Scuola di Dottorato in Ingegneria Industriale

Attivit didattica 2011 in Ingegneria Elettrotecnica

Special electric machines

Dr. A. Tortella
Laboratory of Electric Machines

Dipartimento
Dipartimento di
di Ingegneria
Ingegneria Elettrica
Elettrica

Summary
Introduction (motor classification and characteristics)
Magnetic materials (permanent magnets, SMC)
Small electric motors
o Line-start single-phase induction and synchronous motors
o Single-phase PM brushless motors
o DC servomotors
Single-phase self-excited alternators (low rate)
Step motors (reluctance, PM and hybrid types)
Switched reluctance motors
Linear machines
o Differences with rotating electrical machines
o Induction and synchronous machines
o Industry and transport applications

Medium and high rated motors

T.J.E. Miller : Brushless

Permanent-Magnet and
Reluctance Motor Drives

Conventional motors (Ist row)

o
o
o
DC commutator
(conventional excitation)

3-phase synchronous 3-phase induction

(conventional excitation)

Motors for electric drives (IInd e IIIrd rows)

o
o

o
PM DC commutator

3-phase hybrid-PM
synchronous

Normally operated using a power

converter with a suitable control
Favorable operating and manufacturing
features with respect to the conventional
motors
Possibility of high speed operation
(reluctance type machines)

All the motors suitable for variable speed

drives
o
o
o

DC or sinusoidal brushless
(PM excitation)

Normal operation if supplied directly by

the mains
Self-starting without adopting auxiliary
devices
Constant steady-state torque

Switched reluctance

Energy saving (maximum process

efficiency, lower power for cooling)
Position/speed control
Improvement of transient phenomena
(limitation of electric and mechanical
stresses, suitability for start/stop
processes)

Small electric motors

Single-phase or DC supply generally requested for both industrial and
home appliances (HVAC, portable tools, washing machines, )
Rated power ranging from some W to several hundreds of W
Requested performances often different from the high rated machines
o Reduced weight and volume
o Reliability (application and working cycles not defined in advance)
o Reduced costs and maintenance
o Low EMC and acoustic noise emissions
Design and manufacturing issues to obtain self-starting capability (AC)
o 2-phase stator winding (main and auxiliary) with cage-type rotors
o Pole air-gap shaping (PM machines)
Commutation concerns because of the low number of slots, involving
current and torque ripple (DC)
Pulsating component (backward field) and harmonics in the main field (AC)
o Efficiency and power factor lower than 3-phase machines
o Significant torque ripple (especially 2nd harmonic)

Permanent magnets
Replacement of the conventional excitation in DC and AC synchronous
machines
Efficiency improvement and volume reduction
Problems with flux control and operating temperature
High range of applications from some tens of W (ferrites) to MW
machines (rare earths)
Hard magnetic materials (Brinell hardness values as high as 690)
Wide hysteresis cycle (high amount of magnetizing and
demagnetizing energy)
High coercivity with respect to the soft magnetic materials (operation
in the II quadrant of B-H curve)
Low permeability at the normal operating point
Main materials (solid often sintered form, bonded or molded)
Ceramics (strontium and barium ferrites)
Alnico (alloy of aluminum, nickel and cobalt)
Rare earths (samarium-cobalt, neodymium-iron)

Examples of PM machines
Small DC motors

Traction motor (IPM)

High speed rotor

Small and high rated generators for wind

turbines (axial and radial flux)

B-H characteristics
B = 0H + J Normal hysteresis loop
J-H curve Intrinsic loop (domain
orientation)
Experimental determination
o Increasing H field in the virgin
material
o Domain orientation (J=Js)
o H zero setting (B=BrJs)
o H inversion demagnetizing
curve
o Cancellation of B (H=Hc)
Influence of the magnetic knee
position (quadrant II or III)
o |H| reduction above the knee
B Br
o |H| reduction below the knee
B Br < Br
o Recoil line based on rec

Yeadon: Handbook of small electric motors

Intrinsic (J, Hi)

B=0H+J

Magnetization curves

PM typical properties
Remanence Br: defines the PM section needed to obtain a given magnetic flux
Operating remanence Bd: B value after removing the magnetic load
o Linear curve BdBr
o Non-linear curve Bd depends on rec related to the linear part
Coercivity Hc: defines the maximum allowable electric load without the material
demagnetization
Maximum specific energy or grade BHmax: defines the minimum PM volume to
obtain a given (air-gap) energy
o Optimal operating point to minimize costs (important for design purpose)
o Constraint on the torque density (Bm /Am , Hm NI/lm)
Temperature coefficients TC(Br), TC(Hc): define the BH curve modification when
the operating temperature changes
o TC(Br)=(dBr/dT)/Br100 TC(Hc)=(dHc/dT)/Hc100
o Reversible during cooling only if the curve remains linear (condition fixed by
the maximum temperature Tmax), otherwise a new magnetization is needed
Curie temperature TC: defines the temperature limit after which the magnetic
domains lose their orientation complete and irreversible demagnetization

Alnico

9
Dexter Magnet Technology: Permanent Magnet Catalog

High temperature stability (operation up to 550 ) and relatively high remanence

Non- linear B-H curve with low Hc (long and thin shapes, use of magnetic shunts)
Production with casting processes (for complex shapes) or by sintering
Troublesome machining because of the hardness and brittleness of the material
Isotropic (un-oriented particles which can be magnetized with any pattern) or
anisotropic (particles oriented according to the magnetization direction) property

10

Ferrites

High coercivity (demagnetization robustness), resistance to oxidation and low

electric conductivity
Cheap material widespread for low rated PM machines (nowadays considered also
for medium sized machines because of the cost)
Ceramics ferrites troublesome to machine because of the hardness and
brittleness of the material (cut effectively only with diamond tools)
Flexible ferrites (combined with rubber) to obtain complex shapes or direct
incorporation with shaft

Grade 1: anisotropic (not oriented)

Magnetic knee

Grade 5: readily available and very inexpensive

Grade 7: B-H curve knee below the H axis (high level of resistance
to demagnetization)
Grade 8 (and various subgrades): more powerful, useful for new
design of ferrite permanent-magnet motors and actuators

11

Neodymium--Iron
Neodymium
Iron--Boron
Highest magnetic performances (remanence and grade)
Low temperature and oxidation resistance (protection coating made of zinc,
nickel or polymers), electric conductivity (shielding requires), troublesome
production and machining (brittleness, toxic materials, dangerous to handle,
damage of devices sensitive to high magnetic fields)
Production by direct particle sintering (sintered magnets) or covering them by
polymers as nylon or epoxy resins (bonded magnets lower performances,
easier production and shaping, low conductivity)
Define operating temperature

Samarium cobalt

12

Common compositions Sm1Co5 and Sm2Co17

Less powerful and more expensive than neodymium-iron, very brittle (small pieces),
very good temperature (250 C), linear curve and corrosion resistance
Production by sintering or by bonding with polymer binders (needed also in case
of large assemblies, lower operating temperature)

Sm1Co5

Sm2Co17

Bonded magnets
Precision: superior mechanical tolerances because of the elimination of the
sintering operation, finish machining not required (more cost-effective)
Isotropic behavior: multiple magnetization patterns including axial, diametric, radial
and multi-pole are possible
Form: compacted to the net shape through a die (elimination of subsequent
machining, greater consistency)
Negligible eddy currents: insulation due to the polymer bonding
Temperature dependence
Magnetic properties (rare earth)

13

14

Magnetization for radial flux machines

http://www.mqitechnology.com

Three basic orientations with bonded magnets

1) Straight: Flux lines are parallel and unconstrained by magnet geometry
2) Radial: Flux enters and exits the ring along a radial vector

3) Halbach: Flux orientation is continuously rotating with respect to the magnet

(only one side is magnetized)
Implications regarding the flux
density profile and the backiron design
DC brushless
machine

Sinusoidal
machine

15

Magnetization skewing

http://www.mqitechnology.com

Adopted to reduce cogging or noise in a motor without skewing armature

laminations (too complex and expensive)
Reduction of the magnetic flux harmonic content according to the well-known
skewing coefficient
h: harmonic order
Example of fixtures
f ( ) = sin (hp 2 ) (hp 2 ) p: pole pairs
sk , h

sk

sk

sk

sk: skewing angle

o Total amplitude reduction

o Shape modification (important when
cogging is used for the motor
starting)
o Proper choice to avoid excessive
decrease of the output torque

18 skewing

Steel plates

16

Commercial bonded magnets

Rare earths

Top (C) =110=110-150

rec= 1.101.10-1.20

Ring PM axial Halbach magnetization

Ferrites

Interp. (I-III harm.)

interpolation
0.2 B [T]

Measured

0.15

Top (C) =80=80-120

rec= 1.3

0.1
0.05
0
-0.05
-0.1

-0.15
-0.2

[]
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

Permeance coefficient: calculation example

Brushless motor with surface magnets
t/2

At

hm

PM section:
Air-gap section:
Air-gap reluctance:
PM permeance:
Rotor permeance:

t/2

m
r0
2

m0

r0
2

Am
r1

Am = 2 3 (r1 t hm 2 ) Lm

At = [2 3 (r1 t 2) + 2t ] (Lm + 2t )
t =

Am
C =
At

PM flux
concentration
factor

kc t
0 At

m 0 =

0 rec Am
hm

m = m 0 +r = m 0 (1 + pr 0 )

pr0 = (0.050.2)

Rotor leakage
coefficient

17

Permeance coefficient: calculation example

C

Air-gap flux density:

1
t =
r
1 + m t

Bt =

PM flux density:

1
t =
m
1+rt

1 +r t
Bm =
Br
1 +m t

Permeance coefficient: H m =

Br Bm
0 rec

PM characteristic

B
Br

PC

P
Hm

Magnetic circuit
characteristic

Bm
1 + r t
=
rec =
0 H m m 0 t
1 + pr 0 rec C k c t Lm
Lm
=

C k c t Lm
C k c t
PC =

By substituting PC in the magnetic circuit

characteristic

Bm

Hc

1 + mt

Br

Bm
0.85
Br

Bm
PC
=
Br
PC + rec
PC (56)

18

Parametric variations
Air-gap variation
(linear motors,
eccentricity
problems)

External m.m.f.
(no-load to load
condition, shortcircuit, )

19

Summary of PM characteristics

Reference sizes
Distance point P
5 mm
Flux density BP
100 mT

Very interesting as far as cost/energy ratio

is concerned
NdFe

SmCo

20

Neodymium magnet cost (2010)

21
http://www.ndmagnets.com

Price determined by three categories

o manufacturing process
o supply of its raw materials
o required performance
Sintered Neo: anisotropic material whose
alignment is imposed during the pressing
operation

Other factors affecting the price

Prices of certain rare earth elements (such as
dysprosium or terbium) employed to enhance
the magnet ability to withstand more extreme
operating or environmental conditions
(availability only in some regions)
Improvement in densification of the magnet
material and/or with better orientation of the
magnetic powder (anisotropic sintered Neo is
very favorable)

Isotropic bonded Neo magnets: made

from isotropic powder magnetized after
molding simpler and more economic
process, though methods which develop
greater densification consequently
produce higher magnetic remanence and
hence better price performance
Anisotropic bonded Neo magnets: highest
$/kg because their fine powder is quite
unstable and has to be handled in a batch
process, which must also incorporate the
magnetic aligning field; but this orientation
produces far superior magnetic properties
compared to isotropic bonded magnets.

Soft magnetic composites (SMC)

Innovative material adopted to produce magnetic cores of DC and AC

electric machines with isotropic magnetic properties
Iron particle powder covered by an insulating material (organic resin,
polymers) thermally and mechanically processed to obtain
unconventional 3D shapes
Main features
o Realization of complex magnetic geometries with 3D flux patterns
(axial or transverse flux machines, ) using suitable moulds
o Low eddy current losses high frequency (speed) applications
o Manufacturing automation (final form obtained by combining two
or three moulds, easy mounting of the winding coils)
o Easy to recycle (crumbling and separation from the winding)
o Temperature stability of the magnetic properties

22

Comparison with laminations

Radial flux machines

Poles for axial flux machines

Linear tubular
machines
(stator
assemblies)

23

24

Comparison with laminations

W/kg

f = 50 Hz

f = 100 Hz

GKN Ancor. Lam.35 GKN Ancor.

f = 200 Hz

f = 400 Hz

Lam.35

GKN Ancor.

Lam.35

GKN Ancor.

Lam.35

B=0.5 T

1.85

0.55

3.81

1.6

8.0

2.9

17.4

7.0

B=1.0 T

6.08

1.6

12.5

4.0

26.5

10.0

58.7

24.0

more than quadratic

more than double

Moreover:
o
o
o
o

Lower mechanical resistance and thermal conductivity

Unsuited for reluctance machines (too high magnetizing current)
High production costs
Difficult efficiency prediction from prototypes obtained from
sample machining (loss of particle electrical insulation)

Single--phase induction motors

Single
Main winding directly supplied by the mains presence of
a pulsating field which can be decomposed in two rotating
fields F+ and F-, with forward (+) and backward direction (-)
F1 ( , t ) = FM cos t cos p =

FM
F
cos( p t ) + M cos( p + t )
2
2

F+

F /p /p F+

Induced e.m.f. E+ and E- related to the rotating field

components which represents the rotor reaction due to the
eddy current in the cage bars
R1

Electromagnetic torque

X1
I 12+

I1
E+

Xm
2

Xm
2
I 12

R 12
2s

C+
C

X 12
2
R 12
2 2s
X 12
2

Absence of a starting
torque due to the balanced
field action (s=1)

-0.5

1
C

0.5

Null torque for s>0 (n<n0)

n/n0 Reduced steady torque
1

with respect to a symmetric

motor (negative torque due
to the backward fields)
Presence of a pulsating
torque (2kp, k=1,2,)

Starting methods
Adoption of an auxiliary circuit with 90 spatial displacement
with respect to the main one and supplied by a current having a
phase shifting possibly near to 90 (2-phase winding system)
o Presence of a starting torque
o Efficiency, power factor and torque improvement (both mean
and pulsating values) because of the backward field reduction

Main starting arrangements

1) Split phase
2) Capacitor start
3) Permanent-split capacitor
4) Capacitor start and run (two
capacitors)
5) Shaded pole

Preliminary torque comparison

Split phase
Auxiliary winding having different reactance/resistance ratio

Rated power < 400 W

High resistance, low inductance open slots, small wire gauge
Excluded at 75% of the rated speed by a centrifugal switch to limit losses
Two application categories
o Standard: starting torque comparable to the rated one, low starting
current because of the frequent starting and long operating cycles
(fans, burners)
o Special: high starting torque and currents with intermittent operation
(washing machines)

Capacitor start
Capacitor connected to the auxiliary winding excluded before
reaching the operating speed
Lower phase
displacement

Rated power < 750 W, high starting torque

suitable for high inertia loads
Higher torque for a given line current with
respect to a split-phase motor
Capacitor voltage increasing with speed (as
faster as higher is C value) exclusion at about
80% of the synchronous speed
Electrolytic-type capacitor more suitable mainly
for cost reason and intermittent operation

Ia

Im

Ia
I
|Ia | < |Ia |

Im

Permanent--split capacitor
Permanent
Capacitor permanently connected to the auxiliary winding

Split capacitor

Condition nearest to the pure 2-phase supply better efficiency and

power factor, smoother torque
Impregnated paper capacitor suitable for continuous operation low
value of C because of the cost and maximum voltage requirements,
providing starting torque lower than the rated one
Increase of the starting performance in combination with:
o Split-phase winding: capacitor connected at a proper speed to avoid
an overvoltage condition (efficiency problem at the rated condition)
o Capacitor-start and run (two value capacitors): starting capacitor
excluded at a given speed (Cstart=100500 F Cperm=110 F)

Capacitor--type motors (commercial data)

Capacitor
Capacitor start
P
[W]

n
[rpm]

I
[A]
(at 220 V)

cos

92

2700

1.75

250

2800

750

2850

Irated

Ts
Trated

Tmax
Trated

C
[F]

Weight
[kg]

0.7

2.33

2.5

1.8

20

6.1

2.9

0.72

2.6

25

9.8

6.8

0.76

2.5

2.2

50

17

Permanent split capacitor

Is

Reversing rotation (PSC)

A+C

Winding
A

iA

iB

1 ON

t1 t2

B+C

2 ON

iB

Winding
B

iA
t

t1 t2

1 ON B

2 ON

A
A R

R
P

A
B R

R
P

A
t = t1

t = t2

t = t1

t = t2

Multiple speed operation

Insertion of one or more
intermediate windings between
the line and the main winding
(same spatial position)
Reduction of the air-gap flux (for
a given voltage) because of the
increased number of turns when
the intermediate winding is inserted
L: low speed

H
M
L

H: high speed

L3

L2
L1
n

Operating speed
dependant on the load
characteristic L(n)
Unstable operation with
high loads and selector
switched on low speed
(problem with voltage
variations)

Shaded pole induction motor

p - s

P: main winding
S: shading coil
s: flux due to the coil
current

p: main flux in the

shaded part

: spatial displacement
between open and
shaded parts (4560
electr.)

Rotating direction
r

t=0

p-s
p+s

t=/

p + s

Is
Es

p-s
p+s

-s

p: main flux in the

open part

Phasor diagram

Rotating direction from

the open to the shaded
part
Introduction of two
shaded coils to
modify the rotating
direction

10

Motor characteristics
Design solutions

Round-frame design (4 poles)

Flux bridges and
notched poles:
increase leakage
then flux in
shading coil

C -frame design
(2-poles)

Typical applications
Tin openers

Microwave ovens

Small pumps

Hood aspirators

Video-projectors

Timers

Small fans

Video-recorders

General characteristics
Power rating: fraction of W to 3040 W
Efficiency: 0.1 0.2
Power factor: 0.4 0.6
Speed: 1500 3000 rpm
Sizes: related to power (see table)

A
[cm]
P
[W]

0.95

1.27

1.59

1.91

2.22

2.54

3.40

5.44

7.77

13.6

15.1

19.4

11

Example motor
Shaded
coil

20

Main
winding

[mA]

[mNm] [%] [W]

100
15

torque
efficiency
input power
current

10
Saturable
bridge

80
60
40

20

0
10

Hole for
bearing
support

120

0
[mNm] [%]

Aluminium
bars

6
4
2
00

Rated voltage/power 230 V/1 W,

13 bars aluminum cage,

skewed slots
Locked rotor and running tests

1000

1500

3000

15
12

120

torque
input power
current

100

linear
quadratic

[V]
150

170

190

80
60
40

3
0
130

[mA]

750

500

[rpm]
2000
2500

18
[mNm] [W]

stack length 12 mm, resistance

torque (ball bearings)

efficiency (ball bearings)
torque (standard bearings)
efficiency (standard bearings)

210

20
0
230

12

Instantaneous torque and current

V = 230 V locked rotor
8

0.2
0.15
0.1
torque mean value

0.05
0

[A]

[mNm]

-0.05
2

-0.1

Current
Torque
0

-0.15
[]
10

15

20

25

-0.2

Second harmonic components in the torque profile (often odd harmonics

because of air-gap asymmetries 0.35 mm)
High harmonic content in the current waveform because of the magnetic
saturation

Line--start single phase synchronous motors

Line
Strictly constant operating speed (n = 60f/p)
Power ratings ranging from fractional W to a few kW and speed ranging
from 1 rpm (with reduction gears) to 20000 rpm
Typical appliances requiring pre-defined and repetitive working cycles
Clocks and timers for relay
Printers, recorders, instrumentation
Winding systems for textile industry,
Requirements
Self-starting with single-phase supply and load synchronization
(double-phase stator, rotor cages, low inertia loads)
Absence of DC excitation (small rated motors)
Main types different as concerns the rotor configuration: reluctance,
hysteresis and permanent magnet

13

14

Synchronous reluctance motor

Power balance (linear condition)

b

pe = pem + pec
pe = i

pe: input electric power

pem: converted power
pec: power related to the magnetic field

d
d
dl
di
= i (l i ) =
i2 + l i
dt
dt
d
dt

dWec d 1
1 dl
di
2
2
pec =
= l i = i + l i
dt
dt 2
dt
2 d

e.m. torque

pem

1 dl
= pe pec = i 2 = cem
2 d

cem =

1 dl 2
i
2 d

Sinchronous speed (
e=p
)
Series connected coils

lb () =

ms 2
m
N b b () = s N b2 ( b,0 + b, 2 cos 2 p) = Lb ,0 + Lb, 2 cos 2 p
mp
mp

Parallel connected coils

ib (t ) = 2 I b cos(et + ) = 2 I b cos( p + )
Mean value Cem,0

Cem,2 ()

dlb
= 2 p Lb, 2 sin (2 p)
d

ib2 (t ) = I b2 [1 + cos(2 p + 2 )]

b,0 =

Cem,4 ()

p
cem ( ) = Lb, 2 I b2 [sin 2 2 sin 2 p 2 sin(4 p + 2 )]
2

b, 2 =

d + q
2
d q
2

15

Torque profile
1

Lb,0

0.8

Lb,2

0.6

inductance

0.4
0.2
0
1
0.5

coil
current

=0
=/4

-0.5
-1
0.3

Electrical angle

=0
=/4

0.2
0.1

Cem,0
e.m. torque

0
-0.1
-0.2
0

pi/4

pi/2

3pi/4

pi

5pi/4

3pi/2

Torque production only on half a cycle

7pi/4

2pi

16

2-phase windings

l11 ( ) = L11, 0 + L11, 2 cos 2

2
1

Identical windings

l22 ( ) = L22, 0 + L22, 2 cos 2( + 2 ) = L11, 0 L11, 2 cos 2

l12 ( ) = L12,0 + L12, 2 cos 2( 4 ) = L12, 0 + L12, 2 sin 2

i1 (t ) = I m cos(t + )
2

i2 (t ) = I m cos(t + 2 )

Power balance (linear condition)

d1
d
d
d
+ i2 2 = i1 (l11i1 + l12i2 ) + i2 (l12i1 + l22i2 ) =
dt
dt
dt
dt
dl
dl
di
di
di
dl

di
= m 11 i12 + 22 i22 + 2 12 i1i2 + l11i1 1 + l22i2 2 + l12 i1 2 + i2 1
d
d
dt
dt
dt
d

dt
pe = i1

d 1 2 1 2
dl
dl 2 dl 2

l11i1 + l11i1 + l12i1i2 = m 11 i1 + 22 i2 + 2 12 i1i2 +

2
dt 2
d
d
2 d

di
di
di
di
+ l11i1 1 + l22i2 2 + l12 i1 2 + i2 1
dt
dt
dt
dt
1 dl11 2 1 dl22 2 dl12
cem =
i1 +
i1 +
i1i2
= pe pec = cem m
2 d
2 d
d

pec =

pem

If the windings are

identical and are
supplied by a
balanced current set
(2-phase balanced
symmetrical system),
the torque is constant

Rotor configurations
d

17

Salient rotor obtained by a cage

rotor lamination, cutting some teeth

to generate the saliencies
Cage is kept for starting and
synchronization purpose
Asymmetric teeth cutting to
weaken the dependence of

Flux barriers

starting torque on rotor position

and to limit cogging effects due to

slotting (possibly null resultant
alignment torque acting on the

poles)
Increase of the reluctance effects
by inserting suitable flux barriers

Starting and steadysteady-state operation

2
1

Csm

18

Starting using asynchronous torque (2-phase

stator winding rotor cage)
At the starting phase Cs + CA= Cm + Ci
o Cs: pulsating synchronous torque (m0/p)
o CA: asynchronous torque active during the
whole starting (vedi curve 1 and 2)
o Cm: load torque
o Ci: inertial torque Jdm/dt
Synchronization during the half cycle when
reluctance torque is accelerating Csm=Cm

Requirements to ease synchronization: low cage resistance (CA when

speed), low inertial loads (Ci)
Steady-state operation with lower efficiency and power factor than an
induction motor with the same power rating (larger mean air-gap, absence
of DC excitation)

19

Hysteresis synchronous motor

Stator having a 2-phase
winding generating the main
field
Shaft

Non magnetic cylinder

with low mass (brass)

Hard magnetic material (ironcobalt alloys, Alnico)

Stator flux (S) crossing the

rotor in two points the rotor
surface (2 poles) which rotates
at the synchronous speed
Pulsating field across the rotor
which generates hysteresis
losses

R
0H

Rotor field lagging by with

respect to the stator field
because of the hysteresis effect

Electromechanical characteristics

20

Torque almost independant from speed during starting phase

Main dependence on the hysteresis loop area (not on frequency)
Butpresence of eddy current losses
Rotor and stator field synchronous at steady state
Operation like a conventiona PM synchronous machine
Steady-state load angle same as in transient condition
Possibility to accelerate the loads that can be driven at steady state
Characteristics with torque on
abscissa
Output power 20 W
Maximum current and torque at
starting (1.2 A e 9 Nm)
Max efficiency 45% at steady
state
Starting/rated torque 1.3

Main quantities from data

data--sheets

21

Rated starting torque: torque developed after switching on the motor supply system; it is not
guaranteed the reaching of synchronous speed
Running torque: torque developed before reaching the synchronous speed (it can be related to
the maximum).
Synchronous torque: rated synchronous torque
Model

Starting [Ncm]

11.3

28.3

14.1

31.7

70.6

Synchronous [Ncm]

26.1

26.1

14.1

24.7

19.7

Running [Ncm]

47.3

57.2

14.1

72.0

105.9

Temperature rise [C]

40

50

50

50

100

Input power [W]

2.5

4.0

4.0

5.0

8.0

Speed [rpm]

1800 (60 Hz) 1500 (50 Hz)

Torque values at 60 Hz 1 rpm

1. Unidirectional, low energy consumption (2.5 W 4 VA), use for high temperature or sealing environments
2. Unidirectional, 4 W 5.75 VA, high torque, use for continuous operation
3. Unidirectional, 4 W 5.75 VA, presence of anothe gear to obtain till 1 round every 31 days, low torque.
4. Bi-directional, 5 W 6 VA, capacitor start
5. Bi-directional, 8 W 11 VA, capacitor start , high torque, intermittent operation with adequate cooling device

Example with wound stator

Yeadon: Handbook of small electric motors

Frame with cooling

holes
Rotor with surface Alnico ring
Winding with concentric coils
(capacitor start)

22

Small PM motors

23

Stator with single-phase winding (concentrated coil) with

magnetic circuit having some asymmetries to enable the
starting
PMs on the rotor with high coercivity (generally ferrites)
mounted on a magnetic cylinder
Non null Mean torque only at synchronous speed
o Sinchronization only during half cycle of the supply
24-poles rotor

voltage because of the pulsating rotor torque

o Application only to low inertial loads

Undetermined rotating direction at starting as it depends on

the initial position

o adoption of a mechanical device (monodirectional) or

3

electrical one with auxiliary capacitor (bidirectional)

1. Cam with teeth Number of linking positions dependant on the number of poles,
2. Hooking system
displacement between stator and rotor poles defined by the
3. Return spring
load torque

24

Clock motors
Supply cable

Stator teeth
Reduction gear

Asymmetric distribution of
the stator teeth to limit
cogging effect

bearing

Rotor with surface PM ring

(ferrite)

Yeadon: Handbook of small electric motors

Single--phase brushless motors

Single
Motors generally supplied by a square wave
voltage controlled by an electronic converter
Stator poles suitably shaped to enable the
motor starting
Winding made by series-connected
concentrated coils
Rotor PM ring (ferrite or bonded rare earths)
cast on the shaft or mounted in a plastic support
to be coupled to the shaft
Very high speed achievable according to the
maximum supply voltage and the load
mechanical parameters (from 3000 to 20000
rpm)
Main applications in small home appliances
(fans, vacuum cleaner, small washing machines)
replacing universal or shaded pole motors to
improve reliability, noise and efficiency

25

Conventional starting tecniques

Pole shoe shaping to lock the rotor in a position with respect to the winding
axis (asymmetric air-gap profile)

Cogging torque profile more regular tapered air-gap (only two opposite
peaks per period, one stable point)

26

Supply by H-bridge converter

27

Single phase rectifier with voltage

leveling capacitor Vdc
Switch commutation to obtain a quadrature
condition between the m.m.f. and the PM
field (phase concordance between current
and induced back-emf)
Adoption of Hall sensor to detect the PM
position and control accordingly the switch
commutations (a current control is also
possible at low speed)
Problematic positioning/activation of the
Hall sensors because of the phase lag
Technique 1

Technique 2

caused by the coil inductance at high speed

or by magnetic saturation (negative torque
must be avoided)
1) Phase advancing tecnique
2) Pulse width control

Waveforms of a vacuum cleaner motor

Conventional

Technique 1 (30 advance)

28

Tecnique 2 (120 conduction)

Vdc=50 V - n=5000 rpm

Vdc=330 V - n=20000 rpm

N.B.: Noticeable torque ripple because no current control is implemented

Half--bridge converter supply

Half

29

Cheap solution requiring only two switches

Stator bifilar winding (subdivision in two
separate strictly coupled coils wound in
opposite direction supplied by only one
switch)
The double of the supplied voltage
applied to the winding terminals choice of
a suitable wire insulation (double
insulated wire)
Every semi-coil is supplied by the whole
current for half of the period the double
of the turns/pole are needed to obtain the
same torque of a conventional winding
(small wire gauges difficult wiring,
resistance increase)
Overvoltage due to the nonperfect coil coupling

Comparison with an universal motor

Stiff characteristics

Torque-speed
Universal Motor
[Nm]

Brushless
[Nm]

High variation
with speed

Higher efficiency

Efficiency-speed

Brushless

Universal motor
[%]

[%]

High variation
with speed

30

Sensorless supply

31

Hall sensors are costly, sensitive to

temperature changes and hysteresis
errors and troublesome to place
adoption of alternative tecnique which
enable sensor removal
Adoption for small fans (room and cost
problems)
S1

S2

Main problem: Prevent variation of the

rotating direction because of the 2 possible
alignment positions (S1, S2)

Current pulse wide enough to align the PM with the winding

axis, force current to zero and then supply the motor according
the pre-defined control technique
1) Long duration pulse with very slow current decrease (absence of oscillations
around the standstill position) Method 1
2) Short duration pulse with fast current decrease Method 2

Starting process (method 1)

Final position
Standstill position 1
Rotor speed

Standstill position 2

Clockwise and counter-clockwise rotation according to the current pulse sign

(possibility to modify the standstill position by 180)
Slow current decrese to avoid oscillations and vibrations, which can lead to an
incorrect direction at start if the motor is supplied too soon
Intervals (t1, t2) and (t2, t3) suited according to the motor and load characteristics
(friction, inertia, )

32

Starting process (method 2)

Alignment due to the
cogging torque

Free motion determined by

the initial energy

Brief pulse duration (instant t5 t1) rotor alignment because of the cogging
torque generated by the air-gap shaping
Counter-clockwise rotation indipendently from the current pulse clockwise
direction achievable only by mirroring the air-gap shape
Faster alignment, but some oscillations could arise around the standstill position

33

Sensorless supply scheme

34

Back-emf measured at the winding teminals by an auxiliary circuit which forces

the current to zero (interval S3-S4) Switching is made with high back-emf values,
measure with low back-emf values (low torque)
Detection of the zero e.m.f.: all switches at OFF, use of two auxialiary resistances
(R1, R2) much greater than the phase one, V0 measure when the current is zero
Measure of the delay after which the current becomes zero with respect to the zero
of the back-emf to decide the increase or decrease of the switch conduction
interval in the next supply interval (interval S5)

35

Single--phase DC brushless motor

Single
PM designed to provide a trapezoidal back-emf waveform
H-bridge converter controlled by a Hall sensor signal
Current regulated according to a dead beat control strategy
Maximum back e.m.f
e.m.f.. zone
Voltage chopped at constant
frequency and varying the switch
duty cycle to limit the current
value (constant
constant Imax)

Imax
0

1+/p

1
0

0+/p

-Imax

Current profile can be simulated by numerical PM polarity inversion zone

integration (back-emf e0 and inductance L
pre-calculated by 2D FEM code)

Choice of the leading angle 0 with respect to

the null-flux position maximization of the
mean electromagnetic torque

Current transition determined by the

voltage equation
di U dc e0 Ri
=
=
d
L

d0
Ri
d
L

U dc

Brushless motor for small fan system

Raplacement of an existing very low efficient shaded-pole motor

Self-starting thanks to the PM misaligment because of the presence of the shaded
coil slot (asymmetric air-gap not applied as the laminations must be unchanged)
Adoption of a PM ferrite (Br=0.22 T and Hc=-151 kA/m)
Assumption to supply by both H bridge (series-connected coils) or by half-bridge
converter (bifilar winding) commutated according a Hall sensor signal

36

37

Dynamic model
Flux and torque as functions of
the position and current
determined by interpolating the
results of magnetostatic FEM
2D analyses

n1

s (, is ) = [s , k (is ) cos(k ) + s, k (is ) sin(k )]

k =0
n1

Tem (, is ) = [s , k (is ) cos(k ) + s, k (is ) sin(k )]

k =1
=1

Correction formulas to include 3D effects (PM longer

than the lamination stack, end-winding leakage,
leakage fluxes from the laminations) using a set of 3D
analyses

*s = k s + L0 is
*
Tem
= kT Tem

Dynamic equations
Numerical solution by a
Simulink model
Analisys for the optimal
choice of the Hall sensor
position and of the winding
parameters

38

FEM models
3D model

2D model

Used also to evaluate the activation flux

density

Unchanged mesh because of the rotation

of the magnetization axis

0.12
zH=-7 mm

0.09

Bn [T]

0.06

zH=-8 mm

0.03
0

-0.03
-0.06
-0.09
-0.12

-150

-100
-50
0
50
100
Stator angular coordinate []

150

39

Model at steadysteady-state speed

Scheme for parametric analysis
Optimal sensor positioning

Temperature
changes

Winding parameters
DC link voltage variations

Output
characteristics

PM characteristic

40

Magnetic flux model

Total flux
M.m.f.

Back-emf

Incremental voltage

Electromagnetic torque model

41

Fourier series expansion

3D correction
coefficient

M.m.f.

Current dependant
coefficients

42

Main results
Check of the 3D correction formulas
(sinusoidal currents)

3D effects evaluation
(sinusoidal currents)
15 T

em

[mNm]

10

FEM 3D
Static measurements

5
0
Interpolating curves

-5
-10
-150

Limited torque and flux increase

Relevant end-winding leakage

60

120

180

240

300

360

constant current supply

good agreement with the measurements,
but slight uncertainties near maximum
torque position
o approximated measurement set-up
o difficult improving the 3D air-gap mesh
o presence of mechanical tolerances
o uncertainties of the PM and lamination
characteristics

43

Main results
Hall sensor positioning (steady-state)
30

40

Tem,0
Is
Tem,0/Is2

35

25

30

20

25
15

20
15

Optimal range

5
-60

10

H []

250
200

-50

-40

es

-30

-20

-10

60

H = 0
H = -30

40

150

is

100

20

[V]

50
0

0
-50

-20

-100
-150
-200
-250
2.3

3560 rpm
2W

2720 rpm
1.7 W
2.305

2.31

2.315

-40
[s]

2.32

2.325

Starting torque
requirements may also be
concerned (maximum
value for H 0)

5
10

2.33

2.335

2.34

-60

[mA]

10

Current and back-emf

displacement 0 when
H -30
[Nm/A2]

[rpm]10-2 [mNm
mNm] [mA]

45

Higher current and lower

speed and output power
in case of inaccurate Hall
position
High harmonic content in
both back-emf and
current waveform

Main results
Performances with different windings

44

DC servomotors
DC supply
(battery)
magnets

+
-

commutator

No--load magnetic network

No
s

Mm=Hchm
+
0

d
r

PM reluctance:
Teeth reluctance:

wc

w
w
rc1 = c + 1 + c
2t
2t
2
wc t )
(
rc 2 =
5 + wc t

1-2c

wc
0

t =

Pd

kc t

0 Lm wm

hm
m Lm wm
hd
d =
d ks Lr wd nd
0 =

s
Stator yoke reluctance s =
2 s L0 hs
:

kc

Air-gap reluctance:

Slot effect evaluation

1 + rc21 2rc1
c =
2 1 + rc21
r t
wc = c 2

kc = 1

c wc

Carter factor: kc=1/kc

Pd

wm, Lm, hm: larghezza, profondit, altezza magnete

t: ampiezza traferro - ks:fattore di stipamento
L0, Lr: profondit statore, rotore
hs, hr: altezza statore, rotore
Rs, Rr: raggio medio statore, rotore

s, r , m : permeabilit statore, rotore, magnete

wd, hd, d: larghezza, altezza, permeabilit dente
nd: n. medio denti sotto un magnete

Rotor yoke reluctance: r =

Rr
2 r ks Lr hr

No--load operation
No
Motor driven at the speed and with no mechanical load

2M m
0 =
2 (0 + t + d ) + s + t

N
E0 =
0 * = ke 0 * = K e *
2

F.e.m. indotta alle spazzole

Valutazione in sede di progetto della tensione alle spazzole alla velocit nominale
Valutazione in sede sperimentale del flusso 0 e della somma delle perdite
meccaniche Pm(*) e nel ferro Pfe(*) dalla potenza sviluppata dal motore primo
No-load test: voltage V applied and no mechanical load

I0
V

Ra

Misura volt-amperometrica di Ra, Rsp(I) con

Rsp

E0

=0 (o Ra+Rsp(I))

Misura di I0 con V variabile (a diverse velocit)

E0

= V (R

+ Rsp

) I

0 =

E0
ke

Pm ( ) + Pfe ( ) = V I 0 (Ra + Rsp ) I 02

Load operation
Motor operating mode: voltage V applied and = cost.
Corrente assorbita alle spazzole variabile nel tempo, a causa del transitorio dovuto
alle matasse in commutazione si considera un valore medio I = cost.
Ipotesi: 0 E E0 (a parit di ) e Vsp RspI
Caratteristica elettromeccanica della velocit =

Caratteristica elettromeccanica della coppia

Caratteristica meccanica

C=

velocit a vuoto

(R + Rsp )I
V (Ra + Rsp )I
= 0 a
ke
Ke

N
C=
I = kt I = K t I
2

costante
di coppia

Kt Ke
(0 )
Ra + Rsp

Regenerative braking
Motore fatto ruotare da un carico esterno ad una velocit > 0 a V=cost. oppure
abbassamento di V con =cost.
Potenza P = EI erogata verso lalimentazione ricarica batterie
Corrente circa doppia di quella allo spunto
Brake operating mode
Applicazione di una coppia di carico in opposizione I = (V + | E|)/(Ra+Rsp)

Solutions to improve current commutation

Riduzione campo nei pressi dellasse neutro
o Scelta opportuna della larghezza del magnete
o Sagomatura del traferro ai bordi del magnete
Riduzione dellinduttanza dellavvolgimento di armatura
o Cave meno profonde
o Scelta opportuna della larghezza dellapertura di cava
o Riduzione del numero di spire
Spostamento del piano di commutazione in anticipo rispetto alla posizione
naturale
o Spazzole arretrate rispetto al senso del moto per f.e.m. che aiutano
linversione della corrente
o Valido per carichi praticamente costanti (I poco variabile)
Uso di spazzole in elettrografite
o Alta caduta di tensione che compensa la f.e.m. indotta nella matassa in
commutazione

Example
Ampere

12.5

Current

Rated power 140 W

Analysis at n = 7000 rpm)

10

Load Flux
7.5

(E-3) Weber
s.

(E-3) N.m
2

150

Torque

-1

-2

-3

s.
2.5E-3

0.005

125

100

s.

7.5E-3
0.003

0.004

0.005

0.006

0.007

0.008

Characterization from measurements

Speed characteristic
=

V (Rsp + Ra ) I

= 1 I + 2

Calcolo 1 e 2 dalla
caratteristica
elettromeccanica della
velocit

Shaft torque characteristic

CL = K I b
Ra + Rsp

V
I b
= K + b
K
K

CL = 3 I + 4

Derived quantities
V
=
2 K

Rsp = 1 K Ra

b=

4 K

Ra + Rsp

3 100
3 = 3 K b
K

V
Utilizzata per verifica

Calcolo 3 e 4
dalla caratteristica
elettromeccanica
della coppia
allasse

Experimental data interpolation

= 1 I + 2

CL = 3 I + 4

C0=4
Supplied current I

Shaft torque CL

Angular speed

0=2

Motor general performances

Determinazione sperimentale delle caratteristiche elettromeccaniche (I) e CL(I)
Grandezze derivate dalle caratteristiche elettromeccaniche
o Flusso
o Resistenza equivalente delle spazzole Rsp
o Coefficiente di attrito b
Altre grandezze derivate
o Potenza assorbita Pa = VI
o Potenza resa PL= CL
o Perdite ohmiche Pj= (Ra + Rsp) I2
Grandezze calcolate
o Coppia elettromagnetica C = KI
o Potenza convertita P = C
o Perdite meccaniche Pm= b2
o Perdite nel ferro(+addizionali) PFe=Pa- Pm - Pj - PL

Configuration with Alnico PMs

polo
involucro

polo

10

Uso per motori DC ad alte prestazioni

Configurazioni generalmente con 2 o 4
poli (minor flusso per polo)

(a)

nuclei

(b)

Magnetizzazione nel senso della

lunghezza per resistere agli effetti
della reazione dindotto
Strutture che si differenziano in base
alla funzione dellinvolucro esterno
(a): materiale non magnetico con
funzione di solo contenimento

(c)

(d)

(c): materiale magnetico (acciaio

dolce) per ottenere la richiusura
del flusso
Uso anche di magneti di tipo
anisotropo per micromotori (e)

(e)

Demagnetization due to the armature m.m.f.

11

Z
Z: zona del magnete
pi sensibile alla
smagnetizzazione

A vuoto

Solo armatura

sovracorrente

Br

P
P

r
Hc

poli

A causa di una sovracorrente (es. inversione

della V per decelerare il motore) P P

BP
BP Forte riduzione del flusso e quindi della coppia
per labbassamento della retta di recupero
(verifica dalla misura della velocit a vuoto)

Z
A carico

HP HP

Magnete

Contromisure
Uso di espansioni polari (miglioramento
distribuzione di flusso, incremento costante
tempo elettrica) che sono solide solo se il
rotore privo di cave
Traferro incrementato ai bordi del magnete

Configuration with Ferrite PMs

nucleo

nucleo
magnete
polo

(a)

(b)

12

Magneti con elevato campo coercitivo

spessore ridotto con ampia area per
incrementare il flusso
Possibilit di utilizzo di espansioni
polari (b) per ridurre ancora lo
spessore del magnete e migliorare la
concentrazione del flusso
Nucleo con funzioni magnetiche
coincidente con linvolucro del motore
(d) (spessore del nucleo e quindi peso
molto ridotto)

nucleo

Magnete sempre pi lungo del pacco

rotorico per aumentare il flusso e quindi
la coppia
(c)

(d)

Uso anche di magneti di tipo anisotropo

per micromotori (c)

13

Comparison with rarerare-earth PMs

magnete polo

polo

magnete

Uso per motori ad alte

prestazioni (alto campo
coercitivo e induzione residua)
Minore spessore rispetto ad
Alnico con pi ampie espansioni
polari (flusso meglio distribuito)
A parit di area e di lunghezza,

Samario-cobalto

Alnico

flusso doppio rispetto a quello

prodotto da una ferrite

Comparison for a given motor size

(A): SmCo

Torque

Max power

CA/ CB

Pmax,A/ Pmax,B

1.5

2.0

(B): Ferrite

Mechanical time
constant

Electrical time
constant

Tm,A/ Tm,B

Te,A/ Te,B

0.5

0.7

14

Rotor slots and winding

Conduttori in filo smaltato inseriti in
cave di tipo semichiuso
Cave inclinate e possibilmente in

numero elevato per ridurre il cogging e

quindi la rumorosit
Numero di cave dispari per ridurre il
cogging, ma pi difficile da costruire
in genere si sceglie un numero pari
A parit di coppia NIa, copper
motor (a) oppure NIa, iron motor (b)
(a)

(b)

(a): uso con ferriti per il basso valore di

flusso (denti sottili, molti conduttori)
(b): uso con Alnico (denti larghi per non
portarli in saturazione)
Sistemazione dei conduttori sul fondo
cava per applicazioni ad alta dinamica

(c)

(basso sfruttamento del motore)

15

Alternative structures
Motori slotless
nucleo

Rotore con conduttori fissati al nucleo in

ferro senza usare le cave (slotless motor)
Bassa inerzia e assenza di cogging
Fissaggio conduttori problematico anche a
causa dellazione diretta esercitata dalla
forza elettromagnetica
Utilizzo di magneti a terre rare o Alnico
per avere un flusso accettabile

Motori moving-coil
Fibra di vetro

Rotore formato da un cilindro cavo in

fibra di vetro su cui sono fissati i conduttori
inserito tra due nuclei magnetici fissi
Bassissima inerzia, velocit ed
accelerazioni molto elevate e assenza di
cogging
Costruzione complessa, traferro elevato

Nucleo interno

(uso di Alnico), problemi di raffreddamento

Motor comparison
Motori con cave

Motori slotless

16

Single--phase self
Single
self--excited alternator
Stator windings
Main winding (1) connected to
the load
Auxiliary winding (2) connected
to a capacitor (huge backward
field component to enable selfexcitation)
Rotor windings

1
1
1

2
2

b2b6

b5

b1

1
3

1
1

Field winding (3) connected to

a diode (rectifying the induced
e.m.fs)
Separate damping cages (b1b2-b3-b4 e b5-b6-b7-b8) to
reduce voltage harmonic
distortion without weakening
the backward field

3
b8

1
2

b3 b7

1
1

1
1

Self--excitation process
Self
Residual magnetism e.m.f induced in the stator windings
Backward rotating field due to the stator currents e.m.fs induced in the
field winding (II harmonic order components)
Non-zero mean flux in the field winding due to the rectified e.m.f.s flux
and current increase in the stator winding
Final working point dependent on the magnetic saturation and on the
terminal impedances
3

i3 [A]

3 [Wb]

2.5

4
1.5
3
1
2
0.5

t [s]

0
0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

I2 growth during self

self--excitation (no
no--load
load))
X

Xm(I2)

Equivalent circuit of the

auxiliary winding

I2

E2

Xc

Series of instants at constant excitation flux (3=cost.)

(Xm,1+X+Xc)I2

(Xm,2+X+Xc)I2
E2,1

3,1
I2,1

3,3> 3,2

E2,2

(Xm,3+X+Xc)I2

3,2> 3,1
I2

I2,2

E2,3

I2

I2 increases 3 increases both E2 and magnetic saturation

increase (Xm ) I2 increases further

I2,3 I
2

Steady--state operation
Steady
Auxiliary current I2 90 leading the e.m.f. E2 phasor
Ohmic load (current I1 in phase with the e.m.f. E1)
E1 90 leading the e.m.f. E2 phasor (windings
displaced by 90 )
Low phase displacement between I1 and I2
High backward field component
Magnetic axes of the main field rotated of
less than 45 with respect to the d axis

Load flux lines

Load flux density map

Linee di Flusso

Mappa Magnitudine Induzione

Main current

Auxiliary
current

Output characteristic
280

Pn=2.2 kVA, Vn=240 V

240

Magnetizing effect due to the

combined action of I1 and I2 at light
loads

200

V0

[V]

160

Quick reduction at high currents

because of voltage drop, saturation
effects (lower flux) and machine
heating

120
80
40

Icc

In

V1[V]

00

10

20

30

40

voltage stability

Pn=1 kVA, Vn=100 V, without damping cages

V1
I2

[A] Icc 4 In to guarantee adequate

I2 [A] I2 increase with C leading to higher V0

Choice of C in order to have V1 cost.

I1 [A]

C smaller V1(I1) increase because of the series

magnetization produced by the load current and the
lower saturation with reduced I2 values

Effects of the damping cages

Self-excitation process

Nuova Saccardo Motori documentation

Magnetic saturation

E22 + E32 + E42 + E52 + E62 + L+ En2

100
THD =
Reduction of the harmonic distortion
E1
With damping cages

Harmonic spectrum

1 3 5 7

Harmonic order

Without damping cages

Harmonic spectrum

Harmonic order

Machine model
Main problems
High harmonic content in the air-gap m.m.f.
Complex rotor configuration
Magnetic saturation in the polar shoes (cross-coupling between d and
q axes)

Analytical methods

o Difficult to obtain a
general formulation
o Approach limited to
analyze the steady
state conditions

FEM transient

o Multiple solutions for

each configuration
o High number of
simulations
o Elaboration time

New method (FEM

magnetostatic module)
o Definition of a general
d-q model
o Integration procedure
to solve the dynamical
equations

Electric equations
cage equivalent
winding

Main winding

di1
v1 = Rci1 + Lc
dt
Auxiliary winding

v5=0
i5

i3 = I 0 e

v3 Vt

Damping cages
vk=0

v1

i1

Field winding

v4=0

i4

i2

dv2 i2
=
dt C

v2

i3

v3

i6

cage equivalent
winding

6
v6=0

k=4, 5, 6

Solution of the
matrix equation

p[ ] = [v] + [R ] [i ] Non-linear set of equations (Lapp

[ ] = [Lapp ] [i ]

dependent on and [i]) to solve

numerically

Numerical solution
1

d 1
di

= R1i1 + v1 = R1i1 + RL i1 + LL 1
dt
dt

1 = 1 + LL i1

d 2

= R2i2 + v2
dt

d 22
d i2 1
2 = R2
+ i2
dt
dt C

i2 = C dv2 dt

d 3
= R3i3 + v3 = R3i3 + rd i3
dt

R1 = R1 + RL

rd = R f +

Rr R f
1 + e i3 / I 0

d '1
= R '1 i1
dt

d 3
= R'3 i3
dt

Step-by-step integration (step t = tk - tk-1) algebraic equations

1,k 1,k 1
t

i1,k + i1,k 1
= R1
2

2,k 2 2 ,k 1 + 2,k 2
t

j ,k j ,k 1
t

= Rj

i j ,k

Non-linear system of equations

derived by applying the
trapezoidal rule

i2,k + i2,k 1
= R2 (i2,k i2,k 1 ) +
t Solution by an iterative
2C
method adopting an adequate
+ i j ,k 1
relaxation parameter to avoid
( j = 3,...,6)
2
numerical instability

Semplified approach

10

Saturation model
Definition of two equivalent m.m.f. distributions having amplitudes Md along
d axis and Mq along q axis, dependant on the position, on the winding
currents and on the geometric configurations by suitable shape factors Ki
(harmonic analysis of the air-gap m.m.f. waveform)
Calculation of the d and q permeances d and q, using the characteristics
d(Md) and q(Mq) obtained by FEM analyses
Mutual permeance ij between i-th and j-th windings

ij ( i ) = K i K j d cos i cos j + K i K j q sin i sin j

Self-inductance

Lii = N ( ii ( i ) + 0i )
2
i

Mutual inductance

Lij = N i N j ij (i , j )

Simplified approach

11

Flux along d and q axes (no cross-coupling)

Values in linear condition

d (M d ) = d M d = d 0 K sd (M d ) M d
80

q (M q ) = q M q = q 0 K sq (M q ) M q
Ksd, Ksq: reduction factors
because of the magnetic
saturation (values 1)

[mWb/m]

70
60

Interpolation of the FEM

values by analytical
functions

50
40
30

20

In linear condition
d01.5 q0

FEM

10

Saturation effect similar

5000 for the two axes

[A]
0

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500

12

Simplified approach
1.6

15

i3 [A]

1.4

i1 [A]

10

1.2
1

0.8
0

0.6
0.4

-5

0.2
-10

0
0
2.5

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

0.12

[s]
0.14

i3 [A]

Experimental
Simulated

-15
6 i [A]
2

Experimental
Simulated

2.0
2
1.5
0
1.0

-2

0.5
0.0
t0

t0+10

Experimental
Simulated
[ms]
t0+2
0

-4
-6

t0

t0+10

t0+20

t0+30

[ms]
t0+40

13

Self and mutual inductance

Representation by analytical functions

(
+ j, h , k ({i }))
l h , k ( , {i }) = L j, h , k ({i })cos j
j= 0
T h ,k

n h ,k

h , k = 1,.., 6

Determination of Lj,h,k and j,h,k

1. Reproduction of the magnetic saturation by 2D FEM magnetostatic
analyses (air-gap current sheet total air-gap f.m.m.)
2. Calculation of the inductance matrix [Lapp*], independently from ,
related to suitable elementary circuits derived from the machine windings
3. Definition of a connection matrix [C] for [Lapp] calculation so that
[Lapp] = [C]t [Lapp*] [C]
4. Interpolation of the inductance values calculated for different positions by
a Fourier series expansion

Dependance on current
Definition of an equivalent air-gap current distribution () which
reproduces the resultant m.m.f. distribution
Ampereturns

Mh
mh , j ( ) = h , j
cos( j ( h ))
2
Position of
Winding coefficient

h , j ( ) = j h , j
( ) =

nd

d, j

j =1
j odd

j-th m.m.f harmonic

(h-th winding)

magnetic axis

Mh
2R

cos j +
d ()

sin ( j ( h ))

j-th current harmonic

(h-th winding)

Mean airgap radius

nq

q, j

j =1
j odd

sin j
q ()

Resultant d-q
current distribution
(by elaborating the
previous equation)

rd,j e rq,j new state variables (nd=3,nq=1 and h3 ensures

good accuracy and acceptable computational time)

14

15

Elementary circuits
d2
d1

d3

4
d4

Full pitch coil

5
Elementary stator coil

Elementary rotor coils

Equivalent cage coils

Connection matrix [C] to transform the elementary circuits (independent

on position same model also for meshing) to the actual windings
Slot pitch rotation simulated by sliding the [C] coefficients, for a given
saturation condition
Cage bars connection reproduced by three equivalent windings

16

Complete circuit model

Cage windings circuit
Rb12 2
Rb1
2

i4

Rb23 2

Rb2
2

i5

Rb12 2

Rb3
2

Rb23 2

Rb34 2

i6
Rb34 2

Rb4
2

R '4
R b2 2
0 i4

d 4

5 = R b2 2
R '5
R b3 2 i5

dt
0

R
2
R
'
b3
6
6
i6

R ' 0 0 i4

d 4
d 1 4 4

5 = [] 5 = 0 R '5 0 i5


dt
dt

0
0
R
'
6 i6
6
6

Diagonalization matrix

Connection matrix

[L ] = [C ] [L ] [C ]
t

app

*
app

[C s ] ns 2
[C ] =
[ 0 ] 52

Position = 0

0
0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0

[Cs ] =
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1

[ 0 ] n s 4

[Cr ] 54

1
[Cr ] =
[0]
14

[0] 31

[Cd ]

1 1 0 0

Indepen[Cd ]t = 0 0 1 1
dant

1 1 1 1 from

Procedure for the inductance calculation

Position
Currents {i}

Database of the
elementary
inductances
(2D FEM analyses)

Preliminary
step

Air-gap current sheet

parameters
Matrix of the
elementary
inductances
Set of inductance
matrixes for one slot
pitch rotations

Step 1

Step 2

Coefficients of the
Fourier series
expansion

(+ j,h,k ({i}))
l h,k (,{i})= Lj,h,k ({i}) cos j
j=0
Th,k
Actual self and mutual
h,k=1,..,6
nh,k

17

inductances

Step 3

Verification on commercial machines

Main ratings and electrical parameters
P=2.2 kVA

V=230 V

f=50 Hz

n=3000 rpm

RL=24.04

C=13.5 mF

R1=2.07

R2=9.24

R3=5.36

R4=0.78 m

R5=1 m

R6=0.78 m

Rr=6 k

I0=3.33 mA

Rf=1 m

Nuova Saccardo Motori srl

Current source (without cages)

18

19

Simulation at steadysteady-state (rated load)

400

1000

v1 [V]

Experimental
Simulated

300

500

100

250

-500

V1,rms = 221.6 V
THD = 4.4 %

-300
-400
0.56

-250

V1,rms = 217.1 V
THD = 4.6 %

-200

0.565

-750
t [s]
0.57

0.575

i3 [A]

V2,rms = 479.0 V
V2,fund = 643.4 V
V2,rms = 466.8 V
V2,fund = 624.5 V

-1000
0.58
0.56

Experimental
Simulated

7
6
5
4

0.565

t [s]
0.57

0.575

0.58

Very good
concordance as
regard load voltage,
V2,rms and i3
Reduced THD for v1

3
2

Mean value

1
0
0.56

Experimental
Simulated

750

200

-100

v2 [V]

0.565

0.57

0.575

Problems: saturation
probably
underestimated,
t [s]
0.58 auxiliary modelization

Test bench
Alternator ratings
P1=5 kVA

V0=230 V

f=50 Hz

n=3000 rpm

Capacitor C=30 F

20

21

Output characteristic
Compound effect due to the
main winding
8

V1

250

7
6

200
V1 [V]

P1

150

4
Measured

100

d-q model
2

FEM transient

50

Doubled calculation times than d-q model

0

10

15
I1 [A]

20

25

1
0
30

P1 [kW]

22

Magnetic saturation reduction

B [T]
2.8
2.4
2.0
1.6
1.2
0.8
0.4
0.0

Initial configuration

Rotor modified configuration

Conf.

C
[mF]

V1
[V]

v%
[%]

THD
[%]

I1
[A]

I2
[A]

I3
[A]

3m
[mWb]

Pd
[W]

Initial

32.8

18.4

9.9

4.5

23.6

7.93

5.66

7.7

1419

Modified

29.2

13.6

8.2

4.3

23.1

7.13

5.72

7.8

1314

Diff. [%]

-11.0

-26.5

-2.3

-10.1

1.1

2.2

-7.3

C adjusted during the parametric analysis to

obtain the same rated no-load voltage V0

23

Modification of the bar connections

Comparison of different connections
using an objective function to be
minimized

weighted average of the performance indexes

fob = 1

Penalties introduced if constraints are

not fulfilled (THD, current densities,)

V1
v %
Pd3
Pd
+

2
3 *
4 *
*
v %
Pd3
Pd
V1*

250

V1

Optimized connection

200

Optimized configuration

Initial configuration
5

V1 [V]

150

P1

100

3
2

50

6 5 4 3

1
0

Initial connection

10

15

I1 [A]

20

25

P1 [kW]

4 5
2 3

Stepper motors
Electromechanical converters operated to obtain an incremental (not
continuous) motion a current pulse produces a fixed rotation depending
on the stator/rotor poles
Benefits
Open control loop operation (no sensors are needed)
Suitable for digital control (no current modulation
Economic manufacturing (simple magnetic configurations)

Drawbacks
Low efficiency
Fixed (discrete) angular step (problematic for fine rotations)
Oscillations around the standstill position with high inertial loads
Positioning errors with high frictional loads
Motor types (based on rotor configuration)

Variable reluctance (VR)

Permanent magnet (PM) polarity-dependant torque
Hybrid PM-reluctance

Applications

Variable reluctance stepper motors (VR)

-

+ phase A
A
B
C

B'
C'

A
C

B
C

Salient stator and rotor

magnetic circuits (low rotor
cost and inertia high
acceleration)

S
N

C
A'
6/2 (m=3 phases)

A
12/8 (m=3 phases)

Torque related only to the

reluctance variation
linear condition

Wec (F , ) 1 2
C=
= F

C (12/8
12/8 motor)
motor

Unipolar current simplification of supply

converter topology

typical operation

step angle

Step angle = 2
/(mNr)
o m: number of phase
o Nr: rotor teeth (high to reduce )
o np=m Nr : n.steps/rev
0

phase A

phase B

phase C

15

30

45

60

o displacement between the single-phase

torques

Configuration for very low step angles

High number of steps without increasing

too much the number of phases (m8)
2

Each stator poles subdivided in multiple

teeth having the same pitch of the rotor
ones (lower stator pole saturation )
Condition to enable a regular motion:

2
2

4
stator poles

2
/Nr

2
/Ns

Example

Verification

2
q/Nr
maximum n.teeth for each stator pole

Multiple--stack VR stepper motor

Multiple
phases

Teeth of each stator

module (stack)
displaced by a step
angle with respect to the
adjacent one (in the
figure, 1/3 of the single
rotor step angle)
Same effect by
displacing the rotor
teeth instead of the
stator ones

flux lines paths

benefits: high number of steps, simple winding structure
drawbacks: high inertia (3 rotors), use of unconventional
laminations (see flux lines placed in the transverse plane)

Stepper motors with PM rotor

A+

B+

IA
IB
IA

Torque due to the interaction between the

supplied winding field and PMs (Nr
coincident with the rotor poles)
Bipolar current operation complicating
converter topology or winding structure
o Wave drive (conventional)
o Full step (higher torque and current)
o Half step drive (higher number of steps)
Presence of a detent torque with no
supply which holds the rotor in position
Generally lower number of steps (higher
step angle) than VR motors because of
the more complicated manufacturing

IB
IA
IB

VR

PM

Frequency

1200 imp/s

400 imp/s

Step angle

1.8 15

15 90

Torque production (single phase supply

supply))
Linear condition
W'ec ( Fi ,Fm , ) 1 m 2 i 1 2 m m im
C=
= Fi
+ Fm
+ Fi

2 i =1
2
i =1

Rotor reluctance Stator reluctance

torque
torque

Cylindrical
torque

Fi, i: m.m.f. and permeance related to

the i-th phase self-inductance
(i=1,2,...,m)
Fm, m: m.m.f. and permeance related
to the PM flux
im: flux generated by the PM and
linked with i-th phase

i independent on (magnet isotropic behavior

and r1) i/0 (null rotor reluctance torque)
cylindrical torque

full-step supply

resultant

IB
0

+
B

+
A

45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360

reluctance torque

im fundamental varies according the function

cos(Nr(-2(i-1)/Ns))
m fundamental varies according to the function
cos(mNr) at every step the PM is always
positioned in the same way with respect to the
stator teeth (mNr is the number of steps/rev)
Fm costant and m/ has null mean value
stator reluctance torque with null mean value, but
generates a significant torque ripple worsening
the dynamic behavior

Bipolar supply circuits

Bifilar windings
(2 switches/phase)

Unifilar windings (4 switches /phase)

S1
S2

phase

S3
S4

S1

S2

tightly coupled
coils

Current suppression tecniques

Free-wheeling to avoid overvoltage on the turning off switch
Current fall dependent on the
circuit time constant e=L/R

Half unipolar switches cheap

supply converter

Branches in parallel to the

winding: see solutions 1,2,3

Wound on the same pole to

decrease inductance during the
simultaneous conduction
Bulky and expensive windings,
utilized only for a half of the
conducting period

2
3

Hybrid stepper motor

Back
rotor

Motor
exploded view

Front
rotor

+A +B
-B
-A

Rotor divided in two

modules with both
saliencies (teeth) and
permanent magnets (axially
magnetized)

Half slot pitch displacement

between the rotor modules
Half pitch
to double the active poles
displacement
(90 electrical)
(number of steps/rev
2mNr)
m now independent on rotor position because of the teeth
displacement (improvement of dynamic performance)
Magnet

-B
+B +A
+A
+B

Supply sequence (example with m=2)

+A
-A

Phase supply
sequence (final
state indicated)

+A
+

S N S N S N S

+B

+B

S N S N S N S

-A
+

-A

N S N S N S N

-B

-B

N S N S N S N

10

Comparison between stepper motor configurations

VR

PM

Hybrid

Torque/mass

Low

High

High

Steps/rev

High

Low

high

n switch/phase

4 (2 if bifilar)

4 (2 if bifilar)

Efficiency

Low

High

High

Dynamic
performance
(torque/inertia)

Low

High

High

Manufacturing
complexity/cost

Low

Medium-high (1)

High

(1):

depending on the PM poles

11

Torque characteristic
Torque which can be produced without losing the step as a function of frequency

o Performance decrease with increasing frequency (less time to drive the load)
o Different curves according to the dynamic operation (pull-in and pull-out)

Cm

coppia di trattenuta
holding torque

coppia di agganciamento
pull-in torque

coppia di sganciamento
pull-out torque

campo di risposta
start-stop region

campo di
funzionamento continuo
slew range

f (n.steps/s)

12

Torque characteristic
pull-in torque
upper bound of the start-stop region (dynamic operation)

torque-frequency values that can be applied in dynamic condition without losing

the step (for instance, typical sequence of starting, stopping and reversing rotation)

pull-out torque
upper bound of the slew range (continuous operation)
Maximum torque-frequency values that can be applied at constant frequency
operation (without accelerating)
f

Cm
coppia di trattenimento
coppia di agganciamento
holding torque
pull-in torque
coppia di sganciamento
pull-out torque

t
campo di risposta
start-stop region

campo di
funzionamento continuo
slew range

t
f (npassi/s)

13

Torque characteristic
Holding torque

Maximum torque with locked rotor which can be produced by supplying the phase
with constant current
With no supply detent torque: maximum torque due to the interaction between
the magnets and the salient stator poles (rotor locked without current, presence of
a torque ripple at load)
holding torque
+B
detent torque
Stable standstill
points (without
supply)

+A

Torque profile in dynamic condition

Hyp.: constant torque as varies (mean value), initial speed=0
electromagnetic torque
frictional torque
load torque (effective value)

Torque equation

d2
2

dt

= Cem - Cfr - Cm

Dynamic condition constant acceleration

d2
dt2

Cem - Cfr - Cm
J

1
2
2J
t2 = t =
=
2

Cem - Cfr - Cm
Step angle

t is the minimum interval needed to cover the step angle and then the
waiting time before supplying the next phase
The supplying frequency f must be therefore lower than 1/t:
start-stop region

Cem - Cfr - Cm
1
f<
=
t
2J

Cm < Cem - Cfr -2J f2

14

Torque profile at steadysteady-state

Steady-state (pull-out torque) f=const.

d2
dt

15

=0

Torque equation

Cem - Cfr -Cm = 0 Cm = Cem - Cfr

For a given Cem (same frequency and supply current),Cm is higher than in dynamic
condition because of the lack of the inertial component

Cm < Cem - Cfr -2J f2

When frequency increases:

increase of the frictional torque Cfr;
Cem decreases because of the current is decreasing as stated by the voltage
equation

v = Ri +

di
d
i=
= Ri +
+

dt
i dt

v-

d di

d i dt
R

f.c.e.m. increase with (f) current decrease for a given voltage Cem
decrease

16

Switched reluctance motors (SRM)

+V

Doubly salient motor with number of rotor

teeth Nr different form the stator one Ns
Torque generated only by the rotor tendency
to assume a minimum reluctance positionS
Supply by unipolar switches with frequency
inversely proportional to the step angle
Quite different from the stepper VRM (speed
control, presence of the position sensor ,
possibly continuous and smooth torque,

2
m=3

3 efficiency)
m=4

m=4

6/4

8/6

24/18

Main characteristics

Benefits

+V

17

Simple rotor configuration with low inertia

Stator windings ease to manufacture
Losses mainly located in the stator, easier to
cool than the rotor
Torque independent on the current polarity
(simple converter topology)
3
Generator operation very simple to obtain
Higher operating temperature than PM motors
Very high starting torque and maximum speed
Rotating direction reversed only modifying the
switching sequence

Drawbacks

High torque ripple and radial forces (source of the motor noise)
Very low air-gap length to maximize the torque production
High current ripple (need of a capacitive filter)
High supply frequency for a given winding utilization with respect to 3-phase motors
because of the pulsed supply (vernier effect)

18

Applications (1)

http://www.srdrives.co.uk/

Applications (2)
Electric motorbike (Lectra 24)

19

Applications (3)

20

Operating principle (linear condition

condition))

21

Trapezoidal inductance profile

1
R2

1
R1

R2

R3

1
R2

R3

Useful zone to produce torque

restricted to s (dL/d>0: motor
dL/d>0: generator)

R2

Favorable conditions: r s and

low unaligned inductance
s

r-s

L1

L2

2/Nr-r-s

Current waveform affected by both

the inductance and the back-emf
variation (especially at high speed)

L3

Ideal supply scheme to

obtain a constant torque
operation

I1

I2

I3

Consideration on the torque production

22

Sign determined by the inductance derivative (position sensor is needed)

Motor design must emphasize the ratio Lmax/Lmin
Significant torque ripple because:
dL/d
const. (magnetic saturation , pole shapes)
i
const. (chopping at low speed, presence of a back-emf at high speed)
Phase supply Nr times per revolution to have continuous torque switching
frequency higher than a conventional AC machine (increased core losses, lower
flux per pulse)
Switching frequency

2 2
= fs
=
n
t
N r 60

Nr
fs =
n
60

Synchronous (p=1): f 0 =

p
n
n
60
60

SRM 6/4: f s = N r f 0

Step angle: rotation angle for each torque pulse

2
=
m Nr
Phase number

mNr : pulses/rev.
must be lower than s to have continuous torque

Actual apparent inductance (8:6)

Lapp [mH]
100 4A
8A

90
10A

80
12A

70
14A

60 16A
18A

50
40
30
20
10

Aligned position

-5

-10

-15

[]

-20

-25

-30
Un-aligned position

23

Actual e.m. torque (I=const

I=const.,
., 8:6)
Cem [Nm]
35
Steep decrease with
high saturation
(deviation fron the
rectangular profile)

30

18A
16A

25

14A
20
12A
15
10A
10

8A

5
4A
0

Aligned position

-5

-10

-15

[]

-20

-25

-30
Un-aligned position

24

25

FEM simulations (8:6)

Rated power/speed: 4 kW/1500 rpm
Length: 153.5 mm
3

11

20

Flux lines

10

Flux density map

20.2
21.7
28
96.8

26

Single phase supply

Low speed operation (current
modulation)
Supply of the next phase which
produces the maximum torque
(step angle interval)
Energy balance examination on
the i characteristic
Wm, Wm: converted mechanical
energy between (-300) and
() respectively
Wf: stored magnetic energy
(=)

Wc=Wm+Wf: supplied energy by
the converter
ER==Wm/Wc: conversion
efficiency

resultant torque T()

single-phase torque

Tav

=-

15

'

=-(
+)

-15

-30 []

Wm

W'f

30

Wm
O

in

Design consideration
s

2
s + r = ___
r

s = r

1: stator poles width lower than the

rotor slot width to avoid a magnetic
short-circuit between two adjacent
rotor poles in the unaligned position
2: stator poles narrower than the rotor
ones because the winding mounting

s=

27

3: angle s higher than the step angle

to avoid null torque zones

A
r

Vertex A: higher room for the winding, but remarkable effect of the flux fringing at
the pole edges (increase of the minimum inductance)
Vertex B: high minimum inductance value and smaller volume available for the
winding
Vertex C: higher efficiency and power density, but significant increase of the torque
ripple

Choice of the pole number

Most common combinations 6/4, 8/6, 12/10 (2 poles/phase) 12/8,16/12 (4
poles/phase)
High rotor poles
o High commutation frequency (core and switching losses)
o High importance of the current rise and fall intervals (higher ohmic losses,
conduction overlap)
o Lower torque ripple with high harmonic order
Adoption of many poles/phase vs 2 poles/phase
o Higher cost and winding manufacturing
o Lower filling factor (insulation, spacers) lower power density
o Lower pole amperturns and then lower iron flux density for a given air-gap
length (poor utilization of the magnetic material)
o Reduced flux lines length and unidirectional stator flux (limited core losses,
higher efficiency)
Adoption of slotted stator poles (see VR stepper motor) in case of high number of
phases

28

Influence of the geometric parameters

Mean torque [Nm]

Most convenient pole arc/pitch ratio 4045% with r=s (higher values lead to
room and weight problems)
Stator pole arc/pole pitch more sensitive
as regards the mean torque

Pole arc
(rotor)
Pole pitch

Pole arc
(stator)
Pole pitch

Aligned inductance [H]

Pole arc
(s= r)
Pole pitch

Mean torque [Nm

Nm]

29

Pole arc
(rotor)
Pole pitch

s / r

Performances of a 8:6 motor

30.0

30
B
50

Favorable zone

27.5

Single phase supply

48

25.0

Parametric analysis varying the stator

pole width s and the rotor one r

46

22.5
P
20.0

Conversion
efficiency

44

17.5

15.0

92

30.0

D
20

25

r []

30

35

B
Favorable zone

27.5
88

25.0

s []

[Nm/m]

40

Torque ripple
30.0

Favorable zone

27.5

42

C
15

Mean torque

[%]

s []

20

25.0

[%]

22.5

84

s [] 22.5

15

20.0

20.0
80

17.5

15.0

17.5

C
15

D
20

r []

25

30

35

15.0
76

10

D
15

20

25

30

35

31

Dynamic analysis
Voltage equation

di

di
d
v = Ri +
= Ri +
+
= linc (i, ) + k (i, )
dt
i =cost dt
i =cost
dt
Incremental
inductance

Torque equation

d
Cem (i, ) = Cm + J
+ Cf
dt

Back-emf
coefficient

d
=
dt

Numerical integration

ik ik 1
1
ik + ik 1
k + k 1
Vk + Vk 1
=

R
k (ik , k )

t
linc (ik , k ) 2
2
2
k k 1 1
= [Cem (ik , k ) Cm C f ]
J
t
k k 1 k + k 1
Algebraic non-linear system of equations to be solved
=
iteratively for each k-th step
2
t

32

Flux linkage
0

-10

[]
-20

-30
0.8
0.6

[Wb]

0.4
0.2
0
15
10

i [A]

5
0

33

Static torque

30
20

Cem [Nm]

10
0

0
15
-10
10

i [A]

-20
5

0 -30

[]

Incremental inductance
0

[]

-10

-20

-30
100
80

l inc [mH]

60
40
20
0
15
10

i [A]

34

35

Back--emf coefficient
Back
15

k [Wb/rad]

i [A]
10

1
0

0
-10
-20
-30

[]

Current and torque waveform (1 phase supply

supply))
[A]

Low speed
(a)

[Nm]

(a)

Useful interval
as concerns
the torque
production

[A]

High speed
(b)

Advanced and
longer conduction
angle

[Nm]

(b)

36

Typical torque speed characteristic

Hysteresis
control
Mean torque

Conduction
angle

Lower conduction time

Profile suitable for

transport application
(electric vehicles)

Operation with
increased voltage

Switching frequency
limitation

(23) b

Angular speed

37

Comments
Low speed
Very low back-emf current controlled by chopping the supply voltage
Possibility to operate with increased voltage current increase saturation
increase higher converted energy reduction of the conducting interval
Frequency limitation for the switch current reduction to limit th switching losses
Base speed b: highest speed value for which i imax only by voltage commutation
(the conduction angle D and the maximum voltage VMAX are fixed)

High speed
Increase of D by advancing the phase turn on to enable a faster current rising
Current increase limited by Linc and C
Advanced turn off to avoid the operation in generator mode (dL/d<0)
Maximum limit on D to avoid mean voltage components on an inductive circuit
(unlimite flux increase causing high saturation)
Torque 1/2 with D=cost., because the conduction time as well as the flux are
decreased

38

Supply circuits (3
(3--phase)
Asymmetric bridge converter

39

Separate phase supply by two

transistors in series to the winding
(protection during faults)
Free-wheeling for the energy
rigeneration during the turn-off

Current control by modulating one

switch only to reduce commutation
losses and current ripple
Hysteresis control
i*

B,C

Switches rated according to the

maximum voltage value

B,C

v*
A

Three level voltage possible

PWM control

Monostable

High number of devices (high cost)

used mainly for high power and
number of phases
Current or voltage reference value
generated by the speed loop

Voltage and current waveform

40

Half bridge converter

Ramo 1

Componenti per fase dimezzati

Tensione di fase met di quella del bus DC
Utilizzo solo con un numero pari di fasi
Componenti dimensionati in base alla
massima tensione del bus DC
Controllo del bilanciamento del partitore
capacitivo

47

Scuola di Dottorato in Ingegneria Industriale

Attivit didattica 2011 in Ingegneria Elettrotecnica

Special electric machines

Dr. A. Tortella
Laboratory of Electric Machines

Dipartimento
Dipartimento di
di Ingegneria
Ingegneria Elettrica
Elettrica

References
Books

William H. Yeadon, Alan W. Yeadon, Handbook of Small Electric Motors, McGrawHill

H.D. Stlting, E. Kallenbach, W. Amrhein, Handbook of Fractional-Horsepower

Drives, Springer

J. Stepina, Single-phase induction motors : construction, theory and calculation,

Ohio Magna Physics Publishing

J Gieras, Permanent magnet motor technology : desing and applications, New

York Dekker

T. Kenjo and S. Nagamori , Permanent-magnet and brushless dc motors,

Oxford Clarendon Press

P. Acarnley, Stepping motors : a guide to theory and practice, IEE Stevenage

T. J. E. Miller, Brushless Permanent-Magnet and Reluctance Motor Drives ,
Oxford Clarendon Press

R. Krishnan, Switched Reluctance Motor Drives Modeling, Simulation, Analysis,

Design, and Applications, CRC Press

I. Boldea, Syed A. Nasar, Linear Actuators and Generators, Cambridge University

Press

References

Papers
S.K. Hong, H.K. Kim, H.S. Kim, and H.K. Jung, Torque Calculation of Hysteresis Motor Using Vector
Hysteresis Model, IEEE Trans. on Magnetics, Vol. 36, No. 4, July 2000, pp 1932-1935

S. Bentouati, Z. Q. Zhu, and D. Howe, Permanent Magnet Brushless DC Motors for Consumer
Products, 9th Int. Conf. on Electric Machines and Drives, pp. 118-122, 1-3 Sept. 1999, Canterbury,
UK

Z. Q. Zhu, S. Bentouati, and D. Howe, Control of Single-Phase permanent Magnet Brushless DC

Drives for High-Speed Applications, 8th IEE Int. Conf. on Power Electronics and Variable Speed
Drives, pp. 327-332, 18-19 Sept. 2000, London, UK

W. Wang, Z. Wu, W. Jin and J. Ying, Starting Methods for Hall-less Single Phase BLDC Motor,
IECON 2005, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA, 6-10 November 2005

W. Wang, Z. Wu, W. Jin and J. Ying, Sensorless Control Technology for Single Phase BLDCM
Based on the Winding Time-sharing Method, IECON 2005, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA, 6-10
November 2005

S. Nonaka and K. Kesamaru, Analysis of New Brushless Self-Excited Single-phase Synchronous

Generator by Finite Element Method, Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting, 1992

Andriollo, M., Martinelli G., Morini A., Tortella A., Zerbetto M., Performance improvement of low-rate
single-phase alternators, IEMDC 2003

Andriollo M., De Bortoli M., Martinelli G., Morini A., Tortella, A., Design Improvement of a SinglePhase Brushless Permanent Magnet Motor for Small Fan Appliances , IEEE Trans. on Industrial
Electronics, Vol.57, pp. 88-95