LWT - Food Science and Technology 70 (2016) 199e207

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LWT - Food Science and Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/lwt

Polar and neutral lipid composition and fatty acids prole in selected
sh meals depending on raw material and grade of products
Adriana Mika a, *, Ewa Swiezewska b, Piotr Stepnowski a
a
b

Department of Environmental Analysis, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Gdansk, 80-308, Gdansk, Poland
Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, 02-106, Warsaw, Poland

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 8 June 2015
Received in revised form
5 January 2016
Accepted 23 February 2016
Available online 26 February 2016

Fish and sh products are widely distributed feed in aquaculture and agriculture. However, still little is
known on the lipid composition of them, potential differences in the lipid proles of various meals
depending on sh composition of meal and process technology. Therefore, the aim of this study was to
determine the characteristics of polar and neutral lipids in selected meals. The thirteen sh meals were
analyzed using two mass spectrometry technique coupled with gas chromatography and liquid chromatography. The highest lipid content was detected in mixed meal prepared from many species e multi
sh meal e (mackerel, trout, sprat, herring, perch, silver carp etc.). In our article for the rst time such
precise fatty acid prole including atypical acids, e.g. branched fatty acid, was described in sh meals.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) dominated in Norsea Mink (Nsm), Mauretania Grade (MG), Human
Grade Batch (HGB) and Low Temperature (LT) products, what was associated with the processing
technique and whole sh was used for meal production. These products were also abundant in phospholipids. Meals did not subjected to extrusion process and without addition of antioxidant were
characterized by low levels of n-3 PUFA and small diversity of polar and neutral lipids.
2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Fatty acids
Fish meal grade
Neutral lipids
Phospholipids
Spectrometric techniques

1. Introduction
Millions of tonnes of sh meal are produced and used in commercial diets for sh, dairy cattle, mink, poultry and swine
(Aberoumand, 2010). In sh feed industry exist two types of animal
feed, produced from whole fresh industrial sh and from sh offal
(Jensen, Fiskeindustri, & Denmark, 1990). In 2008 world production
of sh meal amounted about 5 million tons (Penven, Perez-Galvez,
, 2013) and currently, the supply is stable at 6.0 to 6.5
& Berge
million tons annually (Miles and Chapman, 2006). In order to
produce 1 ton of dry sh meal, 4 to 5 tons of whole sh are required
(Miles and Chapman, 2006). Fish meals can be divided into 3 categories: sh meal made from sh, which are not suitable for human
consumption (sandeel, Norway pout), sh meal made from sh,
which can be consumed by human (blue whiting, sprat, capelin)
and sh meal produced from sh, which are commonly consumed
by human, but any surplus may be used for sh meal production
(herring, mackerel) (Karalazos, 2007).

* Corresponding author. Wita Stwosza 63, 80-308, Gdansk, Poland.

E-mail addresses: adrianamika@tlen.pl (A. Mika), ewas@ibb.waw.pl
(E. Swiezewska), piotr.stepnowski@ug.edu.pl (P. Stepnowski).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2016.02.051
0023-6438/ 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Balance of amino acids, fatty acids and phospholipids are

essential for optimum growth, development and reproduction
(Miles and Chapman, 2006; Usydus, Szlinder-Richert, Adamczyk, &
Szatkowska, 2011). Until now, authors mainly analyzed content of
protein and amino acids composition in shery products and in
commonly available specication of sh products are presented
mainly: total amount of protein, fat, water, salt, volatile nitrogen,
minerals. Despite application of sh meal in agriculture and
aquaculture and benecial effects of sh meal, we still lack an accurate characteristics of their lipids. Only few previous studies
analyzed the proles of polar (PL) and neutral lipids in sh meal
(Vik et al., 2015). Importantly, lipid content and stability of sh meal
depends on storage conditions and processing, seasonal variations
and shery location (Samuelsen, Mjs, & Oterhals, 2014) as well as
 ttir, Pa
lmado
ttir, &
presence of natural antioxidant (Bragado
Kristbergsson, 2004). Other conditions, such as species of sh and
part of organism intended for meal production will determine the
dominant group of lipids (Jensen et al., 1990).
Therefore, the objective of this research was to identify the
composition of molecular species of specic lipid classes in sh
meal, which is produced in various technology process from whole
sh (homogeneous meal) and from by-products of several species

200

A. Mika et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 70 (2016) 199e207

of sh (mixed meal). Characterization of lipids comprises a new

information about the lipid composition in sh products. Two mass
spectrometry (MS) technique was used. The total number of FAs
was analyzed by using gas chromatographyemass spectrometry
(GCeMS) technique with electron ionization (EI). Diacylglycerols
(DAGs), triacylglycerols (TAGs), lysophospholipids (LPLs), phospholipids (PLs), ceramides and sphingomyelins were recorded using
a
liquid
chromatography-electrospray-tandem
mass
spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS2) technique with Ultra Ion Trap and detector MS via diode array detector (DAD).
2. Material and methods

with 1 mL of 0.5 M KOH in methanol and incubated at 90  C for 3 h.

Subsequently, FAs were extracted by n-hexane and the n-hexane
phase was evaporated to dryness under a stream of nitrogen.
Finally, 0.1 mL of 10% BF3 in methanol was added and the samples
were incubated at 55  C for 1.5 h. The samples were frozen
at
20  C until the GCeMS analysis. The prole of fatty acid methyl
esters (FAMEs) was determined using the GCeMS on a QP-2010 SE
chromatograph (Shimadzu, Tokyo, Japan) with a 30 m  0.25 mm
i.d. fused silica capillary column Rtx-5 (Restek Corporation, USA)
and a 0.25-mm thick lm. The temperature of the process was set at
60e300  C at a 4  C/min rate, with a 60 kPa helium carrier gas
pressure at a column head. Prior to the GCeMS, FAMEs were diluted
in dichloromethane.

2.1. Experimental material

Fish meals from several shing companies were purchased.
Research material was divided into three parts: homogeneous
meals produced in low temperature process (LT): (1) Blue Whiting,
(2) Baltic Sprat, (3) Boar Fish, (4) Capelin and (5) Sandeel; Norsea
Mink (Nsm) homogeneous and mixed meals: (6) Sprat, Norway
pout and Herring, (7) Sprat and Norway pout, (8) Sprat, (9) Mauretania Grade (MB) Tobias and (10) Human Grade Batch (HGB)
Sardinella. The last part of analyzed sh meals were multi meals:
(11) before extrusion without antioxidant, (12) after extrusion with
antioxidant and (13) after extrusion without antioxidant. Naturox
as an antioxidant were added to the all sh meals, except sh meal
11 and 13.
2.2. Chemicals and reagents
Methanol, chloroform, isopropanol, acetonitrile, n-hexane,
chloric acid, acetic acid, potassium hydroxide, sodium chloride and
ammonium acetate were obtained from Avantor (Gliwice, Poland).
All the solvents were HPLC grade. Saturated branched chain fatty
acid 19-methyl-eicosanoate was used as an internal standard for
GCeMS analysis with a 10% BF3 in methanol, both obtained from
SigmaeAldrich (Poznan, Poland). neutral lipid standards used in
the chromatographic analysis were: dilaurin (DAG), trimyristin
(TAG);
and
PLs
standards:
1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3phosphocholine
(PC),
1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3phosphoethanolamine
(PE),
1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3phospho-L-serine (PS), and sphingosine 1-phosphate (SM) and NHexanoyl-D-sphingosine (Cer), also obtained from/provided by
SigmaeAldrich (Poznan, Poland). Aminopropyl cartriges Strata
(500 mg/6 ml matrix) were from Phenomenex (USA).
2.3. Sample preparation

2.4.2. LC-ESI-MS2 analysis

Mixture lipids were separated on the lipid group by the solid
phase extraction (SPE) on aminopropyl cartridges according to
Kaluzny, Duncan, Merrit, and Epps (1985) and Bodennec et al.
(2000). The correctness of SPE method and separated lipids
groups were conrmed on the Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC)
plates (Silica gel 60 F254, 25 Glass plates 20  20 cm, without
uorescence indicator, Merck; Darmstadt, Germany). Lipids were
analyzed using a LC instrument (Agilent Technologies 1200series,
Santa Clara, USA). The Eclipse XDB-C18 column (4.6  250 mm,
5 mm; Agilent Technologies, USA) was used for chromatographic
separation, using the MB phase as an A phase (1 mM ammonium
acetate in 90% of water and 10% of acetonitrile, pH 3.7) and acetonitrile with isopropanol (5:2, v/v) as a phase B (with addition of
0.1% acetic acid). The ow rate was set at 0.8 mL/min, and 35 mL of
the sample was injected into the column. The column was thermostated at 30  C. The analysis was conducted on a Bruker Daltonics HCT Ultra Ion Trap (Bremen, Germany). The HPLC system was
connected to the MS via DAD (wavelength of l 254 nm). The
nebulizer pressure was set at 50 psi, dry gas temperature at 360  C
and dry gas ow rate at 11 L/min. The capillary voltage was 4 kV.
The mass in the MS spectra ranged between 50 Da and 1500 Da,
with a 700 Da target mass.
The instrument was run in positive and negative ion mode. The
obtained mass spectra represent average values for three scans.
Prior to the LC-ESI-MS2 analysis, the lipid samples were diluted
with a mixture of acetonitrile and methanol (1:1, v/v). LCoperation, data acquisition and processing were carried out using
a ChemStation for LC systems Rev. B.01.03-SR2 (Agilent Technologies, USA) and esquire Control 6.1 coupled with Bruker Daltonics
DataAnalysis 3.4 (Bruker Daltonics, Germany). Specic components
representing various phospholipid classes were identied with a
SimLipid 4.2 software (PREMIER Biosoft International, USA).

The sh meals were lyophilized and extracted in a chloroformmethanol mixture (2:1, v/v) (Folch, Lees, & Stanley, 1957). The lipid
extracts were dried by evaporation under a stream of nitrogen. Each
sample was divided into two parts: for the analysis of FA composition by using GCeMS technique and for the analysis of complex
lipids, namely polar lipids (ceramides, sphingolipids and phospholipids) and neutral lipids (di- and triacylglycerols) by using LCESI-MS2 technique. The lipid extracts were frozen at
20  C in glass
amber tubes and stored until analysis. The lipid standards were
prepared and analyzed according to the identical protocol as the
investigated material.

The statistical signicance of differences between the groups

was assessed by a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and
Tukey's post hoc test used for further determination of signicance
of differences. Differences between the groups were considered
signicant when p < 0.05. All data are presented as means SD. The
number of individual measurements taken during the GCeMS and
LC-ESI-MS2 analyses was 3. SigmaPlot for Windows version 11.0
software was used for all statistical analyses (Systat Software Inc.,
Germany).

2.4. Spectrometric techniques

3. Results

2.4.1. GCeMS analysis

FA proles of the sh meal lipids were determined using GCeMS
technique for methyl esters. The lipid extracts were hydrolyzed

3.1. Lipids content

2.5. Statistical analysis

In our research we analyzed LT, Nsm, MG, HGB grade meals and

A. Mika et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 70 (2016) 199e207

meals before and after extrusion. The total contents of lipids in 13

research meals are presented in Table 1. The lowest values of lipid
content were detected in homogeneous LT meals: LTBlue Whiting,
LT
Baltic Sprat and LTBoar Fish (Table 1). Homogeneous meals, in
which were noted the highest values of lipids were: NsmSprat,
LT
Capelin and HGBTobias. Multi meals (before and after extrusion)
differed considerably in lipids contents. In multi meals group the
statistically signicant differences were noted (Table 1). They are
produced mainly from viscera and many fat sh were used for
production of meal (Table 1). This can explain the highest content of
lipids among investigated sh products.
3.2. Fatty acid composition
The proles of FAs found in selected sh meals are presented in
Table 2. There were signicant differences between the mean
contents in FAs prole between selected sh meals (Table 2,
Table S1).
The content of saturated fatty acids (SFA) in homogeneous meals
ranged from 22.70 0.81% (LtCapelin) to 39.88 1.43% (MBSardinella). Similar SFA content to MBSardinella meal was detected in
mixed meal LTSprat/Norway pout/Herring. Level of SFA in sprat
products was very different, from 29.48 1.05% in LtBaltic Sprat to
34.58 0.63% in NsmBaltic Sprat. In multi meals (sh meals No.
11e13) low amounts of n-3 PUFA were detected. The reason was
part of sh, which was used in meal production, by-products. The
highest amounts of n-3 PUFA were recorded in homogeneous meals
and it was range from 22% (HGBTobias, MBSardinella, LtCapelin,
Lt
Baltic Sprat, LTBlue whiting) to 26.82 0.96% in LTSandeel meal.
High levels of n-3 PUFA did not correlate with the levels of n-6
PUFA. Their amounts ranged from 2% in homogenous meals, except
MB
Sardinella and LTSandeel meal, to 4e5% in multi meal (Table 2).
Odd- and branched-chain FAs were also detected in our study
(Table 2, Table S1). Level of branched FAs was widely varied
depending on type of sh meal or production process and these
acids were detected in low amounts. In this group of fatty acid we
noted the greatest diversication between studied sh meals
(Table 2).
3.3. Polar and neutral lipids composition
3.3.1. Analysis of groups of lipid
Major class of lipids found in the analyzed material are presented in Table 3. PLs and TAGs were the principal lipid classes
found in selected sh meals. In LTBlue Whiting and MBSardinella
meal content of polar lipids was very high because PLs dominated

201

in sh muscles (Table 3). Mixed meals produced from fatty sh,

such as mackerel, sprat and herring had high content of TAGs
(Table 3) and the highest levels of lipids (Table 1). In these sh
meals statistically signicant differences were observed (Table 3).
In LTSandeel meal similar levels of polar and neutral lipids were
noted (Table 3), although sandeel is fatty sh. Polar nonphospholipids, such as ceramides and sphingomyelin were also
detected but in very low amount (Table 3, Table S2). These lipids are
components of by-products and higher levels of non-polar phospholipids were recorded in multi meals (Table 3). Additionally
Pearson correlation analysis was made between the total content of
PLs and total PUFA. We found strong correlation between total PLs
and total PUFA (R 0.76; p < 0.01), that conrms that PLs are the
main source of PUFAs in sh meals.
3.3.2. Analysis of molecular species of lipids
The results of the LC-ESI-MS2 analysis and main identied molecular species of lipid classes are presented in Tables 4e6. PLs,
DAGs and TAGs were identied on the basis of their fragment ions
[M H-R1COOH], [M H-R2COOH], fatty acid-related fragments,
molecular protonated ion [M H], sodiated and/or potassiated ion
[M Na], [M K]. A Simlipid 4.2 package (PREMIER Biosoft
International, USA) was used for the identication.
3.3.2.1. Analysis of neutral lipids. The characteristics of 36 TAGs
found in our analyzed sh meals are presented in Table 4. The range
of TAG molecular species was from carbon numbers (CN) 42 to 66
within 0e8 double bond. Only one TAG, (12:0/16:0/20:0), was fully
saturated. A total of 45% of all identied TAGs had one unsaturated
FA and among them more than 55% had n-3 PUFA. Only four species
were detected with two unsaturated FAs. There were: 15:0/18:3/
18:3, 18:4/18:4/16:0, 18:2/17:0/22:4 and 18:2/19:0/22:6, recorded
mainly in LT meals. TAG species detected in mostly analyzed
products included 14:0/15:0/20:5, 15:0/18:3/18:3, 16:0/18:4/18:1,
16:0/18:1/18:1, 18:1/18:1/18:2, 16:1/18:0/24:1 and 20:1/20:1/22:3.
The highest relative intensity was recorded in multi meals, however, the highest diversity of TAG species was detected in homogeneous meals, such as MGSardinella, NsmSprat, HGBTobias, LTSandeel
and mixed meal e Sprat and Norway pout (Table 4). The lowest
diversity was found in LTBlue Whiting, LTBoar Fish and LTCapelin
meals. Despite low diversity of TAGs in Boar Fish meal, we found
there the highest relative intensity of TAGs. The comparative
analysis of TAG species from LT and Nsm products showed varied
differences in technology process. Only 11 TAGs species in LTSprat
were recorded (Table 4).
A total of various 23 DAGs were identied in analyzed sh meals

Table 1
Dry mass and total lipid content in selected sh meals. Results (n 3) are expressed as mean SD. aem e symbols of appropriate meals. The presence of the symbol next to the
result means signicant difference (p < 0.05) to respective meal. LT-Low temperature, Nsm-Norsea mink, MBeMauretania Batch, HGB-Human Grade Batch. Blue W-blue
whiting, Blatic S-baltic sprat, Boar F-boar sh, S/Np/H-sprat/norway pout/herring, S/Np-sprat/norway pout, BeoA-before extrusion without antioxidant, EwA-after extrusion
with antioxidant, EoA-after extrusion with antioxidant.
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

LT

Blue Wa
Lt
Baltic Sb
LT
Boar Fc
LT
Capelind
LT
Sandeele
LT
S/Np/Hf
Nsm
S/Npg
Nsm
Sprath
HGB
Tobiasi
MB
Sardinellaj
bEoAk
EwAl
EoAm

Composition of sh meal

Lipids (%)

Blue whiting 100%

Baltic sprat 100%
Boar sh 100%
Capelin 100%
Sandeel 100%
Sprat (30%), norway pout (40%), herring (30%)
Sprat 70%, norway pout 30%
Sprat 100%
Tobias 100%
Sardinella 100%
Mackerel (52%), silver carp (17%), perch (10%), sprat (9%), herring (8%)
Mackerel (32%), silver carp (22%), sprat (18%), perch (13%), trout (12%), herring (3%)
Mackerel (43%), trout (12%), sprat (12%), silver carp (11%), herring (11%), perch (8%), cod (5%), salmon (7%)

7.44
7.01
6.84
10.20
8.78
9.06
9.53
8.64
10.30
8.26
13.16
13.21
11.52

0.16
0.17k,l
0.20k,l
0.47
0.17
0.46
0.23
0.34
1.30
0.88
0.72b,c
0.64b,c
0.61

Dry mass (%)

96.37
97.58
98.01
95.41
97.39
94.50
95.51
95.44
93.22
90.92
92.62
95.15
95.19

52.43 1.87
3.36 0.12
0.41 0.03
4.38 0.16
1.32 0.05f,h
4.25 0.15
8.33 0.30
14.98 0.53

j,f,g,h,i,e,c,b,a
j,f,g,h,i,e,c,a

52.27 1.87
3.31 0.12
0.37 0.01
4.28 0.15
1.41 0.05f,h
4.81 0.17
9.12 0.33
16.40 0.59
52.88 1.89j
4.45 0.16a
0.36 0.01
5.60 0.20d
1.28 0.05
3.80 0.14
6.85 0.24b
13.25 0.47e
0.77
44.78 1.6
32.92 1.18k,c
0.04
1.97 0.07
1.83 0.07
0.01
0.41 0.01
1.05 0.04d,e
0.07
3.33 0.12
4.34 0.16
0.006l,m 0.07 0.006 0.12 0.007
0.11
7.09 0.25
6.77 0.24
0.17
9.31 0.33
9.72 0.35
0.34
21.69 0.77 21.65 0.77

1.21
46.55 1.66
40.21 1.44
42.1
0.33a,c 1.49 0.05
1.32 0.05
2.04
0.01j
0.33 0.01
0.50 0.02d 0.46
0.35c,d 2.44 0.07
2.58 0.09
3.51
0.03
0.05 0.007l,m 0.07 0.006 0.05
0.41c,f 3.48 0.12e
6.94 0.25
5.89
0.46
4.27 0.15b,a 12.08 0.43
9.35
f,k
e
0.96
11.04 0.39
22.90 0.82 18.75

33.78
9.33
0.26
10.07
0.84
11.55
12.84
26.82
1.82
44.80 1.60 54.52 1.95j 52.67 1.88
0.03e,k 1.83 0.07
1.18 0.04e 1.39 0.05
0.01
0.35 0.01
0.27 0.01
0.21 0.01j,g
0.08
2.98 0.10
2.12 0.07e 1.98 0.07e,k
0.03
0.96 0.03
0.97 0.03
1.17 0.04
0.26
5.76 0.21
3.50 0.13e 6.97 0.25
f
f,k
0.48
14.46 0.52
8.37 0.30 13.18 0.47
0.80
22.04 0.79 13.80 0.49 22.10 0.79

a,b,c,d,e,k,l,m

38.84 1.39
1.13 0.04

j,f,g,h,i,a,b,c,d,k,l,m

28.41 1.01
0.91 0.03

j,f,g,h,i,e,c,b,a

22.70 0.81
0.56 0.02

j,f,g,h,i,e,a,d,k,l,m

28.78 1.03
0.78 0.03

j,f,g,h,i,e,a,d,k,m

29.48 1.05
0.69 0.02

j,f,g,h,i,e,c,b,l,k,m,d

23.79 0.85
0.41 0.01
SFA
BCFA

MUFA
50.90
18:2n-6
0.85
20:4n-6
0.36
Total n-6 PUFA 2.45
18:3n-3
0.86
20:5n-3
7.30
22:6n-3
13.40
Total n-3 PUFA 22.46

26.42 0.94 27.63 0.99

0.63 0.02
0.58 0.02

j,f,g,h,i,e,c,b,a

27.65 0.99
0.61 0.02

a,b,c,d,e,g,h,i,k,l,m

39.88 1.43
1.21 0.04

j,a,b,c,d,e,k,l,m

29.20 1.04
1.0 0.04

j,a,b,c,d,e,k,l,m

34.58 0.63
1.06 0.02

j,a,b,c,d,e,k,l,m

33.23 1.19
1.08 0.05

EwAl
bEoAk
Sardinellaj
MB

Tobiasi
HGB

Baltic Sh
Nsm

S/Npg
Blue Wa
Lt

FA

j,f

Lt

Baltic Sb

Lt

Boar Fc

Lt

Capelind

j,f

Lt

Sandeele

LT

S/Np/Hf

d,a

Nsm

d,a

EoAm

A. Mika et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 70 (2016) 199e207

Table 2
Fatty acids (FAs) composition (%) in selected sh meals identied by GCeMS. Results (n 3) are expressed as mean SD. aem e symbols of appropriate meals. The presence of the symbol next to the result means signicant
difference (p < 0.05) to respective meal. LT-Low temperature, Nsm-Norsea mink, MBeMauretania Batch, HGB-Human Grade Batch. Blue W-blue whiting, Blatic S-baltic sprat, Boar F-boar sh, S/Np/H-sprat/norway pout/herring,
S/Np-sprat/norway pout, BeoA-before extrusion without antioxidant, EwA-after extrusion with antioxidant, EoA-after extrusion with antioxidant, SFA-saturated fatty acids, BCFA-branched fatty acids, MUFA-monounsaturated
fatty acids, PUFA-polyunsaturated fatty acids.

202

during the LC-ESI-MS2 analysis (Table 5). The range of DAG molecular species was from CN30 to 44 within 0e10 double bond.
Three of them were fully saturated (15:0/18:0, 17:0/18:0, 18:0/18:0)
and six of them had one saturated and unsaturated FA. Four species
yielded signals for highly probable fatty acyl n-3 in both sn-1 and
sn-2 positions (20:5/20:5, 20:4/20:5, 18:3/22:2 and 20:4/22:6). The
higher relative intensity of all DAGs species was detected in mixed
meals (Table 5). Despite the considerable diversity of TAG species
found in selected sh meals, DAGs were recorded in higher intensity. DAG species detected in most of analyzed products and in
highest intensity included 14:1/18:2, 18:0/18:0, 16:1/22:6, 20:5/
20:5, 20:4/20:5 and 18:1/22:6. Various DAGs species were found in
Nsm sh meals. Similarly, NsmSprat meal was much more varied
than LT product. However, despite smaller heterogeneity of diacylglycerols in LT products and multi meals No. (11e13), only in
these meals DAGs with the highest intensity were noted. The group
of identied molecular species included a number of components
that seemed to be specic solely for Norway pout meal (12:0/18:1,
16:0/16:1 and 22:0/22:1) and multi meals No. 12 and 13 (15:0/20:4,
15:0/22:6). The last components will be specic for trout, salmon or
cod (after exclusion remaining sh presented in other meals)
(Table 5).
3.3.2.2. Analysis of phosphatidylcholines. We identied the lyso-PC
containing FAs 18:3, 20:5, 22:2 and O-14:1 (Table 6). The last LPC
was detected in all sh samples except LTSandeel. In turn, LPC20:5
was characteristic for LT products and multi meals, where reached
high intensity. A total of 45 PC species were identied within the PL
group. Four species displayed an unsaturated prole (18:3/20:4,
20:5/22:6, 22:6/22:6, 22:2/22:4) (Table 6). 19 PCs species contained
unsaturated and saturated FA, and only three contained unsaturated and monounsaturated FA in their structures. The most popular PC was 16:0/22:6 expect LTBlue Whiting meal and 20:0/16:0
mainly for mixed meals and MBSardinella meal. Additionally, unsaturated FAs dominated in sh meals with other grade than LT (No.
6e10). Saturated and monounsaturated FAs dominated in LT
products and meals 11e13. Last meals were source of highly various
fatty acids. Importantly, LTSprat meal and NsmSprat were very
different in PCs composition. Rare species of PCs were identied in
LT
Sprat meal. Meals of highest diversity were HGBTobias and
MG
Sardinella.
4. Discussion
4.1. Lipids contents
The lipid composition in sh meal depends on the raw material
(Jensen et al., 1990), species of sh and processing technique
(Samuelsen et al., 2014). Lean sh (e.g., blue whiting, Norway pout)
deposited the lipids mainly in liver, while capelin is considered a
fatty sh (Aberoumand, 2010; Barrett, Anker-Nilssen, Gabrielsen, &
Chapdelaine, 2002). Moreover, blue whiting is very delicate sh
and its processing occurs on board large freezer vessels (Valtsson,
2015). Another reason of uctuations in lipid composition is shery
tursdo
ttir, 2010). Pe
tursdo
 ttir (2010)
season and location (Pe
analyzed the lipid content in Herring, Capelin and Blue Whiting
meals. The lipid content in blue whiting ranged from 6.5% in May to
13.2% in October and in capelin meal ranged from 10.5% in January
tursdo
 ttir, 2010). Windsor and Barlow (1981)
to 12.6% in July (Pe
analyzed the lipids content in raw material which amounted 10%
in capelin, 2% in blue whiting and 7% in sandeel. Hertrampf and
Piedad-Pascual (2000) reported 9.3% and 8.3% of total dry mas in
capelin and sandeel, respectively. Aberoumand (2010) described
the several sh meals (blue whiting, herring and capelin) which
were categorized into three grades: LT, Nsm and standard. The

A. Mika et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 70 (2016) 199e207

203

Table 3
The major classes of lipids in selected sh meals (%) detected by LC-ESI-MS2. Results (n 3) are expressed as mean SD. aem e symbols of appropriate meals. The presence of
the symbol next to the result means signicant difference (p < 0.05) to respective meal. LT-Low temperature, Nsm-Norsea mink, MBeMauretania Batch, HGB-Human Grade
Batch. Blue W-blue whiting, Blatic S-baltic sprat, Boar F-boar sh, S/Np/H-sprat/norway pout/herring, S/Np-sprat/norway pout, BeoA-before extrusion without antioxidant,
EwA-after extrusion with antioxidant, EoA-after extrusion with antioxidant, DAG-diacylglycerols, TAG-triacylglycerols, PL e total content of phospholipids, LPClysophosphatidylcholine, PC-phosphatidylcholine, LPE-lysophosphatidylethanolamine, PE-phosphatidylethanolamine, PS-phosphatidylserine, LPA -lysophosphatidic acid,
SM-sphingomyelins and Cer-ceramides. ND-not detected.
Fish meal

Neutral lipids
DAG

Lt

Blue Wa
LT
Baltic Sb
Lt
Boar Fc
Lt
Capelind
Lt
Sandeele
Lt

13.51
13.19
11.99
6.89
12.71

S/Np/Hf

Phospholipids
TAG

1.10j,d
1.07j
0.98
0.56a
1.02

27.64
34.86
42.79
50.45
42.06

PL

2.31l
2.88
3.49
4.12
3.45

LPC

57.76
45.15
44.78
41.70
43.79

4.78l
3.79
3.74
3.54
3.66

3.61
3.36
0.84
9.53
1.64

Polar non-phospholipids
PC

0.30
0.28
0.07d
0.80m,c
0.14

46.32
34.40
38.01
28.54
39.58

3.82
2.88
3.18
2.42
3.31

9.70 0.79

34.88 2.97

52.80 4.47

3.22 0.27

45.80 3.91

11.09 0.90

30.54 2.51

55.19 4.56

4.83 0.40

46.29 3.87

Nsm

S/Npg

Nsm

Baltic Sh

9.76 0.80

36.23 2.99

49.84 4.08

5.17 0.43

38.88 3.25

Tobiasi

8.43 0.69

41.77 3.47

46.21 3.81

4.82 0.40

35.60 2.98

HGB

MB

Sardinellaj

bEoAk
EwAl
EoAm

6.87 0.57a,b 27.35 2.27l,k 64.49 5.18l,m 3.33 0.28

10.91 0.89
10.89 0.89
10.31 0.84

53.60 4.48j 34.30 2.82

0.76 0.06
56.66 4.91j,a 30.40 2.52a,j 1.04 0.09
j
50.42 3.15 35.45 3.81
1.06 0.09d

55.30 4.44l,k
28.20 2.30j
28.13 2.32j
29.39 3.29

LPE

PE

PS

ND
ND
ND
ND
0.61
0.05
0.97
0.08
0.52
0.04j
0.71
0.06
0.78
0.07
1.58
0.13g
ND
ND
ND

ND
ND
ND
ND
ND

4.28
5.87
4.72
1.28
1.07

0.37
0.008h
0.90
0.02j,i
1.11
0.01j,i,f
0.78
0.01h,g,j
0.39
0.008h,g,i
ND
ND
ND

ND

LPA

SM

Cer

1.09 0.09
ND
ND
ND
ND

ND
6.80
0.44
0.96
1.44

0.86 0.07

1.76 0.06

1.07 0.09b,k 1.58 0.13

2.38 0.21

0.80 0.06

2.27 0.19

1.70 0.14

3.33 0.28j 0.84 0.07

2.50 0.21

1.73 0.14

2.93 0.24

1.84 0.15

2.05 0.17

0.71 0.06h 0.58 0.05b

0.36
0.49g,e
0.39
0.11
0.09b,k

3.55
1.52
1.21
2.35
0.89

0.30e
0.13
0.10
0.21
0.07a,f

2.44 0.20e

4.08 0.34g,e 1.26 0.12

ND
1.23 0.11
3.82 0.32
1.18 0.11

ND
ND
ND

0.57c,j
0.04b,m
0.08
0.12

0.66 0.05

1.19 0.10
2.05 0.15
3.82 0.49c

Table 4
Triacylglycerol molecular species composition in selected sh meals by LC-ESI-MS2.
Exact mass Molecular species CN/DB

Lt

Blue W

Lt

Baltic S

Lt

Boar F

Lt

Capelin

Lt

Sandeel

Lt

S/Np/H

Nsm

S/Np

Nsm

Baltic S

HGB

Tobias

MB

Sardinella bEoA EwA EoA

Relative intensity
721.9
755.7
769.7
773.5
795.7
801.8
803.7
807.5
811.4
815.5
817.8
831.9
833.8
837.8
847.6
853.3
853.8
859.7
861.4
865.4
871.1
875.7
881.7
893.5
911.9
915.8
915.6
921.7
923.7
943.9
945.6
945.8
945.7
985.5
993.4
1057.5

14:0/14:0/14:1
12:0/15:1/18:4
18:4/16:1/12:0
14:0/14:0/18:3
20:5/16:1/12:0
14:0/16:0/18:3
16:0/16:1/16:1
12:0/16:0/20:0
14:0/15:0/20:5
16:1/18:2/15:0
16:1/16:1/17:0
16:0/16:1/18:1
16:0/16:0/18:1
15:0/18:3/18:3
18:4/18:4/16:0
16:0/20:5/16:0
16:0/18:4/18:1
16:0/18:1/18:1
14:0/18:0/20:1
15:1/18:1/20:4
14:0/18:3/21:0
16:0/17:1/20:0
18:1/18:1/18:2
15:0/18:0/22:6
18:1/18:3/20:0
16:0/20:1/20:1
16:1/20:1/20:0
18:2/17:0/22:4
16:1/20:4/21:0
14:1/22:0/22:1
16:0/20:0/22:1
16:1/18:0/24:1
18:2/19:0/22:6
20:0/20:2/21:0
20:1/20:1/22:3
22:0/22:0/22:1

42:1
45:5
46:5
46:3
48:6
48:3
48:2
48:0
49:5
49:3
49:2
50:2
50:1
51:6
52:8
52:5
52:5
52:2
52:1
53:6
53:3
53:1
54:4
55:6
56:4
56:2
56:2
57:6
57:5
54:2
58:1
58:1
59:8
61:2
62:5
66:1

4.8
32.8

57.3

8.4
12.4
3.6

11.4
24.6

35.0
13.6

5.8

62.5

7.9
33.2
39.3

68.8 59.4

5.8

4.7
3.2
10.6

4.4
14.9

4.8
8.6

10.0
7.7
0.5

6.9
1.2

7.3
0.4
11.7

14.6

20.6
36.6

36.6
4.6
10.0

0.7

0.3
2.9
8.3
37.9

41.6

23.9

8.8
3.4
40.4

10.2
24.2

14.2
14.1
54.6

10.6
11.3
13.0

83.9
100

12.4
2.6

11.6

11.1 13.1

13.9
14.8
1.0

27.0
12.1
12.7
12.0
14.8

4.9
21.9
25.0
8.0
13.9

55.1

39.8
7.6

13.6
67.7
9.8
18.5

7.6
1.4
4.0

12.9
11.6
21.3

2.9
2.8

2.6
27.1
0.21
3.0
16.0
8.9
14.5

45.8
18.1
45.6
27.5

11.1 40.7
13.4
25.4 41.6

31.1

46.1
3.2

18.3
23.9

35.5
40.5

39.3

18.8

10.3

6.5

22.6

12.6
11.6

15.4

68.9
25.6

33.9

21.4
34.2
28.1
44.7
50.7
28.9

28.9
1.1
24.0
37.7
45.1

11.4

37.2
30.8

11.5
28.5
10.0
29.8
19.3
18.9
1.5
25.6

40.0
2.1
26.2
7.3
9.4
1.4
25.4
10.4

3.7
44.6
25.6

13.5
47.7
3.6
25.0
13.4
18.9
1.9
24.0
15.6

8.6
26.7

1.6
25.9
0.1
26.8
8.5
0.4
11.9
7.7

11.6

13.2
68.8

36.5
56.8 53.4
44.2

52.0

27.4 34.9
54.8 59.9

73.9

28.0 16.0
14.1 44.7

5.1
21.8
14.2
2.4
7.4
0.3
20.1
7.3

78.1
2.0
35.9

3.5 11.1
34.5

ND-not detected, CN-number of carbon atoms, DB-number of double bond. LT-Low temperature, Nsm-Norsea mink, MBeMauretania Batch, HGB-Human Grade Batch. Blue Wblue whiting, Blatic S-baltic sprat, Boar F-boar sh, S/Np/H-sprat/norway pout/herring, S/Np-sprat/norway pout, BeoA-before extrusion without antioxidant, EwA-after
extrusion with antioxidant, EoA-after extrusion with antioxidant.

204

A. Mika et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 70 (2016) 199e207

Table 5
Diacylglycerol molecular species composition in selected sh meals by LC-ESI-MS2. ND-not detected, CN-number of carbon atoms, DB-number of double bond. LT-Low
temperature, Nsm-Norsea mink, MBeMauretania Batch, HGB-Human Grade Batch. Blue W-blue whiting, Blatic S-baltic sprat, Boar F-boar sh, S/Np/H-sprat/norway pout/
herring, S/Np-sprat/norway pout, BeoA-before extrusion without antioxidant, EwA-after extrusion with antioxidant, EoA-after extrusion with antioxidant.
Exact mass Molecular species
Nsm

Baltic S

HGB

CN/
DB

Lt

Lt

Blue W

Lt

Baltic S

Lt

Boar F

Capelin

Lt

Sandeel

Lt

S/Np/H

Nsm

S/

Np
MB

Tobias

Sardinella bEoA EwA EoA

Relative intensity
539.5
563.6

12:0/18:1
14:1/18:2; 12:0/20:3

30:1
32:3

20.6

20.6

16.5

38.9

6.6

23.3

1.8
24.2

2.3
19.5

9.5

6.9

4.5
25.3

8.6

5.0

4.2

36.5

2.8
11.2

3.7

34.3 44.2

38.3

33.2
567.5
577.6

16:0/16:1
15:0/18:3

32:1
33:3

28.5

15.4

68.1 26.5

16.0
583.5
589.7

15:0/18:0
12:0/22:4

33:0
34:4

3.1
17.4

38.5

19.0

66.6

45.7

55.0
595.5
603.9
611.5
625.3

18:1/16:0; 14:0/20:1, 18:0/

16:1
15:0/20:4
17:0/18:0
18:0/18:0

34:1
35:4
35:0
36:0

35.6
2.0

26.3

2.2

0.5
5.0

4.3

7.6

0.8

0.6
0.18

0.4

0.7

0.3

0.4

1.2

18.8

13.5

8.4

7.8

5.6

4.4

30

42.1

23.9

18.9
15.0

25.3

16.6
7.9

2.2

54.2

16.8

6.0

5.7

11.6

0.71

7.1

7.8
701.5
627.8
639.5

20:4/22:0
15:0/22:6
16:1/22:6

42:4
37:6
38:7

651.8
651.7

18:1/20:0
17:1/21:0

36:1
38:1

77.4
30.2

39.1
15

18.0

29.2

48.3
26.7

23.5

22.4
661.9

20:5/20:5

40:10 27.0

19.3

24.7

10.2

24.7

53.5

4.4

13.2

14.2

51.1

46.7

33.7

53.1

40.5

2.1
0.4
10.8
0.4
2.7

4.4

6.9
6.3
4.1
0.3

3.7

50.1

90.0
663.6

20:4/20:5

40:9

45.4

54.6

2.2

25.4 51.9

66.4

85.5
667.5

18:1/22:6

40:7

59.7

38.0

38.9

100

58.3

50.0

63.9
671.6
689.9
699.8
701.5
735.8

18:3/22:2
20:4/22:6
20:1/22:4
20:4/22:0
22:0/22:1

40:5
42:10
42:5
42:4 77.4
44:1

39.1

levels of lipids reported by these authors were highest in blue

whiting and herring using LT technique, but analysis of lipids
content in capelin showed better results for Nsm grade
(Aberoumand, 2010).
4.2. Fatty acid composition
Previous articles are focused mainly on proximate analysis and
essential amino acids composition (Aberoumand, 2010; Hertrampf
& Piedad-Pascual, 2000; Jensen et al., 1990). Informations about FA
composition are necessary, because dietary FA composition will
inuence on FA prole in analyzed organisms (Karalazos,
Bendiksen, Dick, Tocher, & Bell, 2011).
Opstvedt (1985) described similar levels of saturated and n-3
PUFA in homogeneous meals as documented in our experiment.
These are eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic
acid (22:6n-3), which are essential for many functions in the

humans (Rezanka
& Sigler, 2009). The highest values of n-3 PUFA
should be detected in fat sh (Usydus et al., 2011), but in mixed
fatty meal LTSprat/Norway pout/Herring the lowest amount of
22:6n-3 was detected. This may result from the season of shing.
According to our earlier study, higher level of 22:6n-3 will be
recorded in muscle of sh not in liver (Mika, Golebiowski,
Skorkowski, & Stepnowski, 2012), what was detected in our material as well. Moreover, Saito and Okabe (2012) analyzed the
composition of FA in cultured and wild sh. Higher levels of 22:6n3 than 20:5n-3 were observed in farmed sh, which originate from

12.1
0.7

5.1
0.4

1.1
1.2

their dietary lipids, for example, from sh oils in feeding-stuffs

(Saito & Okabe, 2012). Therefore, changes in fatty acids composition will depend on sh species, season, nutrition and the locality of
harvesting (Usydus et al., 2011).
For the rst time composition of odd and branched-chain fatty
acids (OBCFA) was described in sh meals. OBCFA are produced
mainly in plants. Their presence in ruminants (milk and adipose
tissue) is high, mostly due to food intake rich in OBCFA (Vlaeminck,
Fievez, Cabrita, Fonseca, & Dewhurst, 2006). But, Rodriguez et al.
(1997) reported the presence and production of odd-chain acids
in hepatocytes of trout. According to authors, odd-numbered acids
are elongated and desaturated in sh tissues (Rodriguez et al.,

1997). Their amounts in marine sh oil can be up 1e4% (Rezanka
& Sigler, 2009) and they can be found in many animal feedingstuffs, such as cereals, oilseed cakes or sh meals (Ferrando,
1981). Branched FAs with chain length from C14 to C18 carbon
atoms are also created in marine food chain (Fievez, Colman,
Castro-Montoya, Stefanov, & Vlaeminck, 2012). They have healthpromoting properties, e.g. they reduced/inhibited the cancer cells,
they are markers of milk products intake (Vlaeminck et al., 2006;
Yang et al., 2000).
4.3. Polar and neutral lipids composition
4.3.1. Analysis of groups of lipid
The available data on the neutral lipids and some of polar lipids
composition of sh meal is sparse, despite the fact that they play

A. Mika et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 70 (2016) 199e207

205

Table 6
Identied phospholipid species with choline head group in selected sh meals using LCdESI-MS2. ND e not detected. LT-Low temperature, Nsm-Norsea mink, MBeMauretania
Batch, HGB-Human Grade Batch. Blue W-blue whiting, Blatic S-baltic sprat, Boar F-boar sh, S/Np/H-sprat/norway pout/herring, S/Np-sprat/norway pout, BeoA-before
extrusion without antioxidant, EwA-after extrusion with antioxidant, EoA-after extrusion with antioxidant.
Exact mass Molecular species

Lt

Blue W

Lt

Baltic S

Lt

Boar F

Lt

Capelin

Lt

Sandeel

Lt

S/Np/H

Nsm

S/Np

Nsm

BalticS

HGB

Tobias

MB

Sardinella bEoA EwA

EoA

Relative intensity
452.5
500.5
542.5
558.5
594.7
650.5
676.7
700.9
704.8
730.6
732.7
734.5
738.9
744.5
752.8
754.8
762.8
764.8
764.8
766.8
772.8
778.8
780.5
782.4
786.7
788.5
790.5
790.5
792.8
802.7
804.9
804.9
806.8
808.5
810.8
816.5
818.8
820.1
826.8
836.9
842.5
852.9
864.5
866.5
872.6
878.9
890.8
890.5
894.7

PC(O-14:1)
30.7
LPC18:3
LPC20:5
17.1
LPC22:2
PC(O-12:0/12:0)
79.6
PC(12:0/14:0)
8.9
PC(12:0/16:1)
PC(12:0/18:3)
PC(12:0/18:1)
28.6
PC(14:0/18:2)
84.3
PC(14:0/18:1)
PC(14:0/18:0)
22.1
PC(15:1/18:4)
8.0
PC(15:0/18:2)
PC(14:0/20:5)
PC(14:0/20:4)
PC(16:0/18:0)
PC(12:0/24:0)
PC(12:0/24:0), (14:0:22:0)
PC(15:0/20:5)
PC(17:0/18:2)
6.1
PC(14:0/22:6)
PC(16:0/20:5)
PC(18:1/18:3)
PC(16:1/20:1)
PC(18:0/18:1)
100.0
PC(20:0/16:0)
PC(14:0/22:0)
PC(15:0/22:6)
16.3
PC(15:0/22:1)
PC(18:3/20:4)
PC(16:0/21:0)
18.5
PC(16:0/22:6)
47.0
PC(18:1/20:4)
PC(18:0/20:4)
PC(18:1/20:0)
PC(12:0/16:0)
PC(17:0/22:6)
PC(18:0/20:4)
PC(18:0/22:5)
25.3
PC(18:1/22:1)
PC(20:5/22:6)
30.4
PC(20:5/22:0)
PC(22:4/20:0)
PC(20:0/22:1)
38.5
PC(22:6/22:6)
PC(22:0/22:6)
PC(22:2/22:4)
PC(22:0/22:4)

12.9
35.5

20.5
19.1

14.6
44.5

8.2
15.4

3.7
9.8

5.2
14.0

4.4
9.2

3.4
22.9

0.7
8.7
43.0

1.1
16.1
37.0

2.9
8.1
59.1

1.3
27.6
41.5

2.6
8.9
33.7

3.3

14.5
29.3
49.3

27.5
27.6
39.3

14.3
11.9
17.1

3.1

49.9

12.9

37.8

17.8

22.1
2.0
22.6

17.5
6.7
31.2

3.3
6.4
7.5

78.6
33.0

12.6
10.9

8.1
18.3

14.4
31.3

5.6
17.3

44.3
9.2

15.8
22.7
23.3
11.0
38.0
13.7
64.6
24.5
27.4

26.7
26.7
58.0
6.3
33.0
14.1
70.0
34.0
51.7

3.1
38.9
24.4
22.8
3.2

34.6
33.3
100.0
57.2
23.4
9.0
21.4

31.6
13.5
100
27.8
12.1
12.9
34.0

27.2
63.7
57.1
2.7
34.5
49.2
76.6
32.3
41.2
9.6
77.7
48.8
100

11.4
100.0

48.2
10.7
13.0

88.2
6.2
75.1

41.6
11.3

66.0
40.3
32.7

10.0
47.4

10.0
81.5
14.6
16.1
48.6

13.6
50.0

18.1
53.8

41.1
16.3

30.5
42.0

16.9
33.4

48.2
36.1
5.4
9.8

15.8

19.9

42.4
43.5

14.9

17.7
6.5

25.6
51.8
10.4
13.9

15.6
18.5
36.0
16.2
25.1

10.7
100.0

49.2
11.5
100.0

0.8

23.1
56.7

43.4
87.5
39.2

33.2

20.8
17.5

11.3
100.0

17.9
89.0

5.2
23.9
21.3

17.5
39.0

55.5

32.9

27.8

64.3

many important functions in the organism. Numerous diacylglycerols are the second messenger signaling lipid, intermediate
in lipid metabolism and they are precursors of the basic membrane
rida, 2007). Triacylglycerols are the
components (Carrasco, & Me
basic source of energy. Polar lipids are major components of central
nervous system, mediators in cell signaling (Vance & Tasseva,
2012). Their contents and ratio of PLs to TAGs depend from many
various factors. According to Opstvedt (1985), content of PLs depends on season, species of sh is varied considerably and level of
TAGs depends on energy status of organism. Additionally, content
of PLs and TAGs depends on the parts of sh used to production of
meal and according to other authors, higher values of PLs are noted
in meals, which are produced from whole fresh industrial sh
(Cordier, Brichon, Weber, & Zwingelstein, 2002; Jensen et al., 1990).
Phospholipids are mainly components of sh muscles and they
correspond to 79e90% of total lipid mass of lean sh (Sikorski &

75.8
30.5

12.5

4.1
20.1
5.8
17.8
57.9
20.0
35.5
2.9
15.6

24.2
8.7
13.0
47.0
24.6
44.5
5.7

9.5
10.4
45.9
1.1
39.1
10.9
10.3
60.8
21.7
65.5
1.8
21.4

67.8
19.4
48.1
47.0
32.4
100
19.9
16.8
6.7
33.7

38.4
19.6
2.5
5.4

18.5

20.8

17.2

19.6

18.1

96.7
37.2
16.8

91.4
18.3

70.5
20.3

26.5
97.0

17.3
96.2

76.1

20.7
81.1

21.3
45.7

21.7
63.6

1.8
37.9
7.3
0.7
1.6
32.4
19.9
5.9
26.4
100.0
29.7
7.5
19.2
43.8
12.0
92.0
19.6
30.7
11.4
50.7

16.3
32.3
82.7
21.3
54.2
29.8

100.0
43.0
36.2
74.6

27.1
1.4
5.0
77.7

88.0
7.2
55.8

34.9

5.9

7.0

53.7
33.4
3.4
67.1

44.2
77.5

13.7
89.1
79.5

10.9
96.0
12.2

34.7

10.9

94.4 73.7
24.0 22.9 22.2
77.0 100.0 100.0

32.3
22.9
69.8
72.8

5.3
6.1

19.0

25.9
64.7

42.1

40.7
46.1

48.3

20.7

24.3

69.3
68.5
88.9
35.0

29.4
67.0
72.0

Kalakowska, 2003). Similar content of phospholipids and triacylglycerols in Capelin meal were also observed by Jensen et al.
(1990). However, capelin is fatty sh and content of TAGs is
higher than PLs (Barrett et al., 2002). According to Tocher,
Bendiksen, Campbell, and Bell (2008) it is not possible to express
homogeneous opinion about recommended levels of lipid classes.
4.3.2. Analysis of molecular species of neutral and polar lipids
The lowest diversity of molecular species of TAGs, DAGs and PCs
found in some of analyzed products may result from the construction of sh body, lower stability of components or their lack.
tursdo
 ttir (2010),
As reported by Miles and Chapman (2006) and Pe
blue whiting, boar sh and capelin are very delicate sh with high
percentage of oil and bones. Nsm, HGB and MG meals were
signicantly varied products. The highest number of polar and
neutral lipids were found in these meals (Tables 4e6). Aberoumand

206

A. Mika et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 70 (2016) 199e207

(2010) also shown predominance of Nsm meals over other sh

meal grades.
Nonetheless, every of analyzed sh meal is very good solution
for farmed sh and animals, because alternative source of proteinplant meals, contained slight amounts of PLs (Tocher et al., 2008).
High levels of protein, energy, essential amino acids, vitamins and
minerals will be witness to the high quality of sh meal
(Aberoumand, 2010). But, in available literature is still lack an accurate information of composition of lipids. These components are
necessary for sustainable development, growth, maturity and
reproduction of sh (Usydus et al., 2011). The content of lipids
depends on season, shery location (Usydus et al., 2011), individual
predispositions of sh species to accumulate the lipids and unsaturated FAs as well as, raw material (sh species) and processing
technique of meals (Samuelsen et al., 2014).

5. Summary and conclusions

Our study contributes to increasing knowledge about the quality
of popular sh products. Our manuscript presents, for the rst time,
identication of 41 fatty acids methyl esters, 59 different molecular
species of neutral lipids (di- and triacylglycerols) and 45 phosphatidylcholines species. The results of our analysis point to
complexity of molecular lipid species found in selected sh meals.
For the rst time atypical acids, e.g. OBCFA were described in sh
meals and among them wide variation was detected. Norsea Mink,
Mauretania Grade, Human Grade Batch and Low Temperature
products contained higher content of PUFA in comparison to the
other sh meals. Based on the labels of prole FA we can choose the
sh meal with a more favorable composition of FA, which higher
content of PUFA (considered as benecial for human health) and
OBCFA (also reported as benecial for human health and displaying
antitumor activity) as well as lower content of SFA (a FAs with
adverse effects). This will be reected by the composition of the FA
in the feeding animals organism, and in an indirect way this can
inuence on the lipid/FA prole of nal recipients e humans. Also
in Norsea Mink, Mauretania Grade, Human Grade Batch and Low
Temperature meals PL fraction was highly polyunsaturated. Fish
meals with a high content of phospholipids are valuable food
products because they have a lot of PUFA. These data suggest that
these sh meals could be used as a valuable functional ingredient of
food or nutraceutical.
Farmed sh are sensitive to the quality of feedstuffs. Therefore,
good quality of feed are essential in aquaculture. Feed market offers
a wide variety of sh meals used in aquaculture and agriculture.
However, still little is known on the lipid composition of the meals
and potential differences in the fatty acid proles of various types of
sh meals. Our study revealed that the production technique and
composition of sh extremely determines composition of lipids in
sh products.
Future studies should elucidate the exact inuence of sh meals
on lipid composition of food obtained from fed animals.

Conicts of interest
The authors declare that there are no conicts of interest.

Acknowledgments
This study was supported by University of Gdansk (DS 5308615-D592-15) and Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish
Academy of Sciences (UMO-2012/07/B/NZ3/02437).

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2016.02.051.
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