Discrete Mathematics Structures

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http://blog.bamneshin.ir/
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Mohammad.bamneshin@yahoo.com
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BASU_DM_1391
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Expectations

This is really a fun course!

This class contains some of the most beautiful math
youll ever learn.

Its even useful, beyond giving you techniques to use
solving the puzzles in Games Magazine.
Hints for success

Read the textbook.

Lectures really do help!

Do the homework.

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Propositional Logic
is a declarative statement thats either TRUE or
A proposition
Whats
a proposition?
FALSE (but not both).

Propositions

Not Propositions

3 + 2 = 32

Bring me coffee!

DM is Bryans favorite class.

DM is her favorite class.

Every cow has 4 legs.

3+2

There is other life in the

universe.

Do you like Cake?

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Propositional Logic - negation

Suppose p is a proposition.
The negation of p is written p and has meaning:
It is not the case that p.

Ex. DM is NOT Bryans favorite class.

Truth table for negation:

T
F

F
T

Notice that

p is a
proposition!

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Propositional Logic - conjunction

Conjunction corresponds to English and.
p q is true exactly when p and q are both true.

Ex. Amy is curious AND clever.

Truth table for conjunction:

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pq

T
T
F
F

T
F
T
F

T
F
F
F

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Propositional Logic - disjunction

Disjunction corresponds to English or.
p q is when p or q (or both) are true.

Ex. Michael is brave OR nuts.

Truth table for disjunction:

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pq

T
T
F
F

T
F
T
F

T
T
T
F

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Propositional Logic - implication

Implication: p q corresponds to English if p then q, or p
implies q.

If it is raining then it is cloudy.

If there are 200 people in the room, then I am the Easter
Bunny.

If p then 2+2=4.

Truth table for implication:

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pq

T
T
F
F

T
F
T
F

T
F
T
T

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Propositional Logic - logical equivalence

How many different logical connectives could we define?
16

How many different logical connectives do we need?

??

To answer, we need the notion of

logical equivalence.

p is logically equivalent to q if their truth tables are the same. We

write p q.
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Propositional Logic - logical equivalence

Challenge: Try to find a proposition that is equivalent to p q, but that
uses only the connectives , , and .

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pq

q p

T
T
F
F

T
F
T
F

T
F
T
T

T
T
F
F

T
F
T
F

F
F
T
T

T
F
T
T

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Propositional Logic - proof of 1 famous

Distributivity:

p (q r) (p q) (p r)

I could say
prove a law of
distributivity.
(p q) (p r)

qr

p (q r)

pq

pr

F T
All truth
assignment
F T
s for p, q,
F F
and r.
F F

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Propositional Logic - special definitions

Contrapositives: p q and q p

One of these
things is not
like the others.

Ex. If it is noon, then I am hungry.

If I am not hungry, then it is not noon.
Converses: p q and q p

Ex. If it is noon, then I am hungry.
Hint: In one
instance, the pair
If I am hungry, then it is noon.
of propositions is
Inverses: p q and p q
equivalent.

Ex. If it is noon, then I am hungry.
If it is not noon, then I am not hungry.

p q q p
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Propositional Logic - 2 more defn,

A tautology is a proposition thats always TRUE.
A contradiction is a proposition thats always FALSE.

p p p p p p

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Propositional Logic - say a bit,

This session were using propositional logic as a foundation for
formal proofs.
Propositional logic is also the key to writing good codeyou
cant do any kind of conditional (if) statement without
understanding the condition youre testing.
All the logical connectives weve discussed are also found in
hardware and are called gates.
Well talk about more applications.
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Propositional Logic - an infamous

(p q) q p q

if NOT (blue AND NOT red) OR red then

(p q) q

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(p q) q

DeMorgans

(p q) q

Double negation

p (q q)

Associativity

p q

Idempotent

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Propositional Logic - one last proof

Show that [p (p q)] q is a tautology.

We use to show that [p (p q)] q T.
[p (p q)] q
[p (p q)] q

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substitution for

[(p p) (p q)] q

distributive

[ F (p q)] q
(p q) q
(p q) q
(p q) q
p (q q )
p T
T

uniqueness
identity
substitution for
DeMorgans
associative
excluded middle
domination

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Predicate Logic - everybody loves somebody

Proposition, YES or NO?
YES
3+2=5
X+2=5
NO
X + 2 = 5 for any choice of X in {1, 2, 3}
X + 2 = 5 for some X in {1, 2, 3}

YES

YES

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Predicate Logic - everybody loves somebody

Alicia eats pizza at least once a week.

Garrett eats pizza at least once a week.
Allison eats pizza at least once a week.
Gregg eats pizza at least once a week.
Ryan eats pizza at least once a week.
Meera eats pizza at least once a week.
Ariel eats pizza at least once a week.

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Predicates

Define:

Alicia eats pizza at least once a week.

EP(x) = x eats pizza at least once a week.

Universe of Discourse - x is a student in DM
A predicate, or propositional function, is a
function that takes some variable(s) as
arguments and returns True or False.
Note that EP(x) is not a proposition, EP(Ariel) is.

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Predicates
Suppose Q(x,y) = x > y
Proposition, YES or NO?

Q(x,y)
Q(3,4)
Q(x,9)

NO
YES
NO

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Predicate, YES or NO?

Q(x,y)
Q(3,4)
Q(x,9)
-

YES
NO
YES
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Predicates - the universal quantifier

Another way of changing a predicate into a proposition.
Suppose P(x) is a predicate on some universe of discourse.
Ex. B(x) = x is carrying a backpack, x is set of DM students.

The universal quantifier of P(x) is the proposition:

P(x) is true for all x in the universe of discourse.
We write it x P(x), and say for all x, P(x)
x P(x) is TRUE if P(x) is true for every single x.
x P(x) is FALSE if there is an x for which P(x) is false.
x B(x)?
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Predicates - the universal quantifier

B(x) = x is wearing sneakers.
L(x) = x is at least 21 years old.
Y(x)= x is less than 24 years old.

Universe of discourse
is people in this room.

Are either of these propositions true?

a)
b)

x (Y(x) B(x))
x (Y(x) L(x))

A: only a is true
B: only b is true
C: both are true
D: neither is true

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Predicates - the existential quantifier

Another way of changing a predicate into a proposition.
Suppose P(x) is a predicate on some universe of discourse.
Ex. C(x) = x has a candy bar, x is set of DM students.

The existential quantifier of P(x) is the proposition:

P(x) is true for some x in the universe of discourse.
We write it x P(x), and say for some x, P(x)
x P(x) is TRUE if there is an x for which P(x) is true.
x P(x) is FALSE if P(x) is false for every single x.

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x C(x)?

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Predicates - the existential quantifier

B(x) = x is wearing sneakers.
L(x) = x is at least 21 years old.
Y(x)= x is less than 24 years old.

Universe of discourse
is people in this room.

Are either of these propositions true?

a)
b)

x B(x)
x (Y(x) L(x))

A: only a is true
B: only b is true
C: both are true
D: neither is true

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Predicates - more examples

L(x) = x is a lion.
Universe of discourse
is all creatures.
F(x) = x is fierce.
C(x) = x drinks coffee.
All lions are fierce.

x (L(x) F(x))

Some lions dont drink coffee.

x (L(x) C(x))

Some fierce creatures dont drink coffee.

x (F(x) C(x))
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Predicates - more examples

B(x) = x is a hummingbird.
L(x) = x is a large bird.
H(x) = x lives on honey.
R(x) = x is richly colored.

Universe of discourse
is all creatures.

x (B(x) R(x))

All hummingbirds are richly colored.

No large birds live on honey.

x (L(x) H(x))

Birds that do not live on honey are dully colored.

x (H(x) R(x))
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Predicates - quantifier negation

Not all large birds live on honey.

x (L(x) H(x))

x P(x) means P(x) is true for every x.

What about x P(x) ?
Not [P(x) is true for every x.]
There is an x for which P(x) is not true.

x P(x)
So, x P(x) is the same as x P(x).
x (L(x) H(x))
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Predicates - quantifier negation

No large birds live on honey.

x (L(x) H(x))

x P(x) means P(x) is true for some x.

What about x P(x) ?
Not [P(x) is true for some x.]
P(x) is not true for all x.

x P(x)
So, x P(x) is the same as x P(x).
x (L(x) H(x))
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Predicates - quantifier negation

So, x P(x) is the same as x P(x).

So, x P(x) is the same as x P(x).
General rule: to negate a quantifier, move
negation to the right, changing quantifiers as
you go.

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Predicates - quantifier negation

No large birds live on honey.
x (L(x) H(x)) x (L(x) H(x))

Negation
rule

x (L(x) H(x))

DeMorgans

x (L(x) H(x))

Subst for

Whats wrong with this

proof?

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