading on the hook guage when it just touches the water level.
(h)
Lower the guage to a depth of 1 to 2 cm depending upon the soil type.
(i)
Remove the plastic sheet instantaneously and start the stop watch. Care must
be taken to see that water does not spill out.
(j)
Note the time when the level reaches the hook guage and again lower the
hook guage by 1 to 2 cm.
(k)
Repeat step (j), till the depth in the cylinders is about 7 cm.
66
(l)
Immediately after taking the reading, add measured quantity of water in the
inner cylinder so that the level is again at the starting point. Adjust the guage
to this level and continue the measurements of time.
(m)
Repeat till the rate is almost constant.

Alternatively, only water levels at an interval of 20 seconds in the first 3
minutes are noted. Thereafter the water levels can be noted for every minute for the
next 10 minutes and thereafter for every 5 to 30 minutes depending upon the drop of
level. When the level drops below 6 cm, water is added to bring it to its initial level.
The first procedure is a fixed infiltration interval and the second is a fixed time interval
and both give similar results. The latter is easier during the initial stage when the
infiltration rate is high. The readings can be noted in the format given in tabular form.
Table 5.15 : Cylinder Infitration Test Data
Watch
Reading
Time
Infiltration
Rate of Infiltration Remarks
Differences Cumulative Gauge Difference Cumulative Rate of Average

in Minutes Time in Reading in cm.
Infiltration Infiltration Rate
Minutes
cm.
in cm.
cm/hr. Cm/hr.
1
Ratings :
Slow
Very Slow
Less than 0.05 inches per hour
Slow
0.05 to 0.20 inches per hour
Moderately Slow
Moderate
Moderately Rapid
2.5 to 5 inches per hour
Rapid
5 to 10 inches per hour
Very Rapid
over 10 inches per hour
Moderate
Rapid
67
Diagnostic Horizons
This column is to be filled after thorough examination of the soil profile. Identify
the type of the diagnostic horizon present in the soil and their upper and lower
boundaries. Important diagnostic horizons are indicated below.
Diagnostic surface horizons (Epipedons)
Anthropic
This is formed due to the influence of humans.
Histic
Consists of organic soil material
Mollic
Thick, dark coloured, humus rich horizon with good structure and
porosity and normally formed from grass vegetation
Ochric
They do not have any specific characteristics to place in a particular

diagnostic horizon
Plaggen
Human-made 50 cm or more thick that has been produced by longcontinued manuring
Umbric
It resembles to that of mollic, but mostly formed under forest

vegetation and have low fertility status than the mollic epipedon
Diagnostic subsurface horizons

Agric
Illuvial horizon formed under cultivation and contains significant

amounts of illuvial silt, clay and humus.
Argillic
It has significantly higher amount of illuvial clay, which can be

observed by the presence of clay coatings or cutans or bridges.
Calcic
Formed due to the illuvial accumulation of secondary CaCO3 (15 per

cent calcium carbonate equivalent).
Cambic
Altered horizon (of 15 cm or more thick) formed due to the alteration

of texture, structure, or change in colour.
Duripan
Silica cemented subsurface horizon
Gypsic
Secondary gypsum accumulated horizon (15 cm thick, not cemented

or indurated, 5 % or more gypsum)
68
Kandic
Dominated by low activity clays, occurs in highly weathered soils
Natric
It has all the characteristics of argillic horizon and, in addition, has

sodium accumulation (ESP >15 %) with columnar or prismatic
structure.
Petrocalcic
Horizon with illuvial secondary calcium carbonate or other carbonates,

cemented or indurated by carbonates without silica
Salic
Horizon of salt accumulation that are more soluble than gypsum EC of

>30 dS/m
3) Study of sub soil water level and quality

During course of soil survey, all the wells in the command are observed for
ascertaining ground water status and quality of ground water.
Technique : Usually water levels in wells are observed during the month of
November to February. Water level in wells are measured from ground level. Site an
well characteristics, pumping devices are noted in well observation book. Well water
samples are collected in polythene bottles and sent to laboratory for determining
quality of ground water.
Record : Well observation Book. ( As per Format given below )
Material : Measuring tape, Base map, Water sample bottles.
69
WELL OBSERVATION DATA
Soil Survey Division.
Project.
Soil Survey Sub Division..
Sub Catchment No.
Village
Date of
Tharola to water level
Observation
Sy. No.
Tharola
Diameter.
Ground level to water level
height
Total depth
Crops
from tharola irrigated and

area
Other Information:
(1) Engine / Motor
(2) H. P. of engine
(3) Conductivity
(4) pH
(5) Strata at ground level
(6) Lower strata
(7) Remarks
70
Sign.
Description of well and recording of observation data:Soil survey division
Write the name of division
Soil survey sub Division
Write the name of Sub-division
Project
Write the name of project.
Village
Write name of village.
Sub catchment no.
Write down the sub-catchment no. where it is

being observed.
Sy.No.
Write the survey No Where well is being observed
Diameter
Measure the diameter of well by measuring tape

and note it.
Date of observation
Write downd the date of well obsevation.
Tharola to water level
A.. B..
Tharola height
Measure the height of tharola and note it.
Ground to water level
A.. B
Other information
Note down additional information if any.
Engine / Motor
Note down weather engine or motor is fixed for

pumping water from well.
H. P. of engine
Note down the horse power of motor / engine.
Conductivity
Measure the Ec of water.
pH
Measure the pH of water with the help of pH

paper or portable pH meter.
Strata at ground level
Note down the strata while observing the well.
Lower strata
Note down the lower strata which type of rock

is present.
Remarks
After observing the well write your opinion.
71
4)
Nala Survey :
All the major nalas in the command of medium and major projects,
intersecting canal and river are surveyed.

Technique : Levels are taken at every 100 m. and strata of bank is also
noted at every 100 m. to determine the drainage characteristics of nalas. During
the course of chaining rock outcrops in bed are also noted. After completing the
survey L- sections are plotted to give a clear picture of gradient and allied
drainage characteristics of nala.
Record : Field book, L- section.
Material : Chain, Dumpy level, stave, arrows, measuring tape, base map.
Sample Collection : water sample from flowing nalas and main river are
collected and sent to laboratory for determining quality of surface water.
5)
Phase level mapping

A traverse is made through' the command to note the surface texture of
soils, depths, slopes, erosion, etc. and are marked on the map.
Natural drainage conditions are studies by surveying major transverse nalas,
indicating the locations of rock out crops in the beds and sides.
6)
Laboratory Work
Testing of water and soil samples is necessary to know their properties as
also to predict the behaviour of soil under irrigation. Water samples are tested for
pH and electrical conductivity to know the proportion of salts present. For saline
water sodium absorbtion ratio is also determined to note the suitability of water for
irrigation. On soil, tests carried out are of two types (I) Chemical (II) Physical.
72
I. Chemical Tests
II. Physical tests
1)
pH & EC of soil sample
1)
Mechanical Analysis
2)
Free Lime
2)
Saturation
3)
Organic Carbon
3)
Hydraulic Conductivity
4)
Calcium & Magnesium
4)
Moisture %
5)
Available Sodium
6)
pH & EC by extract method
7)
Available Phosphorous
7)
Collection of other data

Five years information of existing crops in the command is collected from
Revenue record to- know the cropping in the area. This information is available
village-wise, which is compiled for each sub catchment.Information of crops
irrigated on wells to know the cultivators preference under irrigation, is collected
and compiled sub catchment wise.Rainfall, temperature and other climatological
information is collected from the nearest stations to the command.infrastructural
details such as 'existing rail, roads, marketing facilities, etc. available in the
command are collected.
References
1)
Soil Survey manual - All India Soil and Land use Survey Organisation,
I.A.R.I., New Delhi (1970)
2)
Improved Utilization of Soil Survey under Maharashtra Irrigation

Technology & Management (MIT & M - USAID) (Dec. 1987)
73
CHAPTER - 6
SOIL SAMPLE ANALYSIS
6.1
Collection of samples for examination in laboratory.
During the course of Detailed & Reconnaissance soil survey the

representative soil samples are collected from every fourth auger bore, as well as
from first three pits near the river are also collected on alternate cross section.
The samples collected from respective auger pit and open pits is taken about 1
Kg. in a soil sample bag as per depth interval (0-20), (20-40), (40-80), (80-120),
(120-160), (160-200) and (200-250)cm. or upto hard strata if met first for auger pit
and as per sample of each horizon observed . The details of sample such as
name of village, survey no. pit no. cross section no. and depth should be clearly
mentioned on the soil sample bags so as to convinent to handle the sample for
laboratory characterisation.
The samples are further transported to laboratory for carryingout various
test i.e. pH, Ec, M.A, % free lime, % saturation and chemical analysis. pH & Ec
test is to be conducted for all the samples collected from auger pit as well as open
pits. Mechanical analysis, % saturation, % free lime, on selected samples i.e. (2040), (80-120), and (200-250)cm. ). All of the above test are conducted on all
samples collected from open pit as per horizonwise. Chemical analysis of these
samples are done on requirement.selected samples as per serieswise if required..
(I) Chemical Test
(II) Physical Test
1) pH & EC of soil sample
1) Mechanical Analysis
2) Free Lime
2) Saturation
3) Organic Carbon
3) Hydraulic Conductivity
4) Calcium & Magnesium
4) Moisture %
5) Available Sodium
6) pH & EC by extract method
7) Available Phosphorous
74
6.2 PHYSICAL TESTS

6.2.1 DETERMINATION OF SOIL TEXTURE INTERNATIONAL PIPETTE
METHOD (MECHANICAL ANALYSIS) :
The size limits for different fractions according to International system of
classification is as follows (ISSS)
a)
Gravel
Greater than 2 mm diameter
b)
Coarse Sand
2.0 to 0.2 mm diameter
c)
Fine Sand
d)
Silt
e)
Clay
Less than 0.002 mm
Plate 6.1 : Mechanical Analysis Set up
75
6.2.2 DETERMINATION OF SATURATION MOISTURE PERCENTAGE :

Purpose :
The determination of water holding capacity in soils is important as it gives
an idea of the capacity of soil to hold water for the use by crops. The light soils
which do not hold such water require more frequent irrigations than heavy clay
soils, well decomposed organic matter increases the water holding capacity.
Exchangeable sodium and type of clay mineral also have a marked effect on
water holding capacity.
Plate 6.2 : Saturation Moisture Percentage Set up

Water holding capacity of soils is useful for selection of soils for irrigability
classification. It also helps for comparing other properties of soils.
76
6.2.3 DETERMINATION OF BULK DENSITY (CORE METHOD & CLOD METHOD)

Purpose : The bulk density varies indirectly with total pore space present
in the soil and gives a good estimate of porosity of soil. Bulk density is great
importance than particle density in understanding the physical condition of soil.
Soil bulk density is defined as the ratio of the mass of the oven dry soil to its
bulk volume.
Ratings :
Textural Class
Bulk Density
Pore Space (%)
Sandy Soil
1.6
40
Loam
1.4
47
Silt Loam
1.3
50
Clay
1.1
58
6.2.4 DETERMINATION OF HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY OF SOIL

Purpose :
The saturated hydraulic conductivity is a measure of readiness with which a
saturated soil transmits water through its body and is expressed as length per unit
time. Hydraulic conductivity is of a considerable importance for irrigation, drainage
and evaporation studies. It depends upon properties of water / fluid and on the
porosity, pore size distribution and continuity of soil pores. It is generally assumed
to be a constant physical property of a soil for any given positioning the field at
any given time varying only with respect to water content or water potential. Since
viscosity and density of water passing through the soil affect the hydraulic
conductivity, this soil property varies for different quality of waters. The hydraulic
conductivity of soils varies from 0.001 cm./hr in fine clay to over 25.0 cm./hr. on
coarse sand.
There are several methods for determining the saturated hydraulic
conductivity in the laboratory and in the field. In principle, the hydraulic
conductivity of soil is calculated from Darcys law after measuring the soil water
flux and hydraulic gradient.
77
There are several methods for determining the saturated hydraulic

conductivity in the laboratory and in the field. In principle, the hydraulic
conductivity of soil is calculated from Darcys law after measuring the soil water
flux and hydraulic gradient.
Hydraulic conductivity ratings :
Rating
Ks (cm./hr)
Very slow
< 0.125
Slow
0.125 0.50
Moderately slow
0.50 2.0
Moderate
2.0 6.25
Moderately rapid
6.25 12.5
Rapid
12.5 25.0
Very rapid
> 25.0
78
Plate 6.3 : Hydraulic Conductivity Set up

6.2.5 DETERMINATION OF SOIL MOISTURE CONTENT
(GRAVIMETRIC METHOD) :
Purpose :
There are numerous methods available for the determination of soil water
content. These methods can be divided into two categories i.e. the direct and
indirect methods.
In direct method, the amount of water present in a given soil is directly
determined whereas in indirect methods, a soil property or some reaction products
relating to soil water content is determined. In other words, a calibration curve
indicating the relation of the soil properties and soil water content is first prepared
and then used for the estimation of water content.
6.3
CHEMICAL TESTS
6.3.1 SOIL REACTION (pH) :

Purpose :
The determination of pH in soil is important as it plays a great role in
availability of nutrients to plants. This determination can be done more accurately
in the laboratory by electrometric method.
Plate 6.4 : Measurement of pH

79
pH determination is useful for soil classification on the basis of acidity or

alkalinity.
Ratings :
<4
Extremely Acidic
4 to 5
Strongly Acidic
5 to 6
Moderately Acidic
6 to 6.5
Slightly Acidic
6.5 to 7.5
Neutral
7.5 to 8
Slightly Alkaline
8 to 9
Moderately Alkaline
9 to 10
Strongly Alkaline
> 10
Extremely Alkaline
6.3.2Measurement of Electrical Conductivity (EC) in Soil

Purpose :
Saline soils are classified on the basis of two criteria, one is on the basis of
TSS content and another is ESP or more recently SAR. Ions in water conduct
electrical current, therefore electrical conductivity is fast, simple method of
estimating amount of TSS in soil sample. Electrical conductivity is expressed in
dS/m.
Ratings :
EC dS/m
0 to 1
Good soil
1 to2
Poor seed emergence
2 to 4
Harmful to some crops, e.g. Pulses.
Above 4
Harmful to most of crops.
6.3.3 DETERMINATION OF ORGANIC CARBON IN SOIL

Purpose :
Besides its value as a source of plant nutrients, organic matter has a
favourable effect upon soil physical properties. Organic matter also contains the
informable effective of exchangeable sodium on soils. The determination of
80
organic carbon in soil serves indirectly as measure of available nitrogen. The

organic matter content of a typically well drained mineral soil is low varying from 1
to 6% by weight in the top soil and even less in the subsoil. The influence of OM
on soil properties and consequently on plant growth is far greater even though the
percentage of OM is less in the soil.
Plate 6.5 : Determination of Organic Carbon

Ratings :
% Organic carbon
Less than 0.20
Very low
0.21 to 0.40
Low
0.41 to 0.60
Moderate
0.61 to 0.80
Moderately high
0.81 to 1.0
High
More than 1.0
Very high
81
6.3.4 DETERMINATION OF CALCIUM CARBONATE (FREE LIME)

IN SOIL (ACID NEUTRALISATION METHOD) :
Purpose :
Alkaline earth carbonates that occur in significant amounts in soils consist
of calcite, dolomite and possibly magnesite and occur commonly in the silt size
fraction. These influence the texture of the soil when present in appreciable
amounts. These are important constituents of alkali soils, they constitute a
potential source of calcium and magnesium. Lime aids in preserving soil structure
and may serve as a source of calcium in the reclamation of alkali soil.
Zonal soils of arid regions usually contains accumulation of lime at some
point in the profile. Calcareous soil contains an accumulation of calcium and
magnesium carbonated in varying proportions throughout the soil profile.
In calcareous soils if CaCO3 is present in problematic amount, improvement
may be done by drainage of subsoil for breaking the hard pan formed due to
CaCO3 accumulation at lower depth and leaching. Acid forming substances like S,
FeSO4, Al2(SO4) 3 may also used followed by leaching.
Ratings :
% CaCO3
1)
Less than 1
Low
2)
15
Medium
3)
5 10
High
4)
10 15
Very high
82
6.3.5 DETERMINATION OF NITROGEN

ALKALINE PERMANGNATE METHOD
Purpose :
Soil nitrogen occurs largely in the organic form (97-99%). The availability of
N is associated with the activity of micro-organisms which develops the organic
matter (NH4-N and NO3-N). The nitrification rate of a soil is measure of the rate of
release of available nitrogen from the organic matter in the soil.
A discrete fraction of the soil organic nitrogen is attacked by KMnO4 and
that this fraction was most readily susceptible to biological mineralization. This
forms the basis for determination of available nitrogen by alkaline permanganate
method (Subbiah and Asija, 1856).
Ratings :
Nitrogen
Kg/ha
1)
Very low
< 140
2)
Low
140 280
3)
Medium
281 420
4)
Moderately High
421 560
5)
High
562 700
6)
Very High
> 701
83
6.3.6 DETERMINATION OF PHOPHOROUS IN SOIL :

(OLSENS METHOD)
Purpose :
Next to nitrogen, phosphorous is most critical essential element in
influencing plant growth & production throughout the world. Among the more
significant functions & qualities of plants on which phosphorous has an important
effect are
1)
Photosynthesis
2)
Nitrogen fixation
3)
Crop maturation flowering and fruiting including seed formation
4)
Root development
5)
Protein synthesis
Thus, it is essential to calculate the available phosphorous present in the
soil.It is determined by Olsens Method.

Rating
Phosphorous (kg/ha)
1)
Very low
<7
2)
Low
7 13
3)
Medium
13 22
4)
Moderately high
22 28
5)
High
28 35
6)
Very high
> 35
84
6.3.7 DETERMINATION OF POTASSIUM ON FLAME PHOTOMETER :

Purpose :
Next to nitrogen and phosphorous, potassium is the most critical essential
element in influencing plant growth and production throughout the world.
Potassium plays essential role in plants. It is an activator for dozens of enzymes
responsible for plant process. Potassium is essential for photosynthesis, for
protein synthesis, for starch formation and for translocation of sugars. Also it
exerts a balancing effect on the effects of both nitrogen and phosphorous.
Thus, it is essential to calculate the available potassium present in soil.
Purpose of potassium determination is to determine available potassium content
in given soil.
Ratings :
K kg/ha
Very low
Less than 120
Low
121 180
Moderate
181 240
Moderately high
241 300
High
301 360
Very high
Above 360
85
6.3.8 DETERMINATION OF SODIUM ON FLAME PHOTOMETER :

Purpose :
Sodium affects the permeability of soil by causing swelling and dispersion of
clay particles and clogging the soil pores. It may also the cause injury to crops
specifically sensitive to sodium such as fruit crops. An alkali soil also called sodic
soil contain sufficient exchangeable sodium to cause soil dispersion and increase
the pH thereby adversely affecting both the physical and nutritional properties of
the soil with consequent reduction in crop growth significantly or entire.
Rating :
6)
Name of Soil
Sodium Adsorption Ratio

(SAR)
Exchangeable Sodium
Percentage (ESP)
Saline Soils
< 13
< 15
Alkali or Sodic Soils
> 13
> 15
Saline Alkali Soils
> 13
> 15
Degraded Alkali Soils
> 13
> 15
Salinity & Alkalinity Appraisal
Type of Soil
Ph
ECe dS/m
ESP %
Saline
<8.5
>4
<15
Saline Alkali
>8.5
>4
>15
Alkali
>8.5
<4
>15
86
6.3.9 DETERMINATION OF CALCIUM AND MAGNESIUM :

(E.D.T.A. TITRIMETRY METHOD)
Purpose :
Calcium and Magnesium ions serve as plant nutrients in cation exchange
capacity of soils calcium and magnesium forms the predominant exchangeable
base, constituting 60 to 80% of total exchangeable cations.
Calcium clay and magnesium clay possesses excellent physical conditions.
It develops good crumb structure by virtue of the flocculation and aggrigation of
primary particles allow free movement of water without stagnation and contains
sufficient air for the proper aeration of plant roots. Such a soil is highly productive
it it supplies necessary plant nutrients.
6.3.10 DETERMINATION OF CATION EXCHANGE CAPACITY
IN SOIL (AMMONIUM SATURATION METHOD)
Purpose :
The CEC is the capacity of soil to hold and exchangeable cations. The
higher the CEC of soil, the more cations it can retain. Soil differ in their capacities
to hold exchangeable K+ and other cations. The cations exchange capacity
depends on amount and kind of clay and OM present. High clay soil can hold
more exchangeable cations than a low clay soils. CEC also increases as organic
matter increases. Clay mineral usually range from 10 to 150 meq./100g. In CEC
values organic matter ranges from 200 to 400 meq/100g. So the kind and amount
of clay an organic matter content greatly influence the CEC of soil. Cation
exchange is an important reaction
Result
Low
Medium
High
Very high
CEC meq/100g or
Cmole [p+] Kg
Less than 10
10-25
25-45
More than 45
87
6.4
WATER SAMPLE ANALYSIS
6.4.1 DETERMINATION OF pH IN WATER

Based on pH values, neutral water can be divided into 3 classes
1) Those, which contain carbonates, with or without bicarbonates, do not
have free carbonic acids. The pH value of these waters are always above 8.0.
2) Those, which contain no carbonates but contain bicarbonates and
carbonic acid, the pH values of these waters range from 4.5 to 8.0. Most of neutral
waters fall under this category. The pH value of neutral water usually lie between
6.5 and 7.5.
3) Those which contain free acid in addition to carbonic acid, do not contain
carbonates or bicarbonates. The pH value of these water is 4.5 or below 4.5.
6.4.2 DETERMINATION OF ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY (EC) :
Depending on ECw values, irrigation waters are classified in following
classes
Class
Low salinity
C1
Medium salinity
C2
High Salinity
C3
Very High
Salinity C4
ECw dS/m
< 0.25
0.25 0.75
0.75 2.25
> 2.25
6.4.3 Determination of carbonates and Bicarbonates:

6.4.4 DETERMINATION OF CALCIUM AND MAGNESIUM
(EDTA TITRIMETRY METHOD) :
88
6.4.5 DETERMINATION OF SODIUM ON FLAME PHOTOMETER :

1)
Quality of irrigation water as judged by RSC is as Under
Class
RSC meq/lit
< 1.25
1.25-2.5
>2.5
Interpretation
Safe
Marginal
Unsuitable
6.4.6 DETERMINATION OF CHLORIDE

6.4.7 DETERMINATION OF SULPHATE ON
SPECTROPHOTOMETRY : (CHESNIN & YIEN)
Reference : Laboratory testing procedure for soil & water sample analysis
Document No: SSD/GL/01
89
CHAPTER - 7
SOIL TAXONOMY
Taxonomy is that part of classification that is concerned primarily with
relationship and is the systematic distinguishing, ordering and naming of type
groups within a subject field. Soil classification includes not only soil taxonomy,
but also other information, from basic soil taxonomy, many classifications may be
made to suit specific purpose, such as irrigation, soil management, land capability
classification etc.
The characteristic of diagnostic soil horizons, both surface and subsurface,
a number of soil properties, soil moisture regimes and soil temperature regimes as
given below are used to define soil taxa.
7.1
DIAGNOSTIC CHARACTERISTICS :
(a)
Soil profile / Pedon.
(b)
Diagnostic horizons / EpiPedon.
(c)
Surface Horizons:eg.
(d)
1) Molic
2) Anthorpic
3) Umbric
4) Histic
5) Plaggen
6) Ochric etc.
Diagnostic subsurface horizons.

eg.
1) Argillic
2) Agric
3) Natric
4) Spodic
5) Cambic
6) Oxic
7) Duripan
8) Fragipan
9) Albic
10) Calcic
11) Gypsic
12) Salic etc.
90
7.2
DIAGNOSTIC FEATURES :
(a)
Soil Moisture Regimes

1) Aquic
2) Aridic and torric
3) Udic
4) Ustic
5) Xeric
(b)
Soil Temperature Regimes :

1) Cryic
2) Frigid
3) Mesic
4) Thermic
5) Hyperthermic
6) Isofrigid
7) Isothermic
8) Isomesic
9) Isohyperthermic
7.3
Categories of the System
The grouping of soils is form highest category to lowest category using a number
of differentiating characteristics i.e.
Order
Suborder
Great group
Sub group
Family
Series
91
7.4
Order :
Classes at the order level are separated on the basis of properties resulting
from the major processes and pathways of soil formation neither the genetic
processes nor the courses of development are precisely known but the accepted
concepts have influenced the selection of soil properties that are used to
recognize and define the twelve classes currently considered.
Many of the features are thought to have taken a reasonably along time to
develop are stable in a pedological sense, and are mainly static historical.
7.4.1 Suborder :
Classes at the suborder level are separated within each order on the basis
of soil properties that are major controls, or reflect such controls on the current set
of soil forming processes.
Most of the properties selected are dynamic such as soil moisture regime or
cold soil temperatures other properties related to materials or processes that
retard horizon development such as sand or alluvial sedimentation.
7.4.2 Great group :
Classes at the great group level are differentiated within each suborder on
the basis of properties that constitute subordinate or additional controls or reflect
such controls on the current set of soil forming processes. The properties selected
are generally static, such as layers that retard percolation of water or root
extension, but some are dynamic, such as the moisture regime where it was not a
criterion at the suborder level.
7.4.3 Subgroup :
Classes at the subgroup level are differentiated within each great group on
the basis of properties resulting from either (1) a blending or overlapping of sets of
processes in space or time that cause one kind of soil to develop from, or toward
another kind of soil that has been recognized at the great group, sub order or
order level. (2) sets of processes or conditions that have not been recognized as
criteria for any class at a higher level.
92
A third kind of subgroup fits neither (1) or (2) but is considered to typify the
central concept of the great group.
7.4.4 Family :
Classes at the family level are separated with the sub group on the basis of
properties that reflect important conditions affecting behavior or the potential for
further change. Partical size, mineralogy and soil depth are mainly capacity
factors, where soil temperature and exchange activity are mainly intensity factors.
7.4.5 Series :
Soil series is the lowest category in soil Taxonomy. It is considered as the
most important category in the system as it is the fundamental unit of soil
classification as well as the basic unit for most soil mapping projects. Soil series
have been defined on the basis of kind and arrangement of horizons ( colour,
texture, structure, consistence, reaction, and other chemical and mineralogical
properties of the horizons ) as: A group of soils having soil horizons, similar in
differentiating characteristics and arrangements within the series control section,
except for the features of the surface soil, and have developed under comparable
climatic environments.
The series are named after the geographic name of the place where it was
first recognized or where they have wide extent of distribution.
Classes at the series level are separated within the family on the basis of
properties that reflect relatively narrow ranges of soil forming factors and
processes that transform parent materials into soils. Some properties are
indicative of parent materials such as coarse fragments, sand or silt content, color
and horizon thickness or expression. Others reflect influences on processes such
as differences in intensity or amount of precipitation and depth to the presence or
concentration of soluble compounds.
NBSS& LUP established about 150 soil series in Maharashtra State. Soil
series of Maharashtra,NBSS& LUP Publication could be reffered for series
determination. The parameters / characters of typifying pedon are matched with
established series by NBSS & LUP and firm decision can be made.
93
7.5
Soil orders :
The twelve orders currently considered,
(1) Alfisols
(2) Andisols
(3) Aridisols
(4) Entisols
(5) Gelisols
(6) Histosols
(7) Inceptisols
(8) Mollisols
(9)
Oxisols
(10) Spodosols
(11) Ultisols
(12) Vertisols
7.6
Soil orders found in Maharashtra state :-
7.6.1 Alfisols :
The central concept of alfisols is that of soils that have an ochric epipedon,
an argillic horizon and moderate to high base saturation and in which water is held
at less than 1500 kpa tension during at least 3 months each year. When the soils
are warm enough for plants to grow. Alfisols may also have a fragipan, a duripan,
a kandic horizon, a natric horizon, a petrocalcic horizon, plinthite, or other
features, and these features are used in defining the great groups within the orde
A very few alfisols that are very wet during part of the year have an umbric
epipedon. Alfisols that have a thermic or warmer soil temperature regime tend to
form a belt between the aridisols of arid regions and the inceptisols, ultisols and
oxisols in areas of warm humid climates. Where the soil temperature regime is
mesic or cooler, the alfisols in the united states tend to form a belt between the
mollisols of the grass lands and the spodosols and inceptisols in areas of very
humid climates.
94
In regions of mesic and frigid soil temperature regimes, alfisols are mostly
on late pleistocene deposits or surfaces. In warmer regions, they are on late
Pleistocene or older surfaces if there are only infrequent years when the soils lose
bases by leaching or if there is an external source or bases such as calcareous
dust from a desert.
Most alfisols have an udic, ustic, or xeric moisture regime, and many have
aquic conditions. Alfisols are not known to have a perudic moisture regime.
Leaching of bases from the soils may occur almost every year or may be
infrequent.
Based on soil moisture and temperature regimes Alfisols have been sub
diviede into five sub order,
(1) Aqualfs
(2) Cryalfs
(3) Ustalfs
(4) Xeralfs
(5) Udalfs
7.6.2 Entisols :
The central concept of entisols is that of soils that have little or no evidence
of the development of pedogenic horizons. Most entisols have no diagnostic
horizons other than an ocric epipedon very few have an anthorpic epipedon. A few
that have a sandy or sandy-skeleted particle size class have a horizon that would
be a combic horizon where it not for the particle size class exclusion. Very few
entisols have an albic horizon. In coastal marshes some entisols that have sulfidic
materials within 50 cm. of the mineral soil surface have a histic epipedon.
On many landscapes the soil material is not in place long enough for
pedogenic processes to form distinctive horizons. Some of theses soils are on
steep, actively eroding slopes, and others are on flood plains or glacial outwash
plains that receive new deposits of alluvium at frequent intervals. Some entisols
are old enough to have formed diagnostic horizons, but they consist mostly of
quartz or other minerals that are resistant to the weathering needed to form
diagnostic horizons.Buried diagnostic horizons are permitted in entisols if they
meet the requirements for buried soil.
95
Entisols may have any mineral parent material, vegetation, age, or

moisture regime and any temperature regime, but they do not have permafrost.
The only features common to all soils of the order are the virtual absence of
diagnostic horizons and the mineral nature of the soils.
Based on the fluvial nature, extreme texture and remnants of old artifact,
soil moisture and temperature regimes, entisols have been sub divided into the
following five sub orders showing two syllables: first is characteristics of suborder
and the second of order name.
(1) Aquents
(2) Fluvents
(3) Psamments
(4) Arrents
(5) Orthents
7.6.3 Inceptisols :
The central concept of inceptisols is that of soils that are of cool to very
warm, humid and subhumid regions and that have a cambic horizon and an ochric
epipedon. The order of Inceptisols includes a wide variety of soils. In some areas
Inceptisols are soils with minimal development, while in other areas they are soils
with diagnostic horizons that merely fail the criteria of the other soil orders.
Inceptisols have many kinds of diagnostic horizons and epipedon. They
can have an anthorpic, histic, mollic, ochric, plaggen, or umbric epipedon. Only a
very few Inceptisols, however, have a mollic epipedon. The mollic epipedon is
restricted to soils with low base saturation below the epipedon. The most common
diagnostic horizons are ochric and umbric epipedons, a cambic horizon and a
fragipan. The most common horizon sequence is an ochric epipedon over a
cambic horizon, with or without an underlying fragipan, some Inceptisols have an
umbric epipedon overlying a cambic horizon,with or without an underlying duripan
or fragipan. A calcic or petrocalcic horizon or a duripan is common in sub humid
areas. All soils that have a plaggen epipedon are inceptisols, and any soil
underlying the plaggen epipedon is considered to be buried.
96
These soils range from very poorly drained to excessively drained if the
epipedon is ochric or anthorpic, a diagnostic sub surfaces horizon or high
exchangeable sodium also is required. Inceptisols typically have a cambic
horizon, but one is not required it the soil has a mollic, umbric, histic, or plaggen
epipedon or if there is a fragipan or duripan or any placic, calcic, petrocalcic,
gypsic, petrogypsic, salic, or sulfuric horizon. Inceptisols can not have an argillic,
kandic, or natric horizon unless it is buried. An oxic horizon is permitted only if the
upper boundry is deeper than 150 cm. A spodic horizon is permitted only if it is
less than 10 cm thick or if the upper boundry is deeper than 50 cm below the
mineral soil surface and none of the overlying layers have a sandy- skeletal
partical size class.
Inceptisols commonly occur on landscapes that are relatively active, such
as mountain
slopes, where erosional processes are actively
exposing
unweathered materials and river valleys, where relatively unweathered sediments

are beaing deposited.
Based on the criteria of wetness, temperatiure and moisture regime and the
presence of diagnostic epiepdon viz. anthorpic or plaggen.
Inceptisols have been subdivided into six sub order,
(1) Aquepts
(2) Anthrepts
(3) Cryepts
(4) Ustepts
(5) Xerepts
(6) Udepts
7.6.4 Mollisols :
Mollisols commonly are the very dark coloured, base-rich, mineral soils of
the steppes. Nearly all of these soils have a mollic epipedon. Many also have an
argillic, natric, or calcic horizon.
97
A few have an albic horizon some also have a duripan or a petrocalcic

horizon.
Many of these soils developed under grass at some time, although many
apprently were forested at an earlier time. Some of the soils that are in the
mountains or that were derived highly calcareous parent materil apparently
formed under Forest vegetation. Mollisols can have any moisture regime, but
enough available moisture to support perennial grasses seems to be essential.
Based largerly on moisture and temperature regimes, mollisols have been
sub divided into seven sub orders.
(1) Albolls
(2) Aquolls
(3) Rendolls
(4) Cryolls
(5) Xerolls
(6) Ustolls
(7) Udolls
7.6.5 Vertisols :
The central concept of vertisols is that of clayey soils that have deep, wide
cracks for sometime during the year and have slickensides within 100 cm of the
mineral soil surface. They shrink when dry and swell when moistened.
The shrink-swell phenomenon, which is responsible for the genesis and
behavior of vertisols, is a complex, dynamic, but incompletely understood set of
processes. Expressions of this phenomenon are linear and normal gilgai, cyclic
horizons, surface cracking upon desiccation, and the formation of slickensides of
these properties, cracks when the soils aredry and slickensides are the unifying
morphogenetic markers in all vertisols. Although the process of shrinking and
swelling is important in vertisols, it does not preclude the formation of diagnostic
horizons and features. For example, vertisols can have calcic, gypsic, or salic
horizons. Taxa have been developed to accommodate these diagnostic horizons
and features.
98
Based primarily on the soil moisture and temperature regime and the
period the cracks remain close or open, the vertisol have been sub divided into six
suborders
(1) Aquerts
(2) Cryerts
(3) Xererts
(4) Torrerts
(5) Usterts
(6) Uderts
7.7
CATEGORIES FOUND IN MAHRASHTRA:
7.7.1 Order :
All the above five orders found in Maharashtra.
7.7.2 Sub order :
(1)
Ustalfs
(2)
Ustolls
(3)
Fluvents
(4)
Orthents
(5)
Aquepts
(6)
Ustepts
(7)
Usterts
7.7.3 Great Groups :

(1)
Rhodustalfs
(2)
Haplustalfs
(3)
Haplustolls
(4)
Ustifluvents
(5)
Ustorthents
(6)
Halaquepts
99
(7)
Haplustepts
(8)
Haplusterts
7.7.4 Sub Groups :

(1)
Lithic Rhodustalfs
(2)
Udic Rhodustalfs
(3)
Udic Haplustalfs
(4)
Ultic Haplustalfs
(5)
Typic Rhodustalfs
(6)
Typic Haplustalfs
(7)
Typic Haplustolls
(8)
Typic Ustifluvents
(9)
Lithic Ustorthents
(10)
Typic Ustorthents
(11)
Vertic Halaquepts
(12)
Typic Haplustepts
(13)
Vertic Haplustepts
(14)
Lithic Haplustepts
(15)
Fluventic Haplustepts
(16)
Typic Haplusterts
(17)
Udic Haplusterts
(18)
Chromic Haplusterts
Family : Soils of Maharashtra are classified in about 95 families.

Series : Soils of Maharashtra are classified in about 150 series. To find the
locations of soil categories of soils found in Maharashtra, standard soil series map
is prescribed by NBSS& LUP which is to be kept in the office of Dy. SSO for detail
reference.
100
References :
(1)
Bhattacharyya T. et al. (2009) , Soil Taxonomic Database of India and the

states,Technical Bulletein , NBSS & LUP Publ. 143 , Nagpur.
(2)
Biswas, T.D.,Mukharjee, S.K., (1994) Text book of soil science, Tata

McGraw-Hill Publishing Co.Ltd, New Delhi
(3)
Challa , O. , K.S. Gajbhiye and M. Velayutham , (1999 ), Soil Series of

Maharashtra ,NBSS Publ. No. 79,NBSS & LUP , Nagpur.
(4)
Malcolm E. Sumnar, (1999 ) Handbook of Soil Science .
(5)
Sehgal, J. , (1986 ) ,Introductory Pedology , Textbook , Kalyani Publ. , New

Delhi Ludhiana .
(6)
Sehgal J. , (1992) , Soil Series Criteria and Norms ,Technical Bulletin ,

NBSS & LUP Publ. 36 , Nagpur.
(7)
Sehgal J. , (2002) ,Fundamental of Soil Science,ISSS.
(8)
Soil Survey Staff, (1999 ) , Soil Taxonomy ( USDA ), IInd Edition.
101
CHAPTER - 8
NORMS FOR SOIL SURVEY
8.1
Continuity of Soil survey :

The work of soil survey is not over once the pre-irrigation soil survey is
completed . It is
continuous operation to be linked with all the problems of
development of irrigated agriculture. The pre-irrigation soil survey highlights the

main features relevant to the preparation of project . After commencement of
irrigation, the annual survey of command is taken up-to to watch the rise in ground
water table , appearance of salts, water logging etc .Remedial measures are
fundamental and implemented and efficiency of remedial measures in terms of
reduction of damaged area is then watched .
1.
Procuring village maps of the villages in the command. Some times these
are traced due to non-availability of spare copies .
2.
Reducing and preparing working plans in 1:20000 scale.
3.
Marking 400 M grid points with cross section traversing the command.
4.
Open pit work at rate of one pit per 1.00 sq. km. profile examination Hard
Strata and collection of soil samples Horizon wise and carrying out
infiltration test at surface 1.20 m and 2.50 m depth .
5.
Auger pit work at every 400M grid points up to Murum or 250 cm depth
and recording soil observation in pit book, collection of samples from every
fourth bore or alternative cross section .
6.
Observing all wells in the command as regards for water level from ground
level for depth of water, depth of well, crops acreage, collecting water
samples, observing strata in well and record in well observation data book.
102
8.2
Soil Survey Target : Area Surveyed :

260 sq. km. per sub division per year.
Details Soil Survey :
400 meter grid.

200 Meter grid (Area x 3).
Reconnaissance soil survey- Area / 5
8.3
Checking of Soil Survey :
8.4
Soil Survey Officer 1%
Deputy Soil Survey Officer 5%
Senior Scientific Assistant 10%
Junior Scientific Assistant -20%
No. of copies of soil survey reports for publication :

30 Printed copies (Distribution as under)
8.5
Circle 10 Copies.
Division 3 Copies.
Sub Division 11 Copies.
Spare 6 Copies at concerned division.
Total 30 Copies.
Soil Map :
30 No. of soil Map (Distribution as under).

15 No. of soil map to the scale upto 1:20,000
Circle 10 Nos.
Division 3 Nos.
Spare 2 Nos.
15 No of soil Map to reduce scale
103
Annual target of soil survey sub division as per IS : 5510-1969 code. may
depend of following aspects.
1.
In one calendar year 8 months are suitable for soil survey ( excluding
mansoon months)
2.
20 working days are to be required for soil survey in one month. Annually
160 days are calculated.

3.
As per staff availiblity in one sub division for survey.

Sr. No.
Name of Post
Total Post
1.
Senior Scientific Assistant
2.
Junior Scientific Assistant
3.
5.
Tracer
One Jeep with Driver
As per IS : 5510-1969 code one party include (1) Surveyer , (1) Field
Assistant, (1) Khalashi, (1) Tracer, (1) Jeep with Driver, (1) Sub division have two
parties. One party include (1) Junior Scientific Assistant (1) Senior Survey
Assistant (1) Junior Survey Assistant and (1) Senior Scientific Assistant, (1) Junior
Survey Assistant and (1) Jeep with Driver common for both parties for soil survey.
As 160 working day available one soil survey sub division survey 256 Km2
area annually as 128 Km2 area from each party. That conclude one soil survey ,
sub division have annual target 260 Km2 area for soil survey from two parties.
References
1)
Indian Satnadard Guide for Soil Survey for River Valley Projects,
IS:5510-1969.
104
CHAPTER - 9
INTERPRETATION AND USE OF SOIL SURVEY
9.1
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
Historically, soil survey interpretations are primarily concerned with soil
interpretative predictions that are specific to a land use. Generally, preparation of

interpretations involve the following steps: (1) assembling information about the
soils and the landscapes in which the occur. Generally information about soil
comprises depth, texture, structure, coarse fragments / gravel / rock outcrops,
salinity / alkalinity, drainage characteristics, erosion status while slope, drainage
outlets, surface drainage and water table depth are land characteristics needed
for interpretations (2) modeling other necessary soil characteristics from the soil
data e.g. AWC from soil texture, drainage condition from mottles / structure,
erosion from slope etc. (3) deriving inferences, rules and the guides for predicting
soil behavior under specific land use, irrigated agriculture in present case and (4)
integrating these predictions into generalization for the map unit.
The following considerations should be kept in mind in the use of soil
survey interpretations:
An interpretation has a specific purpose and it is rarely adaptable without

modification to any other purpose. Thus interpretation made for irrigated
agriculture are not applicable to dryland farming or forestry.
Application of interpretations for a specific area of land has an inherent

limitation related to the variability in the composition of delineations within a
map unit. The limitation is related to how the soil surveys are made and to
the size of area of interest relative to that of map unit delineations.
The inherent variability of soils in nature defines the restraints in soil

interpretations and the precision of soil behavior predictions for specific
areas.
Specific soil behavior predictions are commonly presented in terms of

limitations imposed by one or a few soil properties. The limitations posed
by a particular soil property must be considered along with those of other
105
soil properties to determine the property that poses most severe limitation.
Thus if soil has all properties
favorable to agriculture but depth of soil is very shallow or texture is coarse

with rapid drainage, depth and texture respectively are properties that pose
most severe limitations.
Certain considerations that determine the economic value of land are not a
part of soil interpretations but are an integral part of developing soil
potential for a given land use. For example the location of an area of land in
relation to roads, markets and other services.
Some interpretations are more sensitive to changes in technology and land

uses than others and such changes may reduce limitations for a specified
use. If piped water distribution system replaces open canal, such change
may reduce the liitations on soils susceptible to be water logged due to
seepage from canal.
Finally, interpretations based on properties of soil in place are only

applicable if characteristics of land are similar to what they were when the
soil mapping was accomplished. Physical movement (land grading / land
levelling), changes in the patterns of water states by irrigation (waterlogging
/ salinity), drainage or alteration of runoff by construction activity may
require that the new interpretations be made. These new interpretations
can only be arrived with post irrigation soil surveys.
Management Groups : Management groups identify soils that require similar kind
of practices to achieve acceptable performance for a soil use. The classes should
neither be so broad that the soils within a grouping differ very widely nor so
narrow that the groupings are very large with a small differences amongst the
groups. The most commonly employed management group is for the command
areas of irrigation projects is the land irrigability classification.
The important considerations for the design of irrigation system are feasible
water application rates, ease of land leveling and the resultant effect on the soils,
possibility of erosion by irrigation water, physical obstruction to use of equipment
and susceptibility to flooding. To meet these requirements, first order soil survey is
106
needed to include both deeper than customary observations and measurement of

infiltration rates. The soil properties that may
form the basis for interpretation are saturated hydraulic conductivity,
erosion, slope, stoniness, effective rooting depth, salinity, SAR, gypsum and other
properties that may affect the level of response of crops. Salinity, SAR of soils and
quality of irrigation water are particularly significant. Drainage refers to removal of
excess water from soils for reclamation or alteration.
The interpretation of soil and land conditions for irrigation is concerned
primarily with predicting the behavior of soils under the greatly altered water
regime brought about by introduction of irrigation.
For irrigation projects,
interpretations are required to indicate the areas suitable for irrigation, crops that
may be grown and yields that may be expected, water delivery requirements,
land development needs, problems in drainage and special reclamation practices.
For irrigation projects, special interpretations and classification of soils for
sustained use under irrigation are often required. The standard soil survey of
such areas should be especially designed to ensure that all the soil and land
information needed for interpretations is fully gathered during the course of the
survey.
The soils are first grouped into soil irrigability classes according to their
limitations for sustained use under irrigation, regardless of their location or the
size of the individual area. Then the land classes according to irrigability are
determined. Unlike the land capability classification system, special attention is
given to three factors in classifying land for irrigation-namely the costs of land
development, the drainability of the land, and predicted effect of irrigation water as
to soil salinity and alkalinity status of the soils under equilibrium conditions with
the irrigation water.
The nature of soils and land conditions in an area proposed to be brought

under irrigation and their suitability for irrigation are determined by pre-irrigation
soil survey, together with drainage investigations and other studies which may be
needed.
107
9.1.1 SOIL IRRIGABILITY CLASSES

Soil irrigability classes are useful to make groupings of soils according to
their suitability for sustained use under irrigation. The classes are defined in
terms of the degree of soil limitations. Criteria for each class are given in ranges
of soil properties.
Soil irrigability classes are established without regard to availability of
irrigation water, water quality, land preparation costs, availability of drainage
outfalls, and other non-soil related factors.
Criteria for classes are quantitatively defined and exclusive so that a soil
can only qualify for one class.
The most limiting property is determined in
classification, for example, a soil may have all the properties of the most desirable
class except one, but on the basis of this one undesirable property it is assigned
to a lower class.
Use of soil irrigability classes and slope criteria for land classes allows
interpretations of soil surveys for irrigation before the completion of engineering
and other studies as to location of main canals, quality of water and quantity
available, economics and technical feasibility of drainage and alike.
In January 22-24, 1969, a workshop on Soil and Land Irrigability Classes
was held at Delhi under the auspices of the Ministry of Food, Agriculture,
Community Development and Co-operation and in collaboration with Central
Water and Power Ministry. At this Workshop, the soil properties and criteria for
groupings of soils into soil irrigability classes were discussed. On the basis of
present knowledge of behavior of soil to water application, the system of technical
108
grouping of soils into soil irrigability classes was decided upon and is
presented in Table 10.1.
Definitions of the five soil irrigability classes are as follows:
Class A
None to slight soil limitations for sustained use under irrigation.
Class B
Moderate soil limitations for sustained use under irrigation.
Class C
Severe soil limitations for sustained use under irrigation.
Class D
Very severe soil limitations for sustained user under irrigation.
Class E
Non suited for irrigation (or non-irrigable soil class)
109
TABLE 9.1
CRITERIA FOR CLASSIFYING SOILS IN TO IRRIGABILITY CLASSES
IN SEMI-ARID AND ARID REGIONS
Soil Properties
Irrigable Soil Classes
Effective Soil Depth (Useful

to crops)
> 90 cm.
45-90
cm.
22.5-45
cm.
Texture of Surface 30 Cm.
sl to cl ls, c, sl,
inclusive scl, cl,
of ls, l, sicl, sc,
sic
sil, scl,
sicl, sc
NonIrrigable
soil
class
D
7.5-22.5 < 7.5 cm.

cm.
s, c, sic
s, c
Any
texture
(Rege,
Bali &
Karale)
Soil Permeability* (of Least

Permeable Layer)
5-50
mm/hr
1.3-5
mm/hr.
50-130
mm/hr
0.3-1.3
mm,
130-250
mm/hr
< 0.37
mm/hr.
> 250
mm/hr.
Not
applicable
Available water holding

capacity to depth of 90 cm
12 cm.
or more
9-12
cm.
6-9 cm.
2-6 cm.
< 2 cm.
Coarse Fragments (%)

Cobbles and Stones (> 75
Mm.)
<5
5-15
15-35
35-65
> 65
Gravel and Kankar

(> 25 To 75 Mm.)
< 15
15-35
35-55
55-70
> 70
40
20
15
Less than
5
Rock out-Crops
(Distance Apart In Meters)
Salinity E.C. X 103 (in
Saturation Extract)
<4
4-8
8-12
mmhos. mmhos. mmhos.
12-16
mmhos.
> 16
mmhos.
Salinity E.C. X 103 (1:2 Soil

Water Ratio) @
<1
1-1.5
1.5-2.5
mmhos. mmhos. mmhos.
2.5-3
mmhos.
>3
mmhos.
Salt Affected (Visual )

(% of aea affected)
Severity of Alkali Problem
< 20%
20-50 %
More than
50 %
ESP < 15 %
ESP > 15 %
--
110
Soil Properties
Irrigable Soil Classes
NonIrrigable
soil
class
D
Sub-Soil or Substrata
Drainage Characteristics
Lower subsoil is
at
least
moderately
permeable or a
permeable layer
of at least 6
thickness occurs
immediately
below the soil but
within 10 feet
(sand, gravel)
No
moderately
permeable subsoil
or other permeable
layer of at least 6
thickness occurs
within depth of 10
feet
--
Soil Erosion Status
Effects of sheets and rill erosion are

reflected in effective soil depth
available moisture holding capacity and
in some other factors shown above.
Moderately or severely gullied soils
may be classified based on local
experience.
--
* Soil permeability as a criterion is not applicable to deep black soils because of

their unique properties. Deep black soils (Vertisols) which are inherently slowly
permeable due to expanding 2:1 lattice type minerals do not qualify for irrigability
soil class A. They would qualify for being placed in E, C, and D class.
@ The method recommended by the Soil Testing Laboratories in India prescribe
1:2 soil to water ratio for soil salinity determinations and hence corresponding
conductivity figures are given here.
(The criteria for salinity and alkalinity refer to equilibrium conditions under
irrigation with specified irrigation water.
111
9.2
SOIL CHARACERSTICS USED IN IRRIGABILITY CLASSES
9.2.1 Effective soil Depth : Effective soil depth refers to soil thickness over hard
rock, indurated horizon, or hard pan below which roots can not pass or to a
permanently moist saturated zone in which roots cannot survive due to
unfavorable conditions. Soil depth is directly related to the development of root
system, water storage, nutrient supply and feasibility of leveling and land shaping
programs, provided other complementary characteristics are favorable or
optimum. The significance of soil depth to irrigability classification is given below.
Soil Depth
Class
IARI Depth Symbol
Soil Depth cm.
Soil Irrigability
Class
Very Deep
d5
> 90
Deep
d4
45-90
Moderately
Deep
d3
22.5 45
Shallow
d2
7.5 to 22.5
Very Shallow
d1
< 7.5
9.2.2 Soil Texture : Soil texture is the most important and fundamental property
of the soil that is intimately related to soil-water relationships. It may be defined
as the relative proportion of various soil separates in a soil material. The basic
soil separates as per International system are:
1.
Sand (2.00 0.02 mm)
2.
Silt (0.020-0.002mm.)
3.
Clay (< 0.002 mm.)
On the basis of the relative proportion of these separates, various textural

grouping are made. Soil texture is estimated in the Laboratory by actual
fractionation into the soil separates. In the field it is best judged by feel method.
Soil texture influences infiltration permeability, water holding capacity, cohesion,
plasticity and structure. It has a bearing also on microbiological activities and
112
physico-chemical behavior of soils. For soils of similar clay mineralogy and

organic matter content, soil texture controls soil water relationships. For example,
coarse textured soils are too rapidly permeable, poor in moisture retention and
would need frequent irrigations. Heavy soils on the other hand would pose
drainage problems.
From the thickness of the different soil horizons and their textures it is
possible to evaluate total available moisture capacity of the soil. The available
moisture capacities of the different textural groups are indicated below:
Sr. No.
Textural Class
Total Available moisture

capacity mm/m.
Sand
60
Silt
80
Loamy Sand
120
Sandy Loam
185
Silt Loam
235
Loam, Sandy Clay Loam
200
Silty Clay Loam
240
Clay Loam
220
Sandy Clay
180
10
Silty Clay
210
11
Clay
190
For judging irrigability soil classification, the available moisture holding

capacity is either computed from the above or estimated in the laboratory for the
different horizons upto 90 cm. The ranges of available water holding capacity for
different irrigability soil classes are given below :
113
Available Moisture Holding

Capacity (90 cm. Depth)
Soil Irrigability Class
> 12 cm.
9-12 cm.
B,A
6-9 cm.
C,B
2-6 cm.
D,C
< 2 cm.
The important soil textural classes, the percent range of constituting

separates and the irrigation suitability grading are given below.
Textural Name
Symbol
Range in Percentage
(as per ISSS triangle.)
Sand
Silt
Clay
Irrigability
Class
Sand
88-100
0-8
0-8
D,C
Loamy Sand
ls
65-92
4-24
0-12
B,C,A
Sandy Loam
sl
70-90
0-12
8-20
A,B
Loam
50-76
10-25
11-26
Silty Loam
sil
25-75
25-50
0-26
Sandy Clay
Loam
scl
64-82
0-10
18-31
A,B
Clay Loam
cl
36-70
7-25
21-40
B,A
Silty / clay loam
sicl
0-48
25-74
22-40
B,A
Sandy Clay
sc
50-73
0-6
27-50
B,A
Silty Clay
sic
0-34
25-60
40-74
C,B
Clay
0-62
0-25
32-100
D,B,C
114
9.2.3 Soil Surface Cover : Local surface enrichment of coarse fragments or

exposed rock affect soil productivity, influence water intake and in an irrigation
project adds to the cost of land development program. In extreme cases when the
surface concentration of the coarse fragments exceed 60-70% and when the
coarse fragments are not confined only to surface but occur throughout the soil
profile, as in case of river bars, the soil is considered unsuitable for irrigation.
Coarse fractions comprise gravels (0.25-7.5 cm.) cobbles (7.5-25 cm.),
stones (25-75 cm.) and boulders (> 75 cm.) The soil irrigability class in relation to
relative abundance of these fractions is given below:
Cobbles & Stones (%)
Gravels & Kankars (%)
Soil Irrigability class
15
5-15
15-35
B, A
15-35
35-55
C, B
35-65
55-70
D, C
65
70
The frequency of distribution of rock outcrops is estimated by the distance

between the exposed rock surface. Their relevance to soil irigability classes is
indicated below:
Distance Apart (m.)
40
20
B, A
15
D, C
<5
E
115
9.2.4 Soil Permeability : Soil permeability refers to the readiness with which soil
transmits water. It is also termed as hydraulic conductivity. Soil permeability
influences the frequency and depth of irrigation water but itself is a function of a
number of soil properties such as texture, structure, consistence, nature and type
of colloids, organic matter, quality of water, microbiological activity and presence
of pans, indurated horizons, etc.
Permeability of soil in the field is sometimes estimated through peizometer
or shallow well. It is often inferred from soil texture and structure. Very heavy
clayey soils with high percentage of montmorillonitic clays, soils having massive,
columnar, prismatic or platy structure have slow permeability, whereas sandy or
gravelly soils with open structure are very rapidly permeable.
The relationship between texture, structure, permeability and soil irrigability
class is shown in the following table.
Table 9.2 : Soil Texture, Structure, Permeability & Irrigability Classes
Permeability Permeability
Class
Rate in
cm/hr
Texture
Structure
Soil
Irrigability
Class
Very Slow
0.03 0.13
Clay (heavy montmorillonitic)
Massive,
Columnar
Prismatic
Slow
0.13-0.5
Clay, Silty Clay,

Sandy Clay
Prismatic, Platy
C, D
Moderate
0.5-5.0
Clay Loam, Silt,

Silt Loam, Loam
Blocky,
Granular
Rapid
5-13
Sandy Loam,
Sandy Clay,
Loam
Blocky,
Granular,
Crumb
B, A
Very Rapid
13-25
Loamy Sand,
Gravelly Sandy
Loam
Granular,
Single Grain
C, B
Excessive
25
Coarse Sand
Open single
grain
D, C
116
9.2.5 Soil Salinity :

Soil salinity refers to the concentration of excess soluble salts in the soil.
These are generally bi carbonates; sulfates and chlorides of calcium, magnesium
and sodium. In the field and laboratory soil salinity is quantitatively measured by
electrical conductivity. The degree and extent of surface encrustation of salts
provide valuable clues to the degree of soil salinity. Besides the direct injury to
the growing plants, soil salinity controls availability of soil moisture and plant
nutrients. The accepted ranges of conductivity values for soil irigability classes are
indicated below:
Electrical
Conductivity
(ECe x 103 dS/m.)
Visual observation of soil

surface
(% of area affected with salt)
Soil Irrigability
Class
<4
<10
4-8
10-25
B,A
8-12
25-50
C,B
12-16
50-75
D,C
>16
>75
E,D
9.2.6 Alkalinity :
Soils with high exchangeable sodium plus magnesium are considered alkali
soils. U. S. salinity laboratory defined alkali soils as those having ESP values
over 15 and pH higher than 8.5. High percentage of exchangeable sodium in
these soils reflects in their darker colors owing to coatings of sodium humate on
ped faces, high pH values, dense massive subsurface layers, prismatic or
columnar structures, poor infiltration etc. High alkalinity induces mineral deficiency
and boron toxicity. Growth of most of the crops under these conditions is
seriously hampered.
Bringing alkali lands under irrigated agriculture necessitates detailed
laboratory investigations, particularly to evaluate the degree of problem and to
estimate economics of reclamation for sustained productivity. Owing to feasibility
of improvement, even soils with high ESP values are not classified under nonirrigable soil class alone on this criteria. Very high ESP is generally associated
117
with other hazards that may make the soil temporarily unsuitable for irrigation.
Following soil irrigability classes are proposed on the basis of ESP values.
Exchangeable Sodium Percent
< 15
A, B
15 40
C, B
>40
9.2.7 Drainability : This refers to the property of the soil that facilities removal of
free water from soil by surface flow and by passage through the soil. The former
refers to the external drainage and is governed by land factors of slope, relief,
vegetation and surface conditions. The latter, more significant for irrigation is
called internal drainage. This is controlled by the factors of soil permeability.
Drainability can be inferred from number, arrangement and thickness of soil
horizons, their textures, and colors, especially reduced colors and mottles in the
subsurface horizon. The following drainage classes are recognized.
1.
Poorly Drained: Water is removed so slowly that soil remains wet for a
large part of the time. The water table commonly is at or near the surface and the
entire soil profile is saturated for a considerable part of the year. Soils of this
drainage class commonly have mottles. Iron manganese concretions larger that
2mm. or chroma of 2 or less are found immediately below an Ap horizon or below
a dark A1 horizon.
2.
Imperfectly drained : Water is removed slowly and the soil remains wet for
a significant part of the time. Soils of this drainage class have evidence of wetness
that do not qualify for the poorly drained class but have mottles with chroma of 2
or less within 75 cm. of the soil surface.
3.
Moderately well drained : Water is removed from the soil somewhat slowly
so that the profile is wet for a small but significant part of the time. Moderately well
drained soils commonly have a slowly permeable layer within or immediately
below the solum, a relatively high water table, or some combination of these
conditions. Evidence of wetness in the soil do not qualify for classes A and B.
Mottles are present within the solum but below a depth of 75 cm. and often with
chroma of over 2.
118
4.
Well drained: Water is removed from the soil readily but not rapidly.
Mottles are either absent or occur below 125 cm.
5.
Excessively drained: Water is removed from the soil rapidly due to steep
slopes, very coarse textures and rapid permeability or both.

Based on drainability of the soil, following soil irrigability classes are
proposed.
Drainage Class
Poorly Drained
Imperfectly Drained
Moderately Well Drained
B, A
Well Drained
A, B
Excessively Drained
D, C
9.2.8 Soil Erosion : Soil erosion is associated with loss of useful topsoil,
reduction in effective depth, loss of nutrients and decline in fertility. Accelerated
soil erosion is estimated in the field by study of soil profile and soil surface
features. The following four erosion classes are recognized.
e1
Slight or no erosion, where no significant soil loss is detected, though part

of plough layer up to 25% may have lost by sheet erosion.
e2
Moderate erosion Around 50 75% of the original A horizon lost by

erosion.
e3
Severe erosion Complete loss of surface horizon exposing the B horizon

with some incipient gullies.
e4
Very severe Entire A horizon and part of B horizon (25-75%) lost. The
plough layer essentially comprises materials form B horizon or the
underlying horizons.
119
Gullied land These may further be classified into:
G1
Narrow gullies (30-65 cm. wide),
G2
Medium gullies (60-300 cm. wide) and
G3
Wide gullies with > 300 cm width.
Following soil irrigability classes are proposed for the different erosion classes.
9.3
Erosion Class
e1
A, B
e2
B, A, C
e3
C, B
e4
C, D, B
G1
C, D
G2
G3
LAND IRRIGABILITY CLASSES :
The suitability of land for irrigation depends on physical and socioeconomics factors in addition to the soil irrigability class, Among the more
important consideration, in addition to soil suitability in deciding upon suitability of
land for irrigation are the following:
1. Quality and quantity of water
a)
Equilibrium salinity levels.
b)
Equilibrium exchangeable sodium percentage level.
c)
Availability of water to the land in relation to water requirement of crops.
2.
Drainage Requirements :
a)
Permeability of substrata and feasibility of providing needed drainage .
b)
Cost of drainage measures.

120
3.
Other Economic considerations
a)
Production costs and yield potentials.
b)
Land development costs.
c)
Other factors affecting benefit cost ratio.
The criteria decided upon for land classification for arid and semi-arid regions at
the Workshop held in Delhi in Jan 1969, mentioned in Sections 10.2, are given in
Table 10.2
Definitions and expiations of the land irrigability classes are as given below:
Class 1
Lands that have few limitations for sustained use under irrigation.
Lands of this class are capable of producing sustained and relatively
high yields of a wide range of climatically adapted crops at reasonable
cost. There are few or no limitations of soil topography or drainage
.The soils in this class are nearly level, have deep rooting zones, have
favorable permeability, texture and available moisture holding
capacity, and are easily maintained in good tilth. Lands with
unfavorable soil or topography are not included in this class nor are
lands where drainage are salinity problems are predicated after
introduction of irrigation due to un favorable water quality, sub strata
conditions , or lack of outfalls .
Class 2
Lands that have moderate limitations for sustained use under

irrigation.
Lands of this class have moderate limitations either of soil,
topography, or drainage when used for irrigation. Limitations may
include singly or in combination the effects of (1) very gentle slopes,
(2) less than ideal soil depth, texture, permeability or other properties,
(3) moderate salinity or alkali when in equilibrium with the irrigation
water, (4) somewhat unfavorable topography or drainage conditions.
Class 3
Lands that have severe limitations for sustained use under irrigation.
Lands of this class have severe limitations either of soil, topography,
or drainage when used for irrigation. Limitations may include singly or
in combination the effects of (1) gentle slopes, (2) soil depth, texture,
121
permeability or other properties, (3) moderately severe salinity or

alkali when in equilibrium with the irrigation water, (4) unfavorable
topography or drainage conditions.
Class 4
Lands that are marginal for sustained use under irrigation because of
very severe limitations.
Lands of this class have very severe limitations of either soil,
topography, or drainage when used for irrigation. Limitations may
include singly or in combination the effects of (1) moderately steep
slopes, (2) very unfavorable soil depth, texture, permeability or other
properties, (3) severe salinity or alkali when in equilibrium with the
irrigation water, (4) very unfavorable topography or drainage
conditions.
Class 5
Lands that are temporarily classed as not suitable for sustained use
under irrigation pending further investigations.
Lands of this class cannot be classified at the present level of
investigations, and are temporarily classed as not suitable for
irrigation. If these lands are to be given a final classification special
investigations will be needed.
Class 6
Lands not suitable for sustained use under irrigation.

The lands of this class do not meet the minimum requirements for
lands of other classes, or are not susceptible to delivery of irrigation
water.
122
TABLE 9.3 : SPECIFICATIONS FOR LAND IRRIGABILITY CLASSES

Land
Characteristics
IRRIGABLE LAND CLASSES

Class 1
Class 2
Class 3
Class 4
SOILS
A to B
A to C
A to D
3 5%
5 10%
TOPOGRAPHY
1. Slope
< 1%
1 3%
2. Surface Grading No restriction or

Moderate restrictions
(specifications to be
less than m.
excavation per Ha., developed locally)
less than m.
average cut and fill
Moderate severe
restrictions
(develop
specifications
locally)
Severe
restrictions
(develop
specifications
locally)
No drainage
outlets available
DRAINAGE
1. Outlets
2. Surface
Suitable outlets
available
Suitable outlets
available
Suitable outlets
available
Less than m. of
shallow surface
drains required per
acre
Less than m. of
shallow surface
drains required per
acre
Develop
specifications
123
Class 5
Class 6
Temporarily Not Suitable
Non-Irrigable for Irrigation
(Unclassified)
Further
Includes land
investigations which do not
needed
meet the
minimum
requirements
for the other
land classes
and are not
suitable for
irrigation or
small isolated
tracts
Land
Characteristics
IRRIGABLE LAND CLASSES

Class 1
Class 2
Class 3
Class 4
3. Subsurface
No subsurface
drainage needed
or land is within
m. of adequate
drainage way
(Nala or river)
No subsurface
drainage needed or
land is within m.
of adequate
drainage way (Nala
or river)
Subsurface
drainage
needed.
Specifications
to be
developed.
No natural
drainage
outlets
available. Cost
of pumping off
drainage
exceeds
Rs./Ha.
4. Depth of Water
Table *
More than 5 m.
3 5 m.
1.5 3 m.
1.5 m. and
less
Class 5
Class 6
Temporarily Not Suitable
Non-Irrigable for Irrigation
(Unclassified)
Further
investigations
needed
(specifying
size or
distance
from canal)
not
susceptible
to delivery of
irrigation
water)
With regard to items under topography (Surface grading), and drainage ( surface and subsurface), the criteria will have to be
worked out for each project on the basis of local conditions.
* This table is reproduced from Soil Survey Manual by All India Soil and Land Use Survey Organisation, IARI, New Delhi. The
Class limits of depth of water table which appear in 10.4.2 are from Soil and Land Characteristics, Their Interpretation for
Irrigability Classification by N. D. Rege, Y. P. Bali and R. L. Karale and they are different from those mentioned in this table.
124
9.3.1 LAND IRRIGABILITY SUB CLASSES

Subclasses are groups of land irrigability units that have the same kinds of
dominant limitations for sustained use under irrigation. When lands are placed in
any class lower than1, the reasons should be indicated by appending the letters
s, t, d to class number to show whether deficiency is in soils, topography,
or drainage. Lands with more than one major deficiency may be indicated with
the relevant letters after the class, for example, if the land has both 2s and 2t
deficiencies, this should be indicated by the designation 2st.
9.3.2 DEVELOPMENT OF CRITERIA FOR LAND CLASSES AND SUB
CLASSES
The criteria for land classes and sub classes must be developed for each
project using the information in Tables 1 and 2 as a general guide. To ensure
uniformity throughout the arid and semi-arid parts of India, the criteria for sub soil
suitability in Table 1 should be adhered to closely. Table 2, however, is broad and
shows only the kind of criteria which must be developed locally for each project.
Development of criteria for Table 2 should be done jointly by agriculturists and
irrigation engineers including farm management specialists.
9.4 PHYSICAL AND OTHER FACTORS.

9.4.1 Landform, Relief and Slope : Landform refers to the shape of the land
surface in spatial relationship. Land forms in a command area have a bearing on
such problems as feasibility of water transport, economics of transportation
system, and feasibility and economics of land shaping and land development
programs. This has particular relevance to the funds available for development of
command area. Following land irrigability classes are proposed for the different
land forms occurring within the gross command area.
125
Landform
Land Irrigability Class
Plateau
Summit
6,5
Crest
6, 5
Slope Upper Convex
5, 4
Slope Transportational
4, 3, 2
Slope Lower Concave
Terrace
4, 3
Landform
Plains
1, 2
Depressions
3, 2
Relief also implies configuration of the land surface but it is a combined

influence of slope and run off that are significant for processes of erosion.
Influence of relief is thus taken care of in studying land forms and slopes. Slope
denotes inclination or declination of the land surface in relation to the horizontal
plane and is expressed as per cent of rise or fall. Slope may be deduced from the
contour lines of a map or may be read in the field with abney level or clinometer.
The All India Soil and Land Use Survey Organization has proposed 9 slope
classes from A to I based on the percentage range of slope. More often than not
the same slope class with different forms have different implications for land and
water management programs.
Four grades of slopes according to form are
proposed viz. (1) Simple-Uniform or even slope, (2) Convex slope, (3) Concave
slope and (4) complex slope that comprises undulating lands, broken topography,
boulder moors, slips and slides and point bar complexes.
irrigabililty classes are proposed for the different slope classes.
126
Following land
Class Range
of
of
Slope Slope
%
Description

Simple Convex Concave Complex
0-1
Nearly Level
1-3
Very Gently Sloping
2, 1
2, 3
3-5
Gently Sloping
3, 2
3, 4
5-10
Moderately Sloping
4, 3
5, 4
10-15
Strongly Sloping
15-25
Moderately Steep
to Steep
5, 4
25-33
Steep
33-50
Very Steep
> 50
Very Very Steep
9.4.2 Ground Water Table : The maximum rise of ground water table and the
average annual fluctuations in depth with particular reference to maximum depth
have important bearing on hydrological aspects of irrigated agriculture. Areas with
water tables within 1 meter would need further studies as to the source and cause
of high water table, quality of ground water and feasibility of lowering water table
by natural or artificial drainage.
Following land irrigability classes are suggested according to the depth of
ground water table.
Depth of Ground Water Table (m.)
> 30
20 30
2, 1
10 20
3, 2
5 10
4, 5
05
6, 5
( Please see the note at the end of table 10.2)

127
9.4.3 Natural Drainage : Natural drainage outlets are needed to be investigated

against total drainage requirement of the project area. It should take into account
facilities required to control excess water resulting from project development. In
addition to rainfall, seepage losses from reservoirs and canals and percolation
and run off losses from irrigation water contribute to drainage problems. The
objective should be to maintain water table at a proper depth for satisfactory
growth of plants without giving rise to salinity or water logging. Economics of
laying out artificial drainage outlets where natural drainage outlets are not
adequate to cope up with the drainage requirement of the project area would need
to be worked out. Where natural drainage outlets are not available the land is
classed into irrigability class 4 and below depending upon the feasibility and
economics of providing artificial outlets.
9.4.4 Other
Factors
Besides
the
aforementioned
physical
factors,
considerations of such economics factors of the area as (1) man power, (2) Local
wages, (3) transportation and marketing facilities, (4) availability of agricultural
credit, (5) existing system of land tenure would be necessary in deciding land
irrigability class and for preparing project work plan.
9.5 INTERPRETATIONS FOR MONSOONAL HUMID

ANDSUB-HUMID AREAS
All the discussion cited above in 10.2 to 10.4 relates to criteria developed
for grouping the soils in to irrigability classes for semi-arid and arid regions
developed by the All India Soil and Land Use Survey Organisation (1970). But
humid and sub-humid regions comprise a large part of the state. The map
showing agro-ecological regions of Maharashtra is shown in fig 10.1. Accordingly,
entire Sindhudurg, major part of Thane, Ratnagiri, Raigad and few part of Nashik,
Pune, Kolhapur districts comes under humid region whereas entire Nagpur,
Gondiya, Bhandara, major part of Wardha, Chandrapur, Gadchiroli and few part of
Amravati and Yavatmal district falls under sub-humid region.
128
FIG. 9.1 : AGRO-ECOLOGICAL REGIONS OF MAHARASHTRA

The criteria developed for semi-arid and arid regions cannot as such be
applied to monsoonal humid and subhumid regions because of great differences
in soil properties, socio-economic and climatic conditions and particularly in
cropping practices. Characteristics like particle size class of sub-soil, land shaping
class and submergence due to flood in rainy season etc. have great bearing on
irrigated agriculture in humid and sub-humid tracts.
129
A system of soil and land irrigability classification for monsoonal humid and
sub-humid regions has been devised by D. P. Mishra, et. al. for the command
area of Hirakud Dam in Orissa State. Three major factors of soil, topography and
drainage have been taken in to consideration. The soil factor includes nine
characteristics, the topography two and drainage four. Thus in all fifteen
characteristics are required for soil and land irrigability classification. The soil and
land have been considered together and termed as soil and land irrigability class.
Depending on the degree of limitation(s), six soil and land irrigability classes have
been made. The first four are irrigable, fifth provisionally non-irrigable and sixth
unsuitable for irrigation. Class 1 lands have very few limitations and are capable of
producing high yields of wide range of climatically adapted crops of the region with
normal management. The lands of class 2, 3 and 4 are progressively less
suitable. The choice and yield of crops become gradually reduced and
management becomes incresingly difficult with each class.
Criteria for soil and land irrigability classification for monsoonal humid and
sub-humid regions are represented in table 10.3. Out of these fifteen
characteristics one or more may be limiting to place the area surveyed in to
category lower than class 1. Here consideration is given to most limiting
characteristics
130
TABLE 9.4 : CRITERIA FOR SOIL AND LAND IRRIGABILITY CLASSIFICATION IN HUMID AND
SUB-HUMID REGIONS OF TROPICS AND SUB-TROPICS
Major
Factor
Soil
Characteristics
Texture of the
surface soil
Ch.
No.
Class
1
Class 2
S1
Coarse
sl, sl,
Fine sl,
Very
fine sl,
l, si, sil,
scl, cl,
sicl
coarse ls, ls, Fine ls,

Very fine ls, sc, sic
Fine s,
Very fine s, c
coarse
Fine
loamy,
Fine
silty
Fine, Coarse loamy,

Sandy over loamy/
clayey, Coarse loamy
over clayey, Fine
loamy over
sandy/clayey, Clayey
over sandy/loamy,
Coarse silty over
clayey, Fine silty over
sandy/ clayey
Very fine loamy skeletal,

Clayey skeletal, Coarseloamy/coarse-silty over
sandy, Clayey over
silty/loamy-skeletal /
sandy-skeletal, Fineloamy / Fine-silty over
sandy-skeletal/fragmental,
Loamy-skeletal over
fragmental/ clayey,
Clayey-skeletal over
sandy
Sandy, Coarseloamy over sandyskeletal/fragmental

, Coarse-silty over
sandy-skeletal,
Sandy-skeletal
over loamy,
Loamy-skeletal
over sandy/
fragmental
Sandyskeletal,
Fragmental
Particle size class S2

of sub-soil
Class 3
131
Class 4
Class
5
Class 6
Major
Factor
Soil
Characteristics
Coarse fragments
(vol. %)
Ch.
No.
Class 1
Class 2
Class 3
Class 4
Class
5
Class 6
<10
10-20
20-50
50-70
>70
10-20
20-50
50-70
70-90
>90
S3
a) within 45 cm from
surface
b) 45-90 cm from
surface
Effective soil depth

(cm)
S4
>90
45-90
22.5-45
7.5-22.5
<7.5
Permeability (mm/h)
S5
1.3-50
0.3-1.3
<0.3
>250
--
50-130
130-250
Salinity EC2 in (dS/m)
S6
<1.00
1.00-1.50
1.51-2.50
2.51-3.00
>3.00
ESP
S7
<10
10-15
15-20
20-60
>60
Soil reaction (pH 1:1)
S8
5.6-7.3
5.1-5.5
4.5-5.0
4.0-4.4
<4.0
7.4-7.8
7.9-8.4
8.5-9.5
>9.5
9-12
6-9
2-6
<2
AWC to depth 90 cm
(cm)
S9
>12
132
Major
Factor
Topography
Drainage
Characteristics
Ch.
No.
Class 1
Class 2
Class 3
Class 4
Class
5
Class 6
Slope (%)
t1
<1
1-3
3-5
5-10
>10
--
Land shaping class
t2
E,H
W. T. (maximum depth
from surface in m)
d1
>5
3-5
1.5-3.0
0-1.5
Surface
>2.5
1.5-2.5
0.74-1.5
0-0.75
Surface
>3.75
2.25-3.75
1.25-2.25
0-1.25
Surface
Pre-irrigation
Post-irrigation
Adequate irrig.
Inadequate irrig.
Impermeable
substratum (depth
from surface in m)
d2
>3
1-3
0.5-1
0.1-0.5
<0.1
Submergence due to
flood
d3
No flooding
Fair flooding
Common
flooding
Regular
flooding
--
Soil drainage class
d4
Well /
Moderately
well drained
Imperfectly
drained
Poorly /
Somewhat
excessively
drained
Very
poorly
drained
Excessively
drained
133
9.6
INTERPRETATION OF MAPPING UNITS

The areas having similar land irrigability class and similar soil and land
characteristics are shown on the soil classification map by mapping units. A

mapping unit shown on a soil classification map will represent the area that will
behave similarly under altered water regime due to irrigation and will require
similar management practices. A typical mapping unit may be in the following form
Mdv-sic-d5
MI4-B-e2
The various terms that appear in the mapping unit above are explained as under
The first term in the numerator Mdv indicate the name of soil series i.e.
Mandva in abbreviated form
The second term in the numerator sic denotes silty clay surface texture of soil
in the mapping unit denoted.
The third term in the numerator d5 denotes very deep depth class of IARI
depth norms, more than 90 cm. Soil depth in the mapping unit denoted.
The first term in the denominator MI4 denotes medium II depth class of DIRD
depth norms, 120-250cm. Soil depth.
The second term in the denominator B denotes slope class B, very gently
sloping 1-3% slope.
The third term in the denominator e2 denotes erosion class e2, moderate
erosion.
Mapping unit may denote other phases if observed. They may be stony st,
saline sa or alkaline a in the denominator after erosion phase.
Thus from the mapping unit, land irrigability class and soil and land
properties of a particular area of interest can be read from the soil classification
map.
134
9.7
SOIL SURVEY REPORT

When all the field data of area of interest is observed and laboratory
analysis of samples collected during the course of survey is completed, they are
interpreted as discussed in previous paragraphs. Some external origin data like
climate of the area, market and other infrastructure are collected from respective
agencies for interpretation purpose. Based on these interpretations, soil survey
map is prepared and thus soil survey report of surveyed area is prepared.
9.8
UTILITY OF SOIL SURVEY

Soil survey report gives the predictions for the uses of soils as well as
limitations of soils for the intended use, irrigated agriculture in this case. Where
investment per unit of area is high, modifying the soil to improve its suitability for
the intended use may be economically feasible. Such predictions are increasingly
important in areas where the demand on soil resources is high. Soil scientists
work with engineers and others to develop ways of improving soils for specific
uses.
The broad general objectives of soil survey are both fundamental and
objective nature. The fundamental nature covers knowledge and understanding of
soils as regards their genesis, development, classification and nomenclature while
objective nature covers applied part of soil survey data which can be interpreted
and correlated to know suitability or limitations of soils for a particular use.
As regards irrigated agriculture, following are the uses of soil survey report:
The information assembled in a soil survey report may be used to predict or

estimate the potentials and limitations of soil for irrigation. Soil irrigability
classification and land irrigability classifications are such predictions. These
predictions of soil survey serve as a basis for judgement about land use
and management, when evaluated along with economic, social and
environmental considerations.
Soil surveys provide basic information about soil resources needed for
planning development of new lands or conversion of land to new uses.
135
Soil surveys provide a basis for decisions about the kind and intensity of
land management needed, including those operations that must be
combined for satisfactory soil performance. For example in irrigation
system, the kind of soil and its associated characteristics help in
determining alignment of canal, water application rate, soil ammendment
needs, leaching requirements, general drainage requirements and field
practices for maintaining optimum soil conditions for crop growth
Soil surveys are also useful in helping to locate possible sources of

construction material like sand, gravel, rubble, topsoil.
The slocation of canals and distribution network, probable seepage losses,

streches where lining is necessory, possible sources of CNS material can
be judged from soil survey data.
Needs of overall land leveling, limitation on soil cutting can be judged from
slopes and soil depths shown in soil survey maps.
The drainage needs of specific soil types can be judged from exiting
network of natural drains and additional artificial drainage required, if any.
With further localized investigations drain design can be accomplished.
Soil amendment needs can be predicted from the inherent soil properties
observed and soil properties predicted due to altered soil water regime
after the introduction of irrigation.
Need for leaching can also be predicted from soil properties and quality of
irrigation water.
The chak size and rate of stream flow can be inferred from the infiltration
characteristics of soil.
By knowing the depth of soil and soil texture (hence AWC), the frequency
of irrigation can be worked out.
The data on well observations helps to know probable areas where water
logging can occur and also potential areas where conjunctive use of
surface and ground water can be made.
136
Soil survey report incorporates soil characteristics and also climatic data.
From these the irrigated crops most suited in a particular soil type can be
planned.
Now a days irrigation management is entrusted to water users

associations. Some piece of land in the command has to be allotted to
water users association for their office building. Land with soil irrigability
class E and land irrigability class 6 can be the prospective locations for
such office buildings
The data on some specific soil characteristics can be useful during

construction. For example if soil survey report shows gypsic horizons in
some area, the foundations of structures in such areas will have to be
constructed with sulfate resistant cements and also reinforcement should
be treated with anticorrosion coating. If organic horizons are observed
below surface, there might be chances of soil subsidence after drainage.
Also if the nala banks near the cross drainage works are prone to erosion,
possible erosion control measures have to be planned.
Lastly, soil survey provides information in terms of soil qualities that bear
directly on land value when soil is a factor of production as in irrigated
agriculture. Hence its capacity to produce and its requirements of
production are elements of land value. Hence soil survey report can be
used in assessing farmland for taxation, loan appraisals and guiding
prospective buyers.
Soil survey report, thus can be a primary fundamental document for project
investigation, construction, water management and drainage organizations.
However, localized detail investigations may be needed for a particular activity.
The report can also be useful to water users associations as well as individual
farmers for their own management needs.
References :
1) Soil Survey Manual, U. S. Department of Agriculture Handbook No. 18 - Soil
Survey Staff, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils and Agricultural Engineering
(1993)
137
2) Soil Survey Manual - All India Soil and Land Use Survey Organization, I. A. R.
I., New Delhi (1970)
3) Indian Standard Guide for Soil Survey for River Valley Projects, IS:5510-1969
4) Soil and Land Characteristics, their interpretation for Irrigability Classification
N. D. Rege, Y. P. Bali and R. L. Karale, Soil Conservation Division, Ministry of
Agriculture, New Delhi (Feb. 1974)
5) Application of Soil Survey in Irrigation Water Management, Publication No. 21
Water and Land Management Institute, Aurangabad
6) Maharashtra Sinchan Vikas, Mrid Survekshanachi 25 Varshe Directorate of
irrigaion Research and Development, Pune-1 (Jan. 1984)
7) A System of Soil and Land Irrigability Classification for Monsoonal Humid and
Sub-humid Regions D. P. Mishra and S. S. K. Nanda, Dept. of Soils and
Agri.
Chemistry,
Orissa
University
of
Agriculture
and
Bhubaneshwar; Journal of Indian Society of Soil Science, vol. 32 (
138
Technology,
CHAPTER - 10
PREPARATION OF SOIL SURVEY REPORT
Preparation of soil survey report comprises the data which has being
collected during the field work of soil survey in the command of irrigation project.
The samples of soil and water which are collected during the course of soil
survey work, are brought to the laboratory for examination for various test (i.e. pH,
Ec, M.A, %Free lime, %Saturation etc.) After completion of various test carried
out in laboratory, test results are collected for further process of preparing soil
survey report. Prepare Volume I & II as per Indian standard IS 5510 1969 , by
the concern sub division as per given format by D.I.R.D, Pune.
Prepared draft copy should cover all the points given below, and after
checking thoroughly it should be submitted to division office for scrutiny.
Scrutinized copy should be forwarded to D.I.R.D for final approval. After checking
of final copy and approved by D.I.R.D, the suggestions if any given should be
followed and then finally 35 copies along with coloured soil maps should be
prepared in due respect, and again it is forwarded in favour of Superintending
Engineer & Director, D.I.R.D for publication. Published copies is to be circulated to
concern authorities.
Following chapters & tables are included while preparing the Soil Survey report
(volume-I ).
Chapter No. / Point No.
Contents
Summary
I.
Introduction
1.0
The project
2.0
Irrigation
3.0
The cropping pattern
3.1
Existing cropping pattern
3.2
Proposed crop pattern
II
1.0
The Object and Procedure of Soil Survey

The object of soil survey
139
2.0
Procedure of soil survey
2.1
Type of soil survey
2.2
Data to be collected in pre-Irrigation soil survey
2.3
Field and laboratory work
III
Findings of Soil Survey
1.0
General description of the area
1.1
Location and extent
1.2
Physiography and relief
1.3
Climate
1.4
Geology
1.5
Natural vegetation
1.6
Soils
2.0
Broad soil classification
2.1
Depth wise soil classification
2.2
Broad patterns of land use
2.3
Salinity and alkalinity
2.4
3.0
Slope classification
4.0
Well survey
5.0
Soil series
6.1
Soil irrigability classification
6.2
Land irrigability classification
4.0
Communication, Marketing & Other aspects
IV
Ecological aspects
Point 3.03 : Salinity Status
Point 3.04 : water Logging
V
Appendix - I
Appendices
Salient Features
Appendix - IIA
Soil Series Characteristics
Appendix - IIB
Description of Tentative Soil Series

140
VI
Scheduling of irrigation
VII
Utility of soil survey

Tables
Table 1
Climatological data
Table 2
Existing crop pattern in rain fed area
Table 3
Cropping pattern in area irrigated on dug wells
Table 4
A comprehensive tabulation of distribution of soils, suitable

and un-suitable area for irrigation.
Table 4 -A
Soil and water properties
Table 5
Table 6
Distribution of areas as per IARI depth norms
Table 7
Distribution of areas under different soil series
Table 8
Distribution of areas under different soil irrigability class
Table 9
Distribution of areas under different slope classes
Table 10
Distribution of areas under different land irrigability classes

with major constraints
Table 11
Properties of river & nalla water samples
Table 12
Distribution of areas under different mapping units with

land irrigability class & major constraints (Village wise)
Table 13
Distribution of areas under different mapping units with

land irrigability class & major constraints (Series wise)
Plans Soil Map
Tables of volume II
Nos. of wells observed with the water level & date of

observation etc.
Details of pits excavated in the command.
Result of soil samples tested in the command.
Depth at which E.C. in is excess of 3.00 dS / m.
Depth of which pH value is more than 9.00
Depth of which saturation moisture is more than 80%
Results of Mechanical Analysis of soil samples tested in the

command.
141
Guidelines to prepare Volume I , II & Various Tables:

To prepare soil survey report, there are two main steps (1) Preparation of
volume I (2) preparation of volume - II.
Volume - II is prepared by compiling the laboratory test results and the
data collected during the course of soil survey work. Preparation of volume - I
depends on the data of volume-II and phase level boundaries marked on working
map. For preparation of volume - I there are various 13 tables which are
interlinked to each other and can be prepared by putting the required data in the
given format of various tables. First prepare table no. 13 so that it is easy to
prepare the remaining tables by referring table no. 13.
Various Tables :
Table No. 1 : Climatological Data:
Incorporate the temperature and rainfall data from the nearest station of the
project.
Table No. 2 : Existing & Proposed Cropping Pattern In Rain-fed Area :
Note down the existing and proposed cropping pattern of kharif & rabi
season as per the salient features and data if collected from concern department
in which command area lies.
Table No. 3 : Cropping Pattern in the Area Irrigated on Wells :
Incorporate the cropping pattern by observing areas coming under well
irrigation, villagewise referring the well observation book.
Table No. 4 : A Comprehensive Tabulation of Soils, Suitable and Unsuitable
Area for Irrigation :
The total area of the command is distributed villagewise for suitable,
unsuitable irrigation as well as for perennial.
Table No. 4A : Soil & water Properties :
Note down the laboratory test result for soil & water samples collected during the
course of survey.
142
Table No. 5 : A Textural Classification :

Note down the texture of soil samples collected during the course of soil
survey work as per villagewise and depthwise by referring laboratory test results.
Table No. 6 : Analytical Data Of Typical Profiles :
Note down the laboratory result of soil samples for the typical profile as
per soil series.
Table No. 7 : Land Irrigability Classification with Major Constraints :
Distribute the command area villagewise into different land irrigability
classes.
Table No. 8 : Rate Of Infiltration in cm/ hr :
Incorporate the infiltration test result observed on open profile as per
serieswise.
Table No. 9 : Distribution of Area According to Soil Irrigability Class :
Distribute the command area villagewise into different soil irrigability
classes.
Table No. 10 : Distribution of Area as per I. A.R. I. Depth Norms :
Distribute the command area villagewise as per I.A.R.I depth norms.
Table No. 11 : Distribution of area according to slope classes :
Distribute the command area of project according to slopewise classes.
Table No. 12 : Properties of River Water Samples :
Incorporate the laboratory test result for pH & Ec of water samples
collected from main stream in the command area.
Table No. 13 : Unitwise Distribution of Area :
Distribute the command area according to village and mapping unitwise

and also note down the soil & land irrigability classes of the particular mapping
unit referring by the phase level boundaries marked on working map.
143
FORMAT FOR TABLE NO. 1 to 13

TABLE No. 1 : Climatological Data
Temperature ( in degree celsius )
Location
Particulars
Jan
Feb
March
April
Tal.
May
June
Dist.
July
August
Sept.
Oct.
Average
Rainfall
Maximum
Rainfall
Minimum
Rainfall
Maximum Temp c ranges from c
Minimum Temp c ranges from c
144
Nov.
Dec.
TABLE No. 2 : Existing Cropping Pattern In Rainfed Area

Sr. No.
Kharif Seasonal
Area in
Ha
145
Rabi Seasonals
Area in Ha
TABLE No. 3 : Cropping Pattern in the Area Irrigated on Dug Wells

Name of village
No. of Wells
Crop
146
Area in ha.
Remark
Table No. 4 : A Comprehensive Tabulation of Soils, Suitable and Unsuitable Area for Irrigation
147
II
Medium
Deep
Deep
Shallow
II
Medium
Suitable Area for

Irrigation
Very
Shallow
Shallow
Medium
Deep
Shallow
Village
Total Area
Surveyed
in Ha.
Very
Shallow
Distribution of Soils
Very
Shallow
Unsuitable Area for

Irrigation Cutup, Exposed
Rock, Forest, Murum
up to 7.5 cm.
II
Table No. 4 : A Comprehensive Tabulation of Soils, Suitable and Unsuitable Area for Irrigation
(Contd.)
148
Medium
I
II
Deep
II
Shallow
Very
Shallow
II
Deep
Suitable Area For

Perennials
Medium
Shallow
II
Medium
Unsuitable Area For

Perennial Irrigation
Very
Shallow
Deep
Medium
Deep
400 m. Limit of
Village Gaothan
3 Metre H. I. B.
Table No. 4A : Soil & water Properties

Village
No. Of
Profiles
Tested
Saline Profiles
Alkaline Profiles
Medium
Medium
Deep
M1
M2
Deep
M1
M2
149
No. Of
Wells
Observed
No. Of wells
having Water
Level in m.
0 - 1.2
1.2 - 3
No. of
Well
Water
Samples
Collected
& Tested
No. of
Well
Water
Samples
having
Ec more
than 1
dS/m
Table No. 5 : A Textural Classification

Sr. Village
No.
Total
Clay Silty
Profiles
Clay
Tested
Sandy Silty Clay Sandy Silt

Loam Clay
Clay
Clay
Loam
Loam
Shallow Soils 20-40 cm.
Total
Medium Soils 20-40 cm.
Total
Medium Soils 80-120 cm.
Total
150
Silt
Loam Loamy Sandy Sand
Loam
Sand
Loam
Table No. 6 : Analytical Data Of Typical Profiles

Village
Sy.
No.
Name Of
Soil
Series
Depth
In
Cm
pH
Ec in
dS/m
%
saturation
151
%
Free
Lime
Mechanical Analysis
% C.S
%
F. S.
%
Silt
%
Clay
Texture
TABLE No. 7 : Distribution of Areas Under Different Land Irrigability Classification with Major Constraints
Sr. No.
Village
Total area
surveyed ( Ha.)

IIt
152
IIIst
IVst
TABLE No. 8 : Rate of Infiltration in cm / hr.

Sr. No.
Village
Sy. No.
Name of Soil Series
153
Infiltration Rate in cm. / hr.
TABLE No. 9 : Distribution of Areas as per Soil Irrigability Class

Sr.
No.
Village
Total Area
Classified ( Ha.)

A
154
TABLE No. 10 : Distribution of Area As per I.A.R.I Depth Norms

Village
Area
in ha.
Very Shallow
0 - 7.5 cm
Shallow
7.5 - 22.5 cm
Moderately
Deep
22.5 - 45 cm
Deep
45 - 90 cm
Very deep
> 90 cm.
d1
d2
d3
d4
d5
155
TABLE No.11 : Distribution of Area According to Slope Classes

Village
Area Surveyed
in ha.
Land Irrigability Class / Slope

II t
III st
IV st
0-1%
1- 3%
3-5%
0-1%
1- 3%
3-5%
0-1%
1- 3%
3-5%
156
TABLE No. 12 : Properties of River water Sample

Sr. No.
1
Name of River
Water Sample Collected

at
Down stream of Dam site near
village
Sy.No.
157
pH
Ec dS/m.
Remarks
--
TABLE No. 13 : Distribution of Area under Different Mapping Units
Village
Mapping
Unit
Area in Ha.
158
Soil
Irrigability Class
Land
Irrigability Class
Field team
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Tracer
7.
Driver
Duties of above posts.

1.

Administrative & technical control of sub division.
Planning of soil survey work.
Checking of 5% soil survey work.
Checking of draft copy of soil survey report.
2. .

Working as a Head of the technical branch
To assist the Dy.S.S.O.
Checking of 10% soil survey work.
Preparation of draft copy of soil survey report
3.

Planning, Working & recording of soil survey work.
Report writing, & checking of 20% soil survey work.
To assist the Dy.S.S.O.& Senior Scientific Assistant.
159
4.

Preparation of soil survey working plan.
Area mapping of soil map and preparation of vol. II & tables of vol. I
To assist the Dy.S.S.O., Sr.Sci.Asst. & Jr. Sci. Asst.
5.

Preparation of soil survey working plan.
To work out the area on plan and preparation of vol. II & tables of vol. I
To assist the Dy.S.S.O., Sr.Sci.Asst. & Jr. Sci. Asst.
160
CHAPTER - 11
CARTOGRAPHY
11.1 GENERAL :
Cartography deals with the art and technique of map and map making. Cartography
is not only concerned with skill to draw maps, but also with map generalization and
designing. Map generalization and designing includes processing of information so
that it can be depicted with the help of certain techniques on the maps.
11.1.1 Map and Plan : A map and a plan are often considered synonymous. A map
can be defined as a presentation of the earth or part thereof, on plain surface and
this representation is true to scale and depicts directions accurately. In case of plan,
no consideration is given to scale and direction or any one of these two. A map is
more accurate representation of the area than plan.
11.1.2 Map Scales : The earth has a very large area and no map can represent
earth surface in its actual dimensions. Hence for making maps, one has to reduce
the drawing to some degree depending on the actual size of area to be represented.
Thus the actual distance between two points on the earth will be shown much
smaller on the map.
The scale is the ratio between the actual distance separating two points on the
ground and the distance separating the same points on the map. Scale is a
necessary element of the map that helps maintaining accuracy of area and
distances. The scale of a map can be expressed in following different ways.
1) Statement : Verbal information is given e.g. one inch on map represents one mile
on ground or 1= 1mile, 1cm = 1km. Though this representation is simple, it suffers
from lack of compatibility as units of distance measurement used in different parts of
world are different.
2) Representative fraction (R.F.) : In this case units of distance on map and on the
ground are equalized and then units are ignored in writing. e.g. a statement scale of
1 cm = 1 km can be expressed as one cm on map represents 100000 cm ,
161
on ground and by ignoring the units, scale is represented as 1: 100000. In simple

terms it means that one unit distance on the map represents 100,000 units of
distance on the ground. The representative fraction can also be expressed as true
fraction i.e. 1/100000. In true fraction, numerator represents map distance while the
denominator represents the ground distance.
3) Graphical Scale : A graphical scale is a line of definite length that is divided in to
a number of parts and each segment is assigned the value it represents on the map.
e.g. for scale 1 cm = 1 km., Draw a line 10 cm long and graduate it to each cm.
The value of ground distance represented by each of subdivisions shall be 1 km.
Value of 5 subdivisions shall be 5 km. and so on. Such a graphical scale is called
plain scale. For measurement of distance less than that represented by one
division, the first division is sub divided and zero is marked at the end of first
division. (Fig. 11.1)
5
3
4
Kilometres
1
2
10
15
20
25
Fig. 11.1 Graphical Scale

A graphical scale showing the distance in two units simultaneously is called
comparative scale. It is just a combination of two plain scales with their zeros
coinciding. Plain scales can also be modified to produce diagonal scales. Diagonal
scales facilitate the reading of fractional distances.
One of the advantage of graphical scale over statement type or representative
fraction is that, when a original map with graphical scale is enlarged or reduced
graphical scale can still be used because the subdivisions shown on graphical scale
are proportionately reduced or enlarged. In the case of statement / R.F. scales only
font size of letters / figures gets reduced but the meaning of scale remains the
same.
11.1.3 Enlargement and Reduction of Maps : The simplest method of achieving
enlargement and reduction of map is grid method. This involves superimposing a
grid of suitable size on the original map. Then another grid is drawn on another
paper in the ratio in which the map is to be enlarged or reduced. New map is drawn
grid-wise.
162
A map showing simple linear features like rivers, road can be enlarged or reduced
by triangle method. Both these methods require drawing skills for accurate
reduction / enlargement.
Maps can be reduced / enlarged accurately with the help of pentagraph. It consists
of two points viz. tracing point and pencil point. Tracing point is moved over original
map and pencil point produces the map at desired proportion. (Fig 11.2)
Fig. 11.2 Pentagraph
11.1.4 Conversion Factors: While dealing with maps, the dimension of only length
is used. Hence conversion of length units are given below:
1 kilometre = 1000 metre
1 milimetre = 0.03937 inch
1 metre = 100 centimetre
1 metre = 3.28 ft.
1 centimetre = 10 milimetre
1 inch = 2.54 cm.
3 feet = 1 yard
1 feet = 30.48 cm.
1760 yard = 5280 feet = 1 mile
1 mile = 1.609 km = 5280 ft.
660 feet = furlong
1 kilometre = 0.6214 Mile
163
Area units: 1 are = 10 m. x 10 m.
1 ha = 100 are.
1 sq. mile =
1 hectare = 100 m. x 100 m.
1 Acre = 660 ft. x 66 ft.
2.59 km2
1 sq. km = 1000 m x 1000 m.
= 43560 sq. ft.
= 258.99 ha
1 Guntha = 33 ft x 33 ft.
= 640 Acre
= 100 hectares
1 Acre = 40 Guntha
11.1.5 Scales Used in Soil Survey :

The map scales recommended by various organizations for different types of soil
survey are as given below.
Department of Agriculture, Government of Maharashtra
Rapid Reconnaissance / Reconnaissance
1:250000 to 1:500000
Semi detailed
1:50000
Detailed low intensity
1:10000
Detailed high Intensity
1:5000
All India Soil & Land Use Survey Organization, I.A.R.I., New Delhi
Reconnaissance
1:50000, 1=1 mile (1:63360)
Detailed
8=1mile(1:7920),16=1mile(1:15840)
United States Department of Agriculture
Very intensive (1st order)
Intensive (2
nd
1:15840 or larger
order)
1:12000 to 1:31680
Extensive (3 order)
1:20000 to 1:63360
Extensive (4th order)
1:63360 to 1: 250000
rd
th
Very extensive (5 order)
1:250000 to 1:1000000 or smaller
F.A.O. 42
Very High Intensity (Detailed)
1:5000 to 1:10000
High Intensity (Detailed)
1:20000 to 1:25000
Medium Intensity (Reconn.)
1:50000
Low Intensity (Reconn.)
1:100000
Exploratory
1:250000 to 1:1000000
Synthesis
Smaller than 1:1000000
164
Scale of map depends on purpose to be served or information to be shown, intensity

of soil use, pattern of soils and scale of other cartographic materials available. Scale
of map must be large enough to allow areas of minimum size to be delineated
legibly. At the same time it should not be so large that size and number of sheets
are unduly increased.
11.1.6 Area conversions from map scales:

To calculate areas of different mapping units from a map, scale of map in linear
units is converted to area units as given below.
e.g.
1) scale of map is 1:10000

It means 1 cm. on map represents 10000 cm i.e. 100 m. on ground.
Hence a square of 1 cm. x 1 cm. on map will represent 100 m. x 100 m.
i.e. 1 hectare on ground. ie.1 cm2 = 1 ha.
Hence if the area of a unit on map is 63 cm2
will be 63 ha.
2)
the actual area of that unit
Scale of map is 1:20000

1 cm. on map represents 20000 an i.e. 200 m. on ground.
A square of 1 cm x 1 cm on map will represent 200 x 200 m. = 40000 m
i.e. 4 hectare on ground i.e. 1 cm2 = 4 ha.
Hence, if the area of a unit on map is 63 cm2
will be
the actual area of that unit
63 x 4 = 252 ha
11.2
MEASUREMENT OF AREA ON MAP
The areas on map can be measured by following methods.

1)
Instrumental method
2)
Graphical method
165
Instrumental Method
Instrumental method consists of determining area of a given figure by the use of
planimeter (Fig 11.3). It is employed when boundaries are irregular or curved.
1. Tracing Point
2. Tracing Arm
3. Anchor Point
4. Weight
7. Counting Disc/Dial
5. Anchor Arm
8. Wheel/Roller
6.Hinge
9.Vernier
10. Clamps
11. Slow Motion Screw
12. Index
Fig. 11.3 Planimeter

Planimeter consists of two arms hinged at a pivot point. One of these arms is called
anchor arm and is of fixed length. It carries a needle point called anchor point,
which is fixed in paper and held in position by detachable small weight. The other
arm called the tracing arm, which is of adjustable length and carries a tracing point.
Tracing point is moved round the boundary of area to be measured. The total
normal displacement is measured by a wheel whose axis is parallel to the tracing
arm. The wheel may be placed between the tracing point and pivot point or beyond
pivot point, away from the tracing point. The wheel carries a graduated drum
divided into 100 parts, tenths of part read on the vernier. The complete revolutions
of the wheel are read on the counting disc or dial to which wheel is geared. The
counting disc is divided into ten equal parts and advances one line at every turn of
wheel and performs one complete revolution at every 10 turns of wheel. Each
complete reading is therefore a figure of four digits, units read on counting disc,
tenths/ hundreds on the drum and thousands on vernier. The planimeter rests on
three points viz. anchor point, tracing point and periphery of wheel. Following steps
are followed while using planimeter.
i)
Set the index mark on the beveled edge of slide to the scale to which the
figure is drawn.
166
ii)
Fix the needle or anchor point firmly in the paper outside / inside the figure
according as figure is small or large.
iii)
Move the tracing point always in clockwise direction along the boundary of
the figure to see whether all the points can be reached or not.
iv)
Mark a definite point on the boundary and set tracing point exactly on it.
v)
Read dial and wheel reading (I.R.)
vi)
Move the tracing point on the boundary in clockwise direction.
vii)
When it reaches to initial point, read dial and wheel reading (F.R.)
viii)
Note the number of times zero of dial passes fixed index mark in a clockwise
or anti clockwise direction.
The area of figure is

Area A = M (FR IR + or - 10N + C) where
M Multiplier whose value is marked on tracing arm next to scale division
FR Final reading
IR Initial reading
N No. of times zero of dial passes fixed index mark

use
+ if clockwise rotation e.g. 7,8,9,0,1,2

- if anticlockwise rotation e.g. 2, 1,0, 9,8,7
C- Constant marked on tops of tracing arm just above scale division. To be added
only when anchor point is inside the figure.
Now a days digital planimeters are available in the market. These instruments give
the digital display of the area in preset area units. The procedure for the
measurement is same as given above but calculations are not necessary.
Graphical Methods
i) Division into squares : In this method a piece of tracing paper ruled out into
squares say 1 cm x 1 cm is placed over the figure. The number of complete
squares is counted. The squares which occupy more than half the square are
counted as full and the squares which occupy less than half the square are ignored.
The area of the figure is thus counted. (Fig. 11.4)
167
Fig. 11.4 Division into Squares

ii)
Division into trapezoids : In this method series of equidistant parallel lines

are ruled on a tracing paper, the constant distance preferably being unit
distance say 1 cm. The tracing paper is placed on the figure so that the
figure is divided into a number of strips. The curved ends of strips are
replaced by equalizing perpendiculars. The sum of lengths between
these equalizing perpendiculars for each strip multiplied by common
distance gives the area of figure. (Fig. 11.5)
Fig. 11.5 Division into Trapezoids
168
11.3
TYPES OF MAPS
Maps are basically of two types viz General Maps and Thematic Map.
1) General Map : The characteristics of such maps is that they generally show the
location of various places, things or processes, phenomenon e.g. Map of India
showing rail and road network alongwith the location of major towns is a general
map.
2) Thematic Map : Such maps are made to serve a specific purpose e.g. Map of
India showing wheat growing areas. Thus soil classification map of command area
is a thematic map.
11.4
BASE MAPS USED IN SOIL SURVEY
Topographical Maps : Topographical maps are the large scale maps of small areas
providing details of relief, drainage, natural vegetation, land use, human settlement,
and means of transport. Besides religious structures (church, temple, mosque etc.)
and community institutions are also shown. Topographical maps show horizontal
and vertical positions of features.
These maps are prepared on the basis of detailed survey and in our country they
are published by the Survey of India, Dehradun. The relief on the topographical
maps is shown by combination of contours, spot heights, bench marks and
trigonometric stations. A color scheme is used to represent terrain type and land
use e.g. brown mountainous region, white snow, yellow plains, green forests.
Topographical maps are drawn on various scales & there is a system of their
numbering. If one knows number of map, scale can be predicted.
Topographical maps are produced on the basis of international maps covering an
area of 40 of latitude and 40 longitude and they are numbered 1,2,3,4-----53 scale of
these maps is 1:1000000. These maps are divided into degree sheets covering an
area of one degree latitude and one degree longitude. Each sheet is thus one
sixteenth of international sheet. These sheets are numbered 53A, 53B, 53C --- The
scale of these sheets in metric units is 1:250000. The degree sheets are further
divided into half and quarter degree sheets. In case of half degree sheet, one
degree sheet is divided into four parts e.g. 53A/NE, 53A/SE, 53A/NW, 53A/SW. The
scale of half degree sheets is 1:100000. For quarter degree sheet, one degree
sheet is divided into 16 parts e.g. 53A/1, 53A/2----------53A/16 and the'
169
scale of quarter degree sheet is 1:50000. The quarter degree sheet cover an area
of 15 minute latitude by 15 minute longitude.
Survey of India has come up with a new layout of sheets based on world Geodetic
system WGS84 datum and Universal Transverse Mercator UTM projection. This
layout is schematically represented in the figure annexed herewith (Fig 11.6)
In soil survey works, topographical maps are used as base maps to gather
information about drainage network, relief features, water bodies, forests,
communication network in the area to be surveyed.
Cadastral Maps : Cadastral maps used as base maps in soil survey are village
maps. Village maps are prepared by Land Records department of the state. They
are drawn usually to a scale 8=1 mile or 1 in = 660 feet or 1:7920. While
topographical maps are prepared by trigonometric surveys, the village maps are
prepared by plane table surveys. The village maps show gaothan, village
boundaries, sy.nos./gut nos. and their boundaries, road/rail-ways, nala/river, grazing
lands (gairan)
Fig 11.6 Layout of Sheets
170
Map Projection : As already defined, a map is a representation of the earth or part

of it on a plane surface. But the surface of earth is spherical and this spherical
surface requires to be transformed to plane surface. This is done by map projection.
Projection can be defined as a systematic network of lines of latitude and longitude
on a plane surface for the earth as a whole or part thereof.
Map projection can be obtained by projecting the latitudes and longitudes on plane
surface, cylinder or a cone. A good projection should maintain accuracy of size
shape & direction. But none of the projections simultaneously maintain the accuracy
of size, shape & direction.
There are many types of projections. The details regarding each type of projection
are not required for soil survey. As stated earlier UTM projection is used in India.
11.5
REPRESENTATION OF RELIEF
Identification of relief features is very important in any kind of soil survey. Relief or
topography is one of the soil forming factor. Hence by identifying relief features,
many characteristics of soil can be inferred. Relief features are mainly identified by
contour patterns.
Contours :
Contours are imaginary lines that pass through the points of equal elevation or
height. The vertical distance between any two consecutive contours is called as
contour interval and the horizontal distance between two consecutive contours is
called horizontal equivalent. Horizontal equivalent depends on slope of the ground.
The contour internal to be decided depends on (i) Nature of ground (ii) Purpose and
extent of survey (iii) Scale of map and (iv) Time and expense required in contour
determination. The more broken the ground, greater must be contour interval,
otherwise contours will come to close to each other. The smaller the scale greater
must be contour interval. If the contour interval is smaller, amount of field and office
work is greater and hence the time and cost.
Characteristics of contours :
1) Contours run close together near the top of hill, representing steep ground and
are wide apart on flat ground.
2) Uniform slope is indicated when contour lines are uniformly placed, while a plane
surface is indicated when contours are straight and equally spaced.
171
3) Contours cross ridges and valleys at right angles. When higher value contours
are inside the loop or bend, it represents a ridge, while valley is represented when
lower value contours are inside the loop or bend.
4) Same contour appears on either side of ridge / valley.
5) Contour line cannot intersect each other in a point.
6) When several contours coincide each other or merge together, horizontal
equivalent being zero, it represents a overhanging cliff.
7) Contour lines can not end anywhere, but they close on themselves within or
outside the boundaries of map.
8) A series of closed contours indicates a depression or summit depending on
whether lower or higher values are inside respectively. Depression between the
summits is called saddle.
9) Line passing saddle and summits gives divide or watershed line. Thus line is a
boundary line of the catchments of a river or nala.
The various relief features and contour patterns are shown in the adjoining figures
(Fig. 11.7).
172
Fig. 11.7 Relief Features
173
11.6
REMOTE SENSING (R.S.) / GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM

(G.I.S.) AND GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (G.P.S)
11.6.1 REMOTE SENSING

Remote sensing can be defined as obtaining information about an area / object
through the analysis of data obtained by a device that is not in contact with the area
/ object. The simplest form of remote sensing can be taking a photograph using a
camera.
An instrument or device used for obtaining information about the subject of remote
sensing is called a sensor. The base or platform or satellite to which sensor is
attached is called platform. The platform may be ground based (camera tripod), air
borne (air plane) or space borne ( satellite). The information obtained from sensors
is processed and made available to users in the form of paper, films, transperencies
or CDs.
The most common type of energy used by satellite remote sensing is
electromagnetic radiation. Only a small part of electromagnetic spectrum is visible to
naked eye. The component spectral regions of electro magnetic spectrum are given
below:
Wavelength Range
Name of Spectal Region
300 km to 3 km
Audio
3 km to 30 m
Radio
30 m to 0.3 m
FM / TV
0.3 m to 0.3 mm
Microwave
0.3 mm to 0.7 m
Infrared
0.7 m to 0.4 m
Visible
0.4 m to 0.3 m
Ultraviolet
30 nm and below
X rays
174
Remote sensing is done in visiblespectral region of electromagnetic spectrum. For

certain special applications infrared and microwave regions are also used in remote
sensing.
Electromagnetic radiation when incident on a surface may get reflected or absorbed
depending on the nature of object and wavelength of radiation. Depending on this
property, each object behaves differently in different wavelength regions and hence
different objects can be identified by remote sensing. In day to day example yellow
colour of papaya fruit is indication that fruit is ripe. in the same way, in remote
sensing, the basic property which allows identification of a object is called digital
signature. In soil survey remote sensing is applied to determine land use / land
cover, soil moisture, minerals etc. Digital signatures of some of the objects are given
below:
Built up land
Dark bluish green
Transportation
Very dark to dark bluish green
Cropped land
Bright red to red
Fallow land
Yellow to greenish blue
Forest
Bright to Dark red
Salt affected land
White to light blue
Waterlogged land
Light to dark blue
Gullied land
Light yellow to bluish green
Sandy area
White to light yellow
Snow
Bright to white
River / Stream / Water bodies
Light to dark blue (turbid / clear water)
However, some ground truth verification is essential to effectively use the remotely
sensed data.
In India, Indian Space Research Organisation has launched a series of remote
sensing satellites in IRS series. After year 2000 satellites launched in IRS series are
IRS P5 (Cartosat) and IRS P6 (Resourcesat). The data products of these and
other foreign satellites can be obtained from National Remote Sensing Agency
(NRSA), Hyderabad.
175
The wikimapia and google earth maps available on the internet can also be used as
a guide in soil survey, they give fair representation of vegetation, forest, cropped
fields and their boundaries, roads, settlements, waterbodies, canals at spatial and
spectrual resolutions fixed by these web sites.
The softwares mostly used in analysis of remote sensing data are EASI/PACE,
IDRISI, ERDAS etc.
11.6.2 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM
GIS can be defined as a system that facilitates storage and intelligent use of
geographic data. An essential feature of GIS is use of computer hardware and
software to collect, store, manipulate and process geographic data. The most
important building block of of system is the location i.e. data relating to scale
measurement. The data are referenced by some coordinate system to locations on
earth surface. GIS allows not only manipulation and analysis of data, but also it
facilitates its presentation in the form of maps, tablesor any other form and makes
possible efficient storage and handling of data. THe data is stored in such a form
that any information can be retrieved from mass without any delay.
GIS makes the use of layers for storing data about individual entities e.g. canals can
be one layer, field boundaries othe layer, drainage network another and so on. This
technique is called overlay analysis.
GIS uses two approaches to represent the geographic information. A raste format or
grid format gives the location of geographic object by row and column position of cell
and this format consumes lot of computer storage space. Another format is vector
format in which geographic features are converted to geometrical entities like point,
line, arc, polygon which can be defined by geometrical formula and hence requires
less storage space. In vector format points are encoded by determing their
coordinates and the process is called digitisation or topological coding. Digitisation
converts raster data to vector format and it also facilitates spatial operations like
overlay analysis, buffering, network analysis and multiple querrying.
The data in GIS has at least two components, the graphical data and attribute data.
For example in village map, farm boundaries is graphical data while gut number is
attribute data. The GIS software maintains linkage between these
176
two types of data. Here are given some of the GIS softwares. GIS softwares are
also capable of accepting Remote Sensing data.
GIS Softwares Arc info, Arc view, SPAN, GRAM ++, GRASS, GEOMEDIA,
ERDAS, INTERGRAPH, Auto CAD Map.
11.6.3 GLOBAL POSITIONG SYSTEM
Global Positioning System GPS is a sateliite based navigation system. It was
originally started by U.S. Dept. of Defence by its NAVSTAR satellite system. The
system is based on the principal of trilateration, a basic principal that allows you find
a location of a point if its distance from at least three fixed stations is known.
NAVSTAR is a system of 24 satellites and at any point of time and at any location at
least 4 satellites are available to the users of GPS receiver which catches the
signals from these satellites. In this system a special device known as GPS receiver
is to be used. By ranging the satellites, the receiver gives the location of the point in
terms of latitude, longitude and height or altitude. A typical GPS receiver resembles
old fationed mobile phones or walkie-talkies used by police department,
References:
7) Soil Survey Manual, U. S. Department of Agriculture Handbook No. 18 - Soil
Survey Staff, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils and Agricultural Engineering (1993)
8) Soil Survey Manual - All India Soil and Land Use Survey Organization, I. A. R. I.,
New Delhi (1970)
9) Soil Survey Investigations for Irrigation F. A. O. soils bulletin No. 42
10) Surveying and Levelling T. P. Kanetkar and S. V. Kulkarni
11) Text Book of Soil Physics Arunkumar Saha, Kalyani Publishers
12) Layout of Toposheets Downloaded from http://www.mycoordinates.org/
wp-content/upload/2009-10
13) Lecture notes on 10th training course on Applications of Geoinformatics in Water
Sector 10th Jan to 20th Jan by National Water Academy, Pune
177
Chapter 12
POST IRRIGATION SOIL SURVEY
12.1
Post Irrigation Soil Survey

The main objective of land evaluation for irrigated agriculture is to predict
future conditions after development has taken place.

The potential problems of land resources in the command area that can arise
with commencement of irrigation artificially are predicted roughly in the pre-irrigation
soil survey report. These potential problems are evaluated with the data generated
in post irrigation soil survey after the introduction of irrigation and comparing with the
data generated during pre-irrigation soil survey process.
12.1.1 The need for post irrigation soil survey/objective of post irrigation
soil survey.
1)
To characterize and assess the soil quality.
2)
To identify the potential and constraints of soils with reference to irrigation.
3)
To manage drainage conditions based on the assessment.
4)
To determine land reclamation needs.
5)
To determine erosion control needs.
6)
Ecological aspects related salinity status and water logging of the

command area.
12.2
Methodology of post irrigation soil survey
The methodology of post irrigation soil survey is similar to pre-irrigation soil

survey. However the data generated during pre-irrigation soil survey is compared
with the data generated during the post irrigation soil survey in respect of land
degradation.
178
12.3 Type of soil survey

Post Irrigation soil survey should be detailed soil survey, which is achieved by
studying all the site (like slope, erosion, drainage, salinity etc.) and soil
characteristics (such as depth, texture, colour, structure, porosity, soil reaction etc.)
in detail and grouping / delineating homogenous areas based on their similarity or
differences into various management units.
12.4 At What period it should be done
Post Irrigation soil survey is done after every 5 years after the
commencement of irrigation.
12.5
Procedure of post irrigation soil survey

The procedure of post irrigation soil survey is similar to pre-irrigation soil
survey. The various activities are as given below.

12.6
Pre field activities
a)
Collection of command map (in case of any change in command area only)
b)
Collection of cadastral maps (in case of any change in command area only)
c)
Preparation of working map.
d)
Pre-irrigation soil survey Report with soil map (collection and for reference)
e)
Collection of other necessary information.
12.7
Field activities
a)
Traversing from known point, observe slope, surface texture, colour, erosion,
salinity, alkalinity and marking of boundaries.
b)
In the selected sites, profiles and auger bores are to be taken up to 250 cm or
hard substratum which ever comes earlier and studied in detailed for all their
morphological and physical characteristics. Soil and site characteristics are to be
recorded in a standard proforma for open profile.
179
Based an soil site characteristics recorded from profile study and from
random observations the soils are grouped into different mapping units.
In post irrigation soil survey, open pits and auger bores may be taken as per
requirement but should not exceed the limits set for pre-irrigation soil survey.
12.7.1 Site Characteristics.
1)
Landform
2)
Depth of solum
3)
Slope
4)
Erosion
5)
Runoff
6)
Drainage
7)
Stoniness
12.7.2 Site Description

1)
Location
2)
Landform
3)
Slope
4)
Drainage
5)
Vegetation
6)
Parent Material
7)
Climate
8)
Water Table
12.7.3 Morphological Characteristics of Soil

1)
Horizon
2)
Depth
3)
Boundry
4)
Matrix Colour
5)
Texture
6)
Structure
7)
Consistency
8)
Porosity
9)
Roots
10)
Nodules
11)
Effervescence
12)
Other Features
2)
Coarse fragment
12.7.4 Physical Properties of Soil

1)
Soil Depth
3)
Partical size distribution (Textural class ) for surface only.
4)
Bulk density
6)
Hydraulic conductivity
5)
180
AWC
12.7.5 Chemical Properties of Soil

1)
pH
2)
EC
3)
O. C.
4)
CaCO3
5)
CEC
6)
Exchangeable cations
12.7.6 Water Quality

1)
pH
2)
EC
3)
Ca2+
4)
Mg2+
5)
Na+
6)
CO32-
7)
HCo3-
Collection of representative soil and water samples for laboratory

investigations will be as per Pre-irrigation soil survey norms.
12.7.7 Collection of other particulars from survey area if necessary.
1)
Climatic data
2)
Land use, Land cover
3)
Marketing facilities availability
4)
Socioeconomic factors
5)
Other necessary information etc.
12.8 Post field activities.

12.8.1 Soil survey data interpretation and soil survey report writing.
Comparison of properties of soil of pre-irrigation & post irrigation.
Changes in chemical properties in soil after prolonged irrigation.
Highlighting the areas where chemical properties are changed.
12.8.2 Generations of soil map.

Map showing distribution of various types of soil or soil classification map is
generated already during pre-irrigation soil survey.
181
At the time of post irrigation soil survey the soil map is generated by two
types.
1)
By showing new observed changes in respect of salinity in particular location
by delineating the polygons on the map with keeping the previous soil map
generated at the time of pre-irrigation soil survey as base or domain. In this case
only single characteristic can be taking into consideration and show their extent on
the map is possible.
2)
If we want to show changes in more than one characteristic on map then we
have to prepare separate thematic map for individual characteristics but in this case
also the thematic maps are generated by keeping previous soil map as base or
domain.
References :
1)
Biswas, T. D. and Mukherjee, S. K. (2001). Textbook of soil science. Second

Ed. Tata Mc Graw - Hill Publications Ltd. New Delhi.
2)
FAO (1985) Guidelines : Land evaluation for Irrigated agriculture, FAO Soil
Bull. 55.
3)
FAO (1986) Soil Survey investigations for irrigation, FAO Soil Bull. 42.
4)
I. A. R. I. (1971) Soil Survey Manual, IARI Publ. New Delhi.
5)
Natarajan, A. and Sarkar, D. (2009). Field Guide for Soil Survey. NBSS &
LUP Publ. Nagpur.
6)
Effect of Irrigation on soil and ground water in Ukai Right Bank Command of
Surat District of Gujrat by Soil, Drainage & Reclamation Circle, GERI,
Vadodara.
182
CHAPTER NO. 13
GOVERNMENT CIRCULAR AND RESOLUTION

.

. ... 1979/(1817)-1
, 400 032.
2 1979

.
, ,

.
. .
2.
,

, ,

.
3.
1979-80
, ,
.
( . . )

,
, , ///
, , .
, ,
, ,
, ,
, ,
, ,
, ,
, ,
, , /// ()//
//////
183
No. SSI 1079/(8)/
Irrigation Department
Mantralaya, Bombay 400 032
7th January 1980
To,
The Director,
Irrigation Research & Development,
PUNE
Subject :
Preparation of Soil Survey Reports of the command

area of major / medium projects in conformity with
the Indian Standards.
2. The Indian Standard Institution has laid down the procedure and directions
for carrying out the soil surveys, in their publication IS 5510:1969. In Table-I of that
Standard, criteria for classifying lands into various irrigability classes as suited to
semi-arid and arid regions has been given. It is presumed that you are following this
Standard for the soil surveys of the projects. Please confirm.
3. According to this Indian Standard The irrigable soils are to be classified
into four classes i.e. Class 1 to Class 4. In the command of the particular project
there may be soils of these four classes and these four classes will have to be
brought to a common footing while considering the command as a whole. You are
requested to study this aspect and suggest whether a common index can be found
out which will reflect all the four classes. This common index, it is felt, may be useful
in comparing the commands of different projects.
Please send your report on the above twi points at the earliest.
Sd/( N. M. Jog )
Officer on Special Duty & Dy. Secretary to Government,
Irrigation Department.
184
C IR C U L AR
Phase level mapping on the cadastral maps has been a part od Soil Survey
and is being done by taking a detailed traverse of the area to represent a detailed
picture of soils of the area.
It would be of use if details observed during traverse survey are noted in the
note book by the field survey officer. It is therefore, instructed to issue note books to
the persons conducting the traverse survey and instruct them to note details of
traverse survey in note book. The soil survey officer / Executive Engineers should
verify the details of travrse survey noted in the note book by field survey staff during
their visits to field work. This should be done with immediate effect.
The note book entries should show that the whole area is traversed and 25%
is checked by Soil Classifier.
(R. R. Choudhari )
Superintending Engineer & Director,
Irrigation Research and Development, Pune
No. SSA/
/of 1982,
Office of the Superintending Engineer & Director,
Irrigation Research and Development, Pune-1.
Copy forwarded to Soil Survey Officer, Soil Survey Division,

Pune, Nagpur and the Executive Engineer, Irrigation Research Division,
Aurangabad for information and immediate action.
Copy to Deputy Soil Survey Officer, Soil Survey Sub-Division,

. .. for information and action.
185
. /1025//..

, 400 032.
31 1985
,
, ( ),
, ,
, ()
: (Definition)
G.C.A., C.C.A., I.C.A., Annual Cropped Area, Irrigation

Intensity & Cropping Intensity .
.
( . . )
(.)
31185
186
In Maharashtra, most of the canal are contour

canals. Definitions of GCA, CCA and ICA are based on
their background.
GCA :
GCA is the total area between the main

canal and the parent river.
CCA :
CCA is the total culturable area between

the canal and the parent river after
deducting from the GCA, area occupied
by habitations, roads, tanks, waste lands,
irrigation systems, etc. GCA is some
percentage of the CCA.
ICA :
ICA is the area for which irrigation water

is designed to be supplied. This has
limitations of the availability of water and
the water levels of the irrigation systems.
ICA is some percentage of the CCA.
Annual Cropped area : This is the sum of areas sown

separately in different seasons over the
particular year including unirrigated but
cropped area.
Irrigation Intensity : This is expressed in terms of % as
follows Annual Cropped Area
(excluding unirrigated areas)
------------------------------------------ X 100
G.C.A
Cropping Intensity : This is expressed in terms of % as
follows
Annual Cropped Area
(excluding unirrigated areas)
------------------------------------------ X 100
Net Irrigated Area in that year
187

Soil Survey Guidelines

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Soil Survey Guidelines

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

(FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY)

WATER RESOURCES DEPARTMENT

SOIL SURVEY GUIDELINES

DIRECTORATE OF IRRIGATION RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

The work of Soil Survey is being carried out in the Directorate of

I acknowledge the strenuous efforts put in by a team of experienced

History of Soil Survey for irrigation in

Objective of soil survey precise

Various types of soil survey

Preliminary requirements for commencing soil

Procedure of soil survey for Pre-Irrigation.

Soil Sample Analysis

Norms for soil survey

Interpretation and utility of soil survey

Preparation of soil survey Report

Post Irrigation Soil Survey

Government Circulars & Resolutions

Surface Stonniness classes

Rock outcrop classes

Assessment of soil texture

Soil structure sizes

Cylinder infiltration test data

Criteria for classifying soils into irrigability

Soil texture, structure, permeability and

Specification for land irrigability classes

Criteria for soil and land irriga bility classification

Existing crop pattern in rain fed area

Cropping pattern in the area irrigated on

Comprehensive tabulation of soils, suitable

Soil and water properties

Analytical data of typical profiles

Distribution of areas under different land

Rate of infiltration in cm/hr.

Distribution of area as per soil irrigability class

Distribution of area as per I.A.R.I. depth norms

Distribution of area according to slope classes

Properties of river eater sample

Distribution of area under different mapping units

Severe sheet erosion

Rills and incipient gullies in black cotton soils

Designation for horizons

Clear smooth boundary

Topography of the soil boundaries as seen in

The complete colour notation as arranged in the

Graphic chart for estimating the percent of area

Black irregular blocks that are usually 1.5 to 5.0

Columnar - vertical columns, of soil that have a

Prismatic - long vertical columns, usually found

Granular - resembles cookie crumbs and is

Platy - Flat plates of soil that lie horizontally

No structure, hard to break, seen in large clods

Agro-ecological regions of Maharashtra

Division into squares

Division into trapezoids

Mechanical analysis set up

Saturation moisture percentage set up

Hydraulic conductivity set up

Determination of organic carbon

United States Bureau of Reclamation

Food and Agriculture Organization

United States Department of Agriculture

Indian Agriculture Research Institute

Indian Council of Agricultural Research