Caltex Materials of Construction

SECTION 1
MATERIALS OF
CONSTRUCTION
CALTEX REFINERY MATERIALS MANUAL
October 1999
SECTION 1
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
CONSTRUCTION................................
................................................................
.........................................
.........1
1
CARBON STEEL ............................................................................................................................1

LOW ALLOY (CARBON - 0.5MO) ..................................................................................................1
LOW ALLOY (CR-MO ALLOYS) (1.25CR-0.5MO - 9CR-1MO) ........................................................1
LOW ALLOY (AISI 4140, 4340) ....................................................................................................1
LOW ALLOY (2.5NI, 3.5NI)..........................................................................................................2
STAINLESS STEELS ........................................................................................................................2
1.6.1 Ferritic/Martensitic ...............................................................................................................2
1.6.2 Austenitic ............................................................................................................................2
1.6.3 Duplex Ferritic/Austenitic .....................................................................................................3
1.6.4 A286 ....................................................................................................................................3
1.7
NICKEL ALLOYS............................................................................................................................3
1.7.1 20Cb3 (Alloy 20).................................................................................................................3
1.7.2 Alloy 800.............................................................................................................................3
1.7.3 Alloy 825.............................................................................................................................3
1.7.4 Alloy 600.............................................................................................................................4
1.7.5 Alloy 625..............................................................................................................................4
1.7.6 Alloy B..................................................................................................................................4
1.7.7 Monel 400 ...........................................................................................................................4
1.8
COPPER ALLOYS...........................................................................................................................4
1.8.1 Admiralty Brass.....................................................................................................................4
1.8.2 Aluminum Brass...................................................................................................................5
1.8.3 Naval Brass...........................................................................................................................5
1.8.4 Copper-Nickel Alloys (70-30 and 90-10).............................................................................5
1.8.5 Aluminum Bronze..................................................................................................................5
1.9
TITANIUM ....................................................................................................................................5
1.10 ALUMINUM .................................................................................................................................6
1.11 HARD FACING ALLOYS (Stellite)..................................................................................................6
2.0
2.1
COATINGS ................................................................
................................................................................................
....................................
.... 11
FUNDAMENTALS OF COATING TECHNOLOGY ..........................................................................11

2.1.1 Coating System Composition .............................................................................................12
2.1.2 Coating Composition ........................................................................................................12
2.1.2.1
2.1.2.2
2.2
The Pigment............................................................................................................................ 12
The Vehicle ............................................................................................................................. 13
2.1.3 Methods Of Cure .................................................................................................................15

PROPERTIES OF PAINTS ..............................................................................................................17
2.2.1 Oil Paints............................................................................................................................17
2.2.2 Oleoresinous Paints ..............................................................................................................18
2.2.3 Alkyd Paints..........................................................................................................................18
2.2.4 Phenolic Paints .....................................................................................................................18
2.2.5 Epoxy Paints.........................................................................................................................18
2.2.6 Lacquer Type Paints............................................................................................................19
October 1999
2.8
2.2.7 Vinyl Paints.........................................................................................................................19

2.2.8 Chlorinated Rubber Paints ..................................................................................................19
2.2.9 Latex Paints ........................................................................................................................19
2.2.10 Epoxy-Coal Tar Paints.........................................................................................................20
2.2.11 Silicones..........................................................................................................................20
2.2.12 Polyurethane or Urethane Paints .....................................................................................20
2.2.13 Silicone Alkyd Paints........................................................................................................20
2.2.14 Vinyl Alkyd Paints ............................................................................................................20
2.2.15 Acrylic Paints...................................................................................................................20
2.2.16 Wash Coat Pretreatment .................................................................................................21
2.2.17 Bituminous Paints............................................................................................................21
2.2.18 Mastics and Cements ......................................................................................................21
2.2.19 Special Purpose Paints .....................................................................................................21
COATING SELECTION ................................................................................................................22
2.3.1 Service Exposures................................................................................................................22
2.3.2 Selection of Paints...............................................................................................................22
INSPECTION ..............................................................................................................................25
TYPES OF COATING PROBLEMS AND CAUSES............................................................................26
2.5.1 Lifting .................................................................................................................................26
2.5.2 Blushing..............................................................................................................................26
2.5.3 Orange Peeling ...................................................................................................................26
2.5.4 Checking, Crazing ..............................................................................................................26
2.5.5 Fisheyes ..............................................................................................................................27
2.5.6 Cracking .............................................................................................................................27
2.5.7 Embrittlement.....................................................................................................................27
2.5.8 Softening............................................................................................................................27
2.5.9 Chalking .............................................................................................................................27
2.5.10 Undercutting ..................................................................................................................27
2.5.11 Blistering.........................................................................................................................27
PAINT COST...............................................................................................................................28
TEMPORARY PROTECTION .........................................................................................................29
2.7.1 Grease Preventives ..............................................................................................................29
2.7.2 Oil Preventives ....................................................................................................................29
2.7.3 Solvent Cut Back Preventives...............................................................................................29
2.7.4 Strippable Plastics ...............................................................................................................30
GALVANIZING............................................................................................................................30
3.0
PLASTICS ................................................................
................................................................................................
.......................................
....... 33
4.0
REFRACTORIES ................................................................
................................................................................................
................................ 37
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
3.1 THERMOPLASTICS .........................................................................................................................34

3.2 THERMOSETTERS..........................................................................................................................34
4.1
MATERIAL CLASSIFICATION .......................................................................................................37

4.1.1 Castable and Gunning Mixes ..............................................................................................37
4.1.2 Vibration Castable...............................................................................................................38
4.1.3 Plastics................................................................................................................................38
4.1.4 Ramming Mixes..................................................................................................................39
4.1.5 Chemical Setting Mixes ......................................................................................................39
4.1.6 Fiber Linings .......................................................................................................................39
4.1.7 Bricks/Formed Shapes .........................................................................................................40
4.2
MATERIAL SPECIFICATIONS........................................................................................................40
4.2.1 Chemical Composition........................................................................................................40
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
October 1999
4.2.2 Bulk Density........................................................................................................................40

4.2.3 Cold Crushing.....................................................................................................................41
4.2.4 Permanent Liner Change ....................................................................................................41
4.2.5 Thermal Conductivity .........................................................................................................41
4.2.6 Abrasion Resistant ...............................................................................................................41
4.2.7 Temperature.......................................................................................................................41
4.2.8 Porosity ..............................................................................................................................41
MATERIAL TESTING ....................................................................................................................43
DESIGN ......................................................................................................................................43
ANCHORING SYSTEMS AND STEEL FIBERS .................................................................................44
INSTALLATION ...........................................................................................................................44
CURING AND DRYOUT ..............................................................................................................45
TABLE OF TABLES
Table 1-1a NOMINAL COMPOSITION ...................................................................................................7
Table 1-1b COMMON ASTM SPECIFICATIONS FOR FREQUENTLY USED ALLOYS ....................................9
Table 1-2 CLASSIFICATION OF COATINGS BY METHOD OF CURE ......................................................16
Table 1-3 OVERCOATING TIMES OF SELECTED PAINTS .......................................................................17
Table 1-4 PRINCIPLE ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES OF FREQUENTLY USED INDUSTRIAL COATINGS23
Table 1-5 RECOMMENDED COATING TYPES ........................................................................................25
Table 1-6 AVERAGE JOB BREAKDOWN ..................................................................................................28
Table 1-7 GENERAL TYPES OF REFRACTORY MATERIAL
FOR CHEMICAL PROCESS INDUSTRY (CPI) USE......................................................................42
Table 1-8 SELECTION OF REFRACTORIES FOR REFINERY USAGE ............................................................42
October 1999
1.0
October 1999
1.1
CARBON STEEL
Carbon steel is the basic material used in refinery construction. It is selected based on cost,
availability and suitability for general service. At higher temperatures above 800oF (427oC) and in
corrosive environments, other materials are usually more economical. Carbon steel's strength
decreases rapidly above 800oF (427oC) as well as its resistance to graphitization. Oxidation
resistance above 1000oF (538oC) and sulfidation resistance above about 500oF (260oC) are
problems. Other problems include resistance to hydrogen attack in hydrogen environments at
temperatures over about 450oF (232oC) and problems with environmental cracking in aqueous
sulfide, caustic and amine solutions in welded equipment. Depending on chemistry and steel
making practice, some carbon steels may be susceptible to brittle failure as high as 100oF (38oC)
while others are satisfactory down to approximately -50oF (-46oC). As more alloying elements are
added, overall cost for all product forms goes up.
1.2
LOW ALLOY (CARBON - 0.5MO)

Carbon-0.5Mo has better elevated temperature strength than carbon steel and was thought to
have increased resistance to hydrogen attack in hydrogen environments. Unless chemistry, steel
making and fabrication procedures are strictly followed, carbon-0.5Mo steels can have very poor
notch toughness (resistance to brittle failure) in thicker sections greater than 3/4 inch. Because of
variable hydrogen attack resistance, carbon-0.5Mo has not been used for new construction,
although a considerable amount of equipment is in service. "GPS A-9 Selection of Metallic
Materials" prohibits the use of carbon 0.5Mo steel.
1.3
LOW ALLOY (CR-MO ALLOYS) (1.25CR-0.5MO - 9CR-1MO)

Increasing Cr content gives better high temperature strength than carbon steel, increasing
oxidation resistance and hydrogen attack resistance. Sulfidation resistance in environments with
no hydrogen is considerably improved over carbon steel. Notched toughness can be considerably
improved over carbon steel with proper chemistry and heat treating controls. In service ductility
problems leading to serious cracking can be reduced with chemistry and heat treating controls.
These alloys have good hardenability and must be pre and postweld heat treated to have
acceptable ductility for service. Many reactors and other heavier wall equipment greater than one
inch can have serious cracking and/or ductility problems after service above roughly 650oF
(363oC). Chemistry and heat treating restrictions can minimize these potentially serious problems
on new equipment. Special inspection and startup/shutdown handling procedures may be
required for existing susceptible equipment.
1.4
LOW ALLOY (AISI 4140, 4340)

These alloys are hardenable by heat treatment and offer the high strength at temperatures up to
about 800oF (427oC) needed for bolting, compressor and pump shafts and sometimes impellers.
The alloys are weldable with special procedures and proper heat treatment. However, because of
the high strength levels, they are very susceptible to sulfide stress corrosion cracking in wet
sulfide environments. Special heat treatments can minimize the cracking potential.
Page 1 - 1
October 1999
1.5
LOW ALLOY (2.5NI,

(2.5NI, 3.5NI)
The low nickel alloys are used because of their improved notch toughness at lower temperatures
if properly fabricated and heat treated. While certain carbon steels can be used down to -50oF
(-46oC), 3.5Ni can develop good notch toughness down to -150oF (-101oC). Proper heat
treatment is necessary to develop the desired properties. The low nickel alloys may require more
careful temperature control during postweld heat treatment/tempering than the Cr-Mo steels to
develop desired properties.
1.6
STAINLESS STEELS
1.6.1
Ferritic/Martensitic
Chromium contents in the 11 to 18 percent range give these steels good resistance to sulfide
corrosion with or without hydrogen in the environment, good oxidation resistance and good
resistance to chloride stress corrosion cracking.
The ferritic stainless steels generally are not hardenable by heat treatment but can develop very
low ductility because of grain growth during welding. Type 430 is susceptible to sigma phase
formation at temperatures over 1050oF (566oC). However, it is rarely used at temperatures this
high because of strength considerations . Types 405 and 409 are susceptible to service induced
ductility problems at 650o - 1050oF (343 - 566oC). This is commonly referred to as "885oF
embrittlement". The loss of ductility may show up as welding or tray straightening problems and
can generally be solved, at least temporarily, with an embrittlement erasing heat treatment at
1100oF (593oC) to allow welding or straightening.
The ASTM A240 Grade 26-1 alloy has very good sulfide, oxidation and chloride stress corrosion
cracking resistance. However, it has ductility problems as welded because of grain growth and is
vulnerable to 885oF (474oC) and sigma phase embrittlement problems.
The martensitic stainless steels can be hardened by heat treatment and can reach hardness levels
(generally greater than 200 Brinell hardness) that make them susceptible to sulfide stress
corrosion cracking in wet sulfide environments. Welding requires preheat and postheat treating
to guarantee usable service properties. CA6NM is used for castings because it is easier to cast
than the standard 12Cr (CA15) material. CA6NM requires a difficult double temper to minimize
high hardness that would make it very susceptible to sulfide stress corrosion cracking. Carbon
and silicon must be limited to 0.3% and 0.05% respectively in order to meet HRC22 even after a
double temper. Type 410S has lower carbon and will generally be less susceptible to developing
high hardness during welding.
All of these alloys may be vulnerable to pitting problems due to underdeposit or oxygen
concentration cells.
1.6.2
Austenitic
The austenitic stainless steels are nominally 18Cr - 10Ni with various other elements added for
specific reasons. They have good overall resistance to oxidation [up to about 1500oF (816oC)]
and sulfidation in both hydrogen and hydrogen free environments. They have good elevated
temperature strength [up to roughly 1400oF (760oC)]. The molybdenum bearing grades (types
316 and 317) have good resistance to naphthenic acid corrosion with resistance increasing with
higher molybdenum content. Types 321 with titanium and 347 with niobium (columbium) are
very resistant to sensitization and intergranular polythionic acid cracking if properly heat treated
during product form manufacture. The L or low carbon grades can usually be welded without
Page 1 - 2
October 1999
sensitizing (forming grain boundary carbides) that makes the alloy susceptible to intergranular
cracking. If service temperatures are low enough [below 750oF (399oC)], they will not sensitize
during service.
The alloys in this group are all susceptible to chloride stress corrosion cracking in aqueous
conditions, although the molybdenum alloys have better pitting resistance. The nonstabilized
(i.e. no titanium or niobium added) grades are susceptible to sensitization and intergranular
corrosion in many refinery environments after fabrication and/or service exposure above about
750oF (399oC). The niobium stabilized grade type 347 is sensitive to hot short and other weld
cracking problems in sections over about 3/4 inch thickness. Type 347 corrosion protection
overlay often used on heavy wall reactors is susceptible to hot short and sigma phase formation
problems if the proper chemistry is not laid down. The titanium stabilized alloy, Type 321, has
shown poor stress rupture properties above about 1100oF (593oC) so type 347 has been used for
heater tubes.
1.6.3
Duplex Ferritic/Austenitic
The duplex stainless steels have the good overall corrosion resistance of the austenitic stainless
steels but are not as susceptible to chloride stress corrosion cracking. The duplex stainless steels
are generally more resistant to pitting problems. They are not as easy to weld as the austenitic
stainless steels and will embrittle above about 650oF (343oC) because of the extensive ferrite
phase present in the microstructure.
1.6.4
A286
A286 is an iron based Ni-G superalloy alloy used primarily for its high temperature strength and
thermal expansion characteristics similar to austenitic stainless steels. Its ductility is very
dependent on proper heat treatment and does not have much of a strength advantage over the
austenitic stainless steels over about 1300oF (704oC). It has been used for high temperature
bolting such as the internal bolting in FCCU slide valves.
1.7
NICKEL ALLOYS
1.7.1
20Cb3 (Alloy 20)

20Cb3 is an Fe-Ni-Cr-Cu-Mo-Cb alloy that is used for resistance to sulfuric acid in alkylation units.
It is also more resistant to chloride stress corrosion cracking than the 300 Series stainless steels. It
is difficult to weld (hot short) and can be difficult to cast without defects for pumps and valves.
1.7.2
Alloy 800
Alloy 800 is an Fe-Ni-Cr alloy that has generally good resistance to sulfidation, oxidation and
better high temperature strength than the 300 Series stainless steels. Although not immune to
chloride stress corrosion cracking, it has better resistance than the 300 Series stainless steels. It
will sensitize and be vulnerable to polythionic acid cracking when furnished coarse grained.
Typical of nickel alloys, cleaning sulfide scales from the surface when repair welding is necessary
to prevent cracking due to formation of a low melting Ni sulfide phase in the grain boundaries.
1.7.3
Alloy 825
Alloy 825 is an Ni - Fe - Cr -Mo - Cu - Ti alloy similar to 20Cb3 except it has more nickel making
it very resistant to chloride stress corrosion cracking. Alloy 825 has very good general corrosion
resistance and generally will not sensitize. Alloy 825 is sensitive to sulfide problems during repair
welding but is easily welded with proper precautions. Alloy 825 has good resistance to
Page 1 - 3
October 1999
ammonium bisulfide corrosion and along with Alloy 800 is used for tubes in hydroprocessing
reactor effluent air fan coolers.
1.7.4
Alloy 600
Alloy 600 is an Ni-Cr-Fe alloy with good high temperature strength. The high nickel content and
lower chromium level makes the alloy vulnerable to sulfide corrosion above about 750o-800oF
(399oC-427oC)) particularly in hydrogen environments. Alloy 600 has good oxidation resistance
but will sensitize and be vulnerable to intergranular cracking problems. Being a high nickel alloy,
it is very sensitive to sulfur or sulfides when being repair welded and very strict cleaning
procedures are necessary to prevent intergranular cracking due to nickel sulfide formation.
1.7.5
Alloy 625
Alloy 625 is a Ni-Cr-Mo-Cb alloy that has good resistance to sulfide corrosion, oxidation, a high
resistance to pitting and good high temperature strength. It has been used for expansion bellows
on FCC units. Alloy 625 will embrittle at temperatures over about 1050oF (566oC) and lose
considerable ductility. Alloy 625 is very resistant to chloride stress corrosion cracking. The high
Mo content makes the alloy very resistant to naphthenic acid corrosion.
1.7.6
Alloy B
Alloy B is a Ni -Mo alloy that has good high temperature strength but is best known for its
corrosion resistance to reducing acids such as HCl. It is resistant to chloride stress corrosion
cracking but can be sensitized and is therefore vulnerable to intergranular corrosion problems.
Alloy B-2 has a modified chemistry and will not sensitize. Both Alloy B and B-2 can suffer
catastrophic corrosion when exposed to certain oxidizing species.
1.7.7
Monel 400
Monel 400 is a Ni-Cu alloy that has good resistance to caustic and HCl at low concentrations. It
has been used as cladding for atmospheric column top section corrosion protection. Monel 400
is very sensitive to nickel sulfide formation during repair welding. Monel will stress corrosion crack
in ammonium chloride. Monel is used in HF alkylation service because of its good corrosion
resistance to HF.
In general, the nickel based or high nickel alloys offer much better corrosion and chloride stress
corrosion cracking resistance than the 300 Series stainless steels. They are considerably more
expensive and may be vulnerable to some side issue degradation problems.
1.8
COPPER ALLOYS
1.8.1
Admiralty Brass
Admiralty is a Cu-Zn-Sn alloy used as condenser and/or cooler tubes because of its good
resistance to brackish water. It has reasonable resistance to process side sulfide corrosion but will
stress corrosion crack in solutions containing ammonia, and/or ammonium chloride and oxygen.
It will dezincify in aggressive waters under deposits even though it has dezincification inhibitors
As, Sb or P. Admiralty has marginal resistance to sea water corrosion but is the standard refinery
condenser material in fresh and/or brackish water. In some services, water wash ammonium
chloride deposits off of bundles before opening to the atmosphere to minimize stress corrosion
cracking.
Page 1 - 4
October 1999
1.8.2
Aluminum Brass
Aluminum brass is very similar to admiralty with the same good features and problems. It is
better than admiralty in sea water.
1.8.3
Naval Brass
Naval brass is a Cu-Zn alloy that is generally used for tubesheets in condensers and/or coolers. As
a high zinc copper alloy it is vulnerable to dezincification. The dezincification is usually not a
serious problem for tubesheets because of their thick section size.
1.8.4
Copper-Nickel Alloys (70-30 and 90-10)

The two Cu-Ni alloys are generally very corrosion resistant in sea water as well as fresh and
brackish water. The lower nickel alloy does not have as good a resistance to sulfide on the
process side as the 30 percent nickel alloy. Both alloys are susceptible to under-deposit attack but
handle higher velocity waters better than admiralty and aluminum brass. The Cu-Ni alloys are
very resistant to ammonium chloride stress corrosion cracking. The cost of these alloys is high
and they have been replaced with titanium in some services. The Cu-Ni alloys are weldable.
1.8.5 Aluminum Bronze

This alloy is used in sea water for pumps and condenser/coolers for channels and floating heads.
It can be furnished as plate or cast. Aluminum bronze is weldable with difficulty.
1.9
TITANIUM
Titanium, usually Grade 2, is used for exchanger, condenser and/or cooler tubing in sea water or
brackish water service. Titanium is very corrosion resistant in many refinery type services but is
vulnerable to hydriding and crevice corrosion in chlorides. The thin wall titanium tubes need
more support than regular TEMA R design. Vibration can be a major tube bundle problem. When
the tube wall temperature exceeds about 170oF (77oC), Grade 2 will pit under sodium chloride
and/or ammonium chloride deposits or in crevices. Grade 12 has better chloride pitting
resistance [up to about 350oF (177oC)].
Titanium is very susceptible to hydriding above 180oF (82oC). Temperature increases hydrogen
solubility while stress decreases solubility. Hydriding by hydrogen pickup from service or by being
cathodic to most other metals will seriously embrittle titanium and cause very low ductility,
making handling a problem.
The allowable stress drops off rapidly with temperature even at 100oF (38oC). It is important,
therefore, to accurately specify the design temperature for a solid tubesheet where there is a
differential temperature.
Titanium is cathodic to most other materials so Cu-Zn alloy tubesheets will corrode with titanium
tubes. Aluminum bronze does better but may require coating to minimize corrosion. The
disadvantage of coatings is that pinholes can accelerate attack (large cathode, small anode).
There is little driving force for galvanic corrosion with CuNi (70-30) or Monel with titanium
tubes. CuNi (90-10) has low strength as a tubesheet and will cause problems when rolling the
stronger Grade 2 titanium tubes.
Titanium will salt plug with low velocities in sea water. Titanium is not as sensitive to
impingement problems as copper based alloys. Do not bell tube ends; titanium tends to split or
push out of the roll in the tubesheet. Titanium tubing needs to be treated to minimize biofouling.
Page 1 - 5
October 1999
1.10
ALUMINUM
Aluminum has been used in refinery service particularly in sour water stripper units because it is
very resistant to wet hydrogen sulfide corrosion. However, aluminum is very vulnerable to heavy
metal ion pitting problems and will deteriorate very rapidly in a caustic environment. Aluminum
melts at a low temperature [approximately 1100oF (593oC)] and is considered a hazard for
pressure containment under fire conditions.
1.11
HARD FACING ALLOYS (STELLITE)

These alloys are generally Co-Cr-W alloys with various other carbide formers present. As
deposited they form hard wear resistant carbides. The principal use is for high temperature wear
resistance for sliding surfaces on slide valves and stems. There are refractories available that offer
better erosion resistance for large areas on slide valves such as discs and throats. These alloys are
crack prone and generally are accepted for service with minor cracking.
Page 1 - 6
Table 1-1a
October 1999
NOMINAL COMPOSITION
Page 1
Material
UNS Number
Fe
Cr
Ni
Mo
Cu
Zn
OTHER
Carbon Steel
Low Alloy
Carbon-0.5 Mo
(A516-70) K02700
Base
K12822
Base
0.5
1.25 Cr-0.5 Mo
K11597
Base
1.25
0.5
2.25 Cr-1 Mo
K21590
Base
2.25
5 Cr-0.5 Mo
K41545
Base
0.5
9 Cr-1 Mo
K90941
Base
AISI 4140
G41400
Base
0.25
0.4C
4340
G43400
Base
0.25
0.4C
Low Temperature Alloy Steels

2.5 Nickel
K22103
Base
2.5
3.5 Nickel
K32018
Base
3.5
Stainless Steel Ferritic/Martensitic

Type 405
S40500
Base
13
0.3AI
Type 409
S40900
Base
11
0.5Ti
Type 410S
S41008
Base
13
0.08C
Type 410
S41000
Base
13
0.15C
Type 430
S43000
Base
17
CA6NM
S41500
Base
13
26-1
S44627
Base
26
0.01C
18-5-3
S31500
Base
18
0.03C
22-6-3
S31803
Base
22
0.03 C
Type 304
S30400
Base
18
10
0.08C
Type 304L
S30403
Base
18
10
0.03C
Type 316
S31600
Base
17
12
2.5
0.08 C
Type 316L
S31603
Base
17
12
2.5
0.03 C
Type 317
S31700
Base
19
13
3.5
0.08 C
Type 317L
S31703
Base
19
13
3.5
0.03 C
Type 321
S32100
Base
18
10
0.5 Ti, 0.08C
Type 347
S34700
Base
18
10
1Cb, 0.08C
A286
S66286
Base
15
26
1.5
2Ti, 0.3V,
1Cb
Ferritic/Austenitic
Austenitic
Page 1 - 7
October 1999
Table 1-1a
Page 2
Material
UNS
Number
Fe
Cr
Ni
Mo
Cu
Zn
Other
2 Cb 3
N08020
36
21
35
1Cb
800
N08800
46
21
33
825
N08825
30
22
42
1Ti
600
N06600
16
76
625
N06625
22
62
4Cb
N10001
69
38
400
N04400
68
30
Nickel alloys
Nickel Welding Electrodes/Wire

182
W86182
16
67
7Mn, 1Ti, 2Cb
W861133
15
70
3Mn, 2Cb
112
W86112
22
61
3.7Cb
82
N06082
20
70
3Mn,2.5Cb, 0.8Ti
625
W86625
22
60
3.8Cb, 0.4Ti
C44300
70
29
1Sn, As
C44400
70
29
1Sn, Sb
C44500
70
29
1Sn,P
Aluminum Brass
C68700
77
21
Naval Brass
C46500
62
37
1Sn
Copper Nickel
(90-10)
C70600
10
89
C71500
30
69
Aluminum Bronze
C61400
91
Titanium Grade 2
R50400
99 + Ti
Aluminum Alloy
3003
A93003
AL base, 0.1Cu, 1.25Mn, 0.6Si
Stellite 1 (1)
W73001
2.5C, 30Cr, 12W, 54Co
(1)
W73006
1C, 29 Cr, 4W, 66Co
Copper Alloys
Admiralty
(70-30)
Hard Facing Alloys

Stellite 6
Wallex 50
(2)
0.8C, 21Cr, 17Ni, 10W, 44Co, 3Si, 3.25B
(1)
Trademark Cabot
(2)
Trademark Wall Colmonoy
Page 1 - 8
2AL
7 AL
Page 1
Table 1-1b COMMON ASTM SPECIFICATIONS FOR FREQUENTLY USED ALLOYS
Material
Structural
Carbon Steel
Pressure
Equipment
Carbon Steel
Low
Temperature
Carbon Steel
Low Alloy
Carbon-0.5Mo
1.25Cr-0.5Mo
2.25Cr-1Mo
5Cr-0.5Mo
9Cr-1Mo
AISI 4140
October 1999
Heat
Exchanger
Tubing
Pipe/
A283
A53
A285
A515
A516
A516
A214
A179
A53
A106
API 5LB
A333
Gr1,6
A105
A181
A2334
WPB
A216
WCB
A193 B7
A194 2H
A350
GrLF2
A420
GrWPL6
A352
LCB
A320
GrL7
A204
A209
A387
Gr11
A387
Gr22
A387
Gr5
A387
Gr9
-
A199T11
A213T11
A199T22
A213T22
A199T5
A213T5
A199T9
A213T9
-
A335P1
A161T1
A335P11
A200T11
A335P22
A200T22
A335P5
A200T5
A335P9
A200T9
-
A182F1
A336F1
A182F11
A336F11
A182F22
A336F22
A182F5
A336F5
A182F9
A336F9
-
A182F1
A234WP1
A182F11
A234WP11
A182F22
A234WP22
A182F5
A234WP5
A182F9
A234WP9
-
A217
WC1
A217
WC6
A217
WC9
A217
C5
A217
C9
-
A193-B7
A194 2H,7
A193-B7
A194 2H,7
A193-B7
A194 2H,7
A193-B7
A194 2H,7
A193-B7
A194 2H,7
A193-B7
B16
A194-2H,7
A333 Gr7
A333 Gr3
A350-LF9
A350-LF3
A420-WPL9
A420-WPL3
A352-LC2
A352-LC3
A320-L7
A320-L7
A268
A268
A336
F6
A182
F6NM
A182
FXM27
A336
FXM27
A182
A336
A182
A336
A182
A336
A182
F6
A182
F6NM
A182
FXM27
A217
CA15
A352
A193-B6
A194-Gr6
-
A182
A403
A182
A403
A182
A403
A351
CF8
A351
CF8M
A351
CF3M
A193-B8
A194, 8
A193-B8M
A194-8M
Plate
A334
Gr1,6
Low Temperature Alloy Steels

2.5 Ni
A203B
A334 Gr7
3.5 Ni
A203E
A334 Gr3
Stainless Steel
Type 405
A240
Type 410S
A240
Type 410
A240
A268
Flanges
Fittings
Castings
Bolting
Tubing
Type 430
CA6NM
A268
-
26-1
A240
A268
A731
Type 304
A240
A249
Type 316
A240
A249
Type 316L
A240
A249
A312
A271
A312
A271
A312
A307
Page 1 - 9
Page 2
October 1999
Table 1-1b COMMON ASTM SPECIFICATIONS FOR FREQUENTLY USED ALLOYS
Material
Plate
Heat
Exchanger
Tubing
Pipe/Tube
Flanges
Fittings
Castings
Type 317
A240
A249
A312
A182
A182
A351
A403
CG8M
-
Type 321
Type 347
A240
A240
A249
A249
Bolting
A312
A182
A182
A271
A336
A403
A312
A182
A182
A351
A193--B8C
A271
A336
A403
CF8C
A194-8C
A182-FS1
A182-FS1
22-6-3
A240
A789
A790
A286
A193-B8T
A194-8T
A453
Gr660
Nickel Alloys
20Cb3
B463
B468
B464
B462
B366
A351
B473
CN7M
800
B409
B163
B407
B564
B564
B408
825
B424
B704
B423
B564
B564
B425
B167
B564
B564
A494
B166
B163
600
B168
B163
CY40
625
B443
B704
B444
B564
B564
B333
B366
B366
400
B127
B163
B165
B446
A494
B467
N12M
B468
B564
B564
A494
B467
B366
B366
M35
B468
Copper Alloys
Admirality
B171
B111
Aluminum Brass
B111
Copper Nickel
B171
B111
B469
B466
Naval Brass
B171
Aluminum
Bronze
B171
B148
Titanium
B265
B338
B337
B381
B363
B367
Aluminum
B209
B234
Alloy
Alloy
3003
3003
Page 1 - 10
2.0
2.1
October 1999
COATINGS
FUNDAMENTALS OF COATING TECHNOLOGY

Paints have been used by man from the dawn of civilization. Painted, lacquered, and varnished
artifacts created by early man for decoration, religious expression, and teaching or storytelling are
exhibited in museums around the world and are in remarkably good condition. They attest to the
ability of paints to protect as well as beautify.
Through the years, there have been greater demands for paints to provide protection in a variety
of conditions. The paint chemist has responded to these demands and has developed a wide
variety of paint materials that can resist severe chemical environments. The World War II search
for synthetics to replace the cut off natural rubber supply, led to the discovery of a number of
synthetic resins, used today in coatings to impart chemical, abrasion, and moisture resistance to
paints. With the development and use of these exotic paints, it is possible for an engineer to
specify lower cost structural materials, such as carbon steel and concrete, in environments that
otherwise would require more durable and expensive construction materials.
Paints continue to serve multiple functions in modern industrial and architectural applications.
The sophistication of paint chemists has created formulations which make paints suitable for:
corrosion protection
anti-fouling chemical resistance
decoration/identification heat resistance
camouflage noise control
fire retardation
While paints serve these multiple functions, it is the ability of the cured paint film to act as a
barrier between the substrate to which it is applied and the surrounding environment, thereby
providing corrosion/erosion control and preventing structural damage, that is of fundamental
importance in selecting coating systems for industry.
The properties of paint which define its useful performance in service include:
Abrasion resistance
Chemical resistance
Moisture resistance
Hardness
Brittleness
Color retention
Chalking characteristics
Hiding power
Gloss
Flow
Applicator requirements (e.g. temperature limitations, required surface preparation)
A review of the generic paints in common industrial use today with reference to these properties
and service limitations, is the topic of this section.
Page 1 - 11
October 1999
Paints vs. Coatings.

The terms 'paint' and 'coating' are both widely used and often interchanged. In the most narrow
sense, paint is used when referring to pigmented liquids such as wall paint, exterior architectural
paint, traffic paint, and masonry paint. Other paint type products, such as sealers, varnish,
lacquer, stains, and primers are commonly called coatings or finishing materials. Elastomeric
coatings, synthetic organic coatings, flame spray metal coatings (more recent additions to the
paint chemists' line) have expanded the use of the term coatings.
In general, paint is used to refer to the less chemically sophisticated materials of alkyds, enamels,
and latexes; and, coatings to the more exotic high performance industrial products. The practice
of engineers and field applicators of employing the term coating or referring to a particular
generic coating type will be adopted here.
2.1.1
Coating System Composition

PRIMER:
Holds to the metal substrate and protects the substrate and the topcoat.
Primers contain corrosion inhibitors
TOPCOAT: Protects the primer from the environment.

2.1.2
Coating Composition
The manufacturing of coatings is an important segment of the chemical industry. Technically, it is
one of the most complex, employing more kinds of raw materials than any other division of the
industry. Paints incorporate almost the complete range of commercial organic polymers
including the chemical counterparts for most types of plastics, rubbers, adhesives and synthetic
fibers. A paint manufacturer may stock 500 to 600 different raw materials and intermediates in
order to produce a complete line of coatings.
Coatings have two basic components; the pigment and vehicle. The pigment, finely ground solid
material, is dispersed in the vehicle which is a liquid containing two parts, the solvent and
dissolved resin or binder.
2.1.2.1 The Pigment

Pigment solids are used in coatings for a variety of purposes.
(i) Protective Pigments - provide corrosion control or chemical resistance in three ways:
Barrier
Protection
Laminar pigments reduce permeability, and help the binder

to form
coating film which is impervious to water, oxygen, and salts that accelerate
deterioration.
Galvanic
Protection
Metallic zinc dust provides galvanic protection by combining with oxygen

in preference to the anodic steel substrate. The zinc is sacrificed forming a
zinc salt which appears as a white dust on the surface of the coated steel.
Inhibitive
Protection
A large number of pigments exert a chemical physical effect which serves

to protect steel from corrosion. Included here are red lead, zinc chromate,
zinc phosphate, calcium plumbate, and metallic lead. The mechanism of
protection is complex. While several theories exist, the mechanism is not
well understood.
Page 1 - 12
October 1999
(ii) Hiding Pigments - Sunlight has a marked degrading effect on the organic resins in a
coating film. The ultraviolet and infrared ranges of the spectrum cause the film to lose
elasticity. Hiding pigments shield the film from the sun's rays, and reflect much of the solar
radiation. Aluminum flake and titanium dioxide, which is snow white in color, are typical of
hiding pigments.
(iii) Tinting Pigments - Color is imparted to a coating by adding the appropriate tinting
pigments. Iron oxide is used to obtain yellows, reds, and browns of subtle, dullish hue. White
paints contain large quantities of titanium dioxide, a very stable, non-reactive pigment, and,
in addition to providing hiding and color, Ti02 will offer good control over chalking. Carbon,
or lampblack, is used to obtain black.
(iv) Extender Pigments - These pigments are generally referred to as extenders or fillers because
of their low cost and high bulking value. However, they may add valuable properties such as
decreased permeability and enhanced film build. Calcium carbonate (chalk), mica, and silica
quartz are common extender pigments.
2.1.2.2 The Vehicle
The vehicle is the liquid medium in which the pigment is suspended and is comprised of the
volatile or solvent portion which totally evaporates as the film dries, and the non-volatile, vehicle
solids, resin or binder portion which remains on the surface of the substrate to form the film
encapsulating the pigment matrix.
The volatiles, or solvents, control consistency, dissolve the solids so that they can be applied, and
promote leveling. The non-volatile, or resin, is composed of one or more polymers or
prepolymers that form the coating film, determine the method of cure, and to a large degree
define the corrosion and chemical resistant properties of the coating. For these reasons, coatings
are generally classified by the type of resin used, for example, alkyd, vinyl, epoxy, coal tar,
phenolic and urethane resin bearing coatings.
(i) Vehicle Volatiles - Solvents in the coating serve a variety of functions. The primary role of the
solvent is to permit easier application, or to dissolve the resin which will dry to form a film, after
the coating has been applied and the solvent volatilizes. Solvents which are added to the coating
after the can has been opened in the field are called thinners. Thinning solvents promote ease of
application and assist in the flow-out and leveling of the film. It is good practice to avoid thinning
except as is necessary to achieve the desired workability when applying the coating. Spraying
usually necessitates a certain amount of thinning, and additional thinning may be necessary in
warm or windy weather.
The most frequently encountered solvents for identical coatings fall into the following
general categorization:
aromatic hydrocarbons (toluene, xylene, benzene)

aliphatic hydrocarbons (mineral spirits)
Ketones (methyl ethyl ketone [MEK], methyl isobutyl ketone [MIBK])
esters and alcohols (ethylacetate, isopropanol)
Drying oils are a class of solvent obtained from plants and certain fish. They dry to form films by
absorbing oxygen and by polymerization. Drying oils may be used as the sole ingredient in the
solids portion of the vehicle or may be fortified with resins.
Page 1 - 13
October 1999
Varnish, is a term used to describe the product resulting from cooking a drying oil with resin.
Upon exposure to air, varnishes will dry to form a smooth, durable elastic film. The degree of
elasticity is affected by the types and proportions of oil and resin used and the cooking procedure
used. Until relatively recently Lead-In-Oil paint, a lead pigmented raw linseed oil formulation, was
about the only type of house paint sold. Linseed oil is the most commonly used drying oil in
paints. It makes an excellent vehicle for paints for wood and structural steel, especially under mild
atmospheric conditions. Though its moisture penetration resistance is only fair, this quality can be
enhanced by further processing the oil.
(ii) Vehicle Non-volatiles - The resin or binder is considered the heart of the coating, for it binds
the pigment particles together and to the surface of the substrate forming a rough, durable film.
In nonpigmented, or clear, coatings, the binder is the total film forming agent.
Resins exist in two broad classifications, natural and synthetic. Resins are solid or semisolid, water
insoluble, organic substances, evidencing little tendency to crystallize. Resins are often added to
drying oils to decrease their permeability. A dried resinous vehicle tends to be brittle, but this
effect can be mitigated by combining the resin with drying oil. A natural resin is defined as a solid
organic substance, originating in the secretion of certain plants or insects and dissolves in certain
solvents, but not water (ASTM D16, Definitions Relating to Paint). Though there are many natural
resins available, most are not used in metal protective coatings. Rather, their main use is in
furniture varnishes. Shellac is one of the most common natural resins.
Synthetic, or manmade, resins are manufactured by polymerizing organic chemical compounds
of many types, and form the backbone of the protective coating materials used in industry today.
Their types and classifications are many and varied, and seem to be increasing at an exponential
rate. Furthermore, resins are frequently chemically blended in combinations of two or more resins
to obtain a synergistic effect, i.e., to provide coating materials with qualities superior to those
which could be provided by any of the constituent resins used singularly.
While all the solvent is lost upon curing of a coating, the proportion of resin and pigment
remains the same. The ratio of pigment to resin is related to the gloss of the coating. Flat
coatings expose more pigment than high gloss coatings. Gloss is related to the fineness of grind
of the pigment, the smaller the size of the pigment particle, the greater the gloss.
(iii) Additives - Other materials such as driers, plasticizers, ultraviolet light absorbers, emulsifiers,
anti-skinning agents, anti-flocculation agents and anti-mildew agents are added to coatings to
impart special properties. Depending upon their solubility, they may be considered part of the
vehicle or pigment component.
Driers are a particularly important coating additive. They fall into two general classes: chemical
compounds, added to shorten the drying time, or catalysts.
Driers: Metallic soaps. Metallic soaps are formed by mixing metallic oxides with oils. These
insoluble soaps promote faster drying, act as thickening agents, and provide a flat hand-rubbed
appearance for certain product finishes. Soaps of lead, cobalt, manganese, calcium, tin,
zirconium, aluminum and zinc are common.
Lead promotes drying throughout the coating film, and is frequently used in combination with
cobalt. Where environmental controls restrict the use of lead, zirconium is frequently substituted.
Tin, a fast drying agent, is usually used in combination with other metallic soaps for a more
controlled reaction.
Page 1 - 14
October 1999
(iv) Catalysts - Technically speaking, a catalyst is a substance which effects a reaction, but does
not enter into, or become part of, the reacted material. In coatings, chemical catalysts are used to
speed up the cross-linking of molecules. Reactive urethanes, thermosetting polyesters, and
amine, polyamide, and amine adduct-cured epoxies are frequently used as catalyzed, high
performance coatings.
2.1.3 Methods Of Cure
Coatings cure in three basic ways:
(i) Solvent evaporation
(ii) Oxidation
The process by which oil or resin molecules combine with oxygen in the air to effect cure; Driers
are used to initiate or accelerate this reaction.
(iii) Polymerization
The linking of free molecules in the resin to form long chains of high molecular weight. Cross
linking may be activated by the presence of heat (e.g., baking enamel) chemically, by the
addition of a catalyst (e.g., reactive epoxy, urethane and polyester), or by exposure to radiation,
gamma rays, x-rays, ultraviolet rays. (NOTE: Radiation cures are being experimented with for
various types of product finishing, especially automobile exteriors. They have not yet found real
commercial acceptance.)
Complete curing of a coating is essential in order to obtain promised service life and may be a
critical factor in the adhesion of a multicoat system.
Curing and drying, while often used interchangeably, are not synonymous. A dry film is one
which is dry to touch. When the thumb is pressed with moderate pressure on a dry film and
rotated 90 degrees, the coating film will not distort, sag, or retain an imprint. A coating may be
dry to touch, but may not be cured. Solvents may be trapped in the interior of the coating film
(i.e., only the surface has dried and the hard skin has entrapped solvents which may form blisters
or cause lifting of the film, or oxidation or polymerization within the film may be incomplete).
The manufacturer's data sheet will indicate time to cure, but this is affected by ambient
conditions, and time adjustments may need to be made for a particular job.
A classification of generic coating types by their method of cure is found in Table 1-2. Typical
overcoating times of commonly used paints are shown in Table 1-3.
Page 1 - 15
Table 1-2 - CLASSIFICATION
SOLVENT
EVAPORATION
OF COATINGS BY METHOD OF CURE
water thinned
water soluble coatings "emulsion" coatings
solvent thinned
shellac
lacquers
solution vinyls
polyvinyl chloride
chlorinated rubber
T/P acrylics
oil
phenolic varnish
oleo resinous varnish
alkyds
chlorinated alkyds
silicone alkyds
epoxy esters
acrylic enamels
urethanes (oil modified)
OXIDATION
POLYMERIZATI
October 1999
heat conversion
chemical conversion
"catalyzed"
silicone (crosslinked with oil material)

phenolics
aminos, urea and melarnine formaldehydes
alkyds, vinyls, or oils)
T/S acrylics
Polyurethane
(crosslinked with
reactive or "two-pack"
vinyl esters
furon linings
coal-tar epoxies
coal-tar urethane
polyurethane
polyester
epoxy, polyamide cured
epoxy, amine & amine adduct cured epoxy polyester
PVB (wash primer)
moisture conversion
ethyl silicate
zinc rich primer
urethene
Page 1 - 16
Table 1-3
October 1999
OVERCOATING TIMES OF SELECTED PAINTS
NAME
OVER COATING TIME
COMMENTS
Alkyd Resin Paints
12-48 hrs.
if the interval greatly exceeds 48 hrs. there is risk of poor intercoat

adhesion.
Chlorinated Rubber
Paints
2-4 hrs. (normal)
No upper limit for overcoating time drying of these paints. Least

likely to be affected by low temperature. High build types best
finished with normal types.
Vinyl Resin paints
1-2 hrs. (normal)
48-72 hrs.(high build

48 hrs (high build)
Epoxy Resin paints
4 hrs.
Intervals greater than 24 hrs. incur risk increasing with delay, of

poor intercoat adhesion. Curing time 7 days (for max. resistance).
Epoxy/Pitch paints
4 hrs.
Intervals greater than 24 hrs. incur risk, increasing with delay, of

poor intercoat adhesion. -
Zinc Silicate
5-7 days
Allow 4 hrs. before curing paints with acid wash and wash with
(inorganic) water before recoating
Zinc Silicate
1-2 days
Cure is hastened by washing down after 2 hrs, using clean water.
Polyurethane Resin
paints
paints (organic)
2.2
PROPERTIES OF PAINTS
PAINTS
Specific properties of some types of paints have been mentioned, but general advantages and
disadvantages have not been discussed. Each type of paint has properties that make it suitable for
particular uses. Of course, there are large variations in properties within each type, and it is
seldom possible to select a suitable paint by type alone.
2.2.1
Oil Paints
Oil paints have drying oil vehicles that cure by oxidation and polymerization. Raw and bodied
linseed oil are the most commonly used drying oils. Raw linseed oil paints have excellent wetting
ability, but are slow drying. Bodied linseed oil paints are faster drying, have increased water
resistance and decreased permeability, but their wetting properties for rusted or dirty steel are
inferior. A mixture of raw and bodied linseed oil is frequently used, especially for primer paints.
Oil paints are used extensively because of their excellent weathering characteristics. In normal
atmospheric exposure, oil paints gradually erode by deterioration of the surface until the
undercoats are exposed. At that time, they should be recoated with a finish paint, priming any
rusted areas if necessary. Films of oil paints are elastic and flexible and have good adhesion.
However, they have poor resistance to abrasion and conditions of high humidity and their
resistance to alkaline environments is very poor. Films of oil paints are too porous to be generally
satisfactory for underwater surfaces.
Page 1 - 17
October 1999
2.2.2 Oleoresinous Paints

Oleoresinous paints are those that have both drying oils and resins in their vehicles. Natural
varnish resins are sometimes used but synthetic resins are more commonly used in metal
protective paints. These paints are better than linseed oil paints for severe service conditions
because of their decreased permeability and increased chemical and abrasion resistance. Films of
these paints are more brittle than those of linseed oil paints, and they must be formulated
carefully to avoid a brittle film that fails by checking and cracking. The most widely used classes
of oleoresinous paints contain alkyd, phenolic or epoxy resins.
2.2.3 Alkyd Paints
Most alkyd paints formulated for painting structural steel are oleoresinous paints. The vehicles of
these paints are referred to as oil-modified alkyds to indicate that the resin has been combined
with a drying oil. Properties of the alkyd paints are controlled primarily by the amount and type
of oil incorporated in the resin. However, a limited variation in wetting and drying properties is
possible through the selection of alkyd resin. Long oil alkyd paints, which contain a high
proportion of drying oil to alkyd resin, have good wetting and slow drying properties similar to
those of oil paints. Short oil alkyd paints, which contain only a small proportion of drying oil,
have properties approaching those of unmodified alkyds, that is, rapid drying, extreme hardness,
good durability, relative insolubility in mineral spirits, and poor wetting of rusted or dirty steel.
The quick drying, unmodified alkyds have poor adhesion, and thorough blast cleaning is
recommended before application of these paints as primers. In general, alkyd paints are less
permeable and have better chemical resistance than oil paints and, therefore, are better suited for
severe environments. However, they are too permeable to be satisfactory for continuous
immersion in water.
2.2.4 Phenolic Paints
Like the alkyds, most phenolic paints formulated for painting structural steel are oleoresinous.
They contain oil soluble phenolic resins modified by the addition of drying oils. And their
properties depend, to a large extent, on the amount and type of drying oil used. In general, oil
modified phenolic paints are quick drying and have low permeability, good water resistance, and
good chemical resistance. They are not, however, resistant to alkalis. Their adhesion is only fair,
and blast cleaning is the recommended minimum surface preparation. Oil modified phenolic
paints are particularly suitable for fresh water immersion and atmospheric exposure in severe
industrial or marine atmospheres.
2.2.5 Epoxy Paints
Air drying epoxy paints are formulated with epoxy resins that have been esterified with a drying
oil acid. They are referred to as esterified epoxies, epoxy esters, or modified epoxies. As with
other oil modified synthetic resin paints, the properties depend largely on the type of drying oil
acid reacted with epoxy resin. In general, they are suitable for severe industrial and marine
environments. Esterified epoxy paints are relatively quick drying and have low permeability, good
water resistance and good chemical resistance. In these respects, they are better than the alkyds
and comparable to the air drying phenolics. They have excellent adhesion, and surface
preparation is usually no problem, though blast cleaning is always recommended where
practical.
Unmodified epoxies, or 100% epoxies, that require the addition of a catalyst just before
application have excellent acid and alkali splash resistance. They are suitable for immersion in
hydrocarbons, mild acids and alkalis, but blistering may be a problem in sea water, aqueous
ammonia and fertilizer solutions.
Page 1 - 18
2.2.6
October 1999
Lacquer Type Paints

Lacquers are usually considered to be pigmented or unpigmented solutions of cellulose esters, or
ethers that cure to a solid film solely by solvent evaporation. In recent years, however, several
non-cellulosic, solvent drying resins have been developed, and these are used by themselves or
combined with cellulose derivatives to give coatings of improved properties. The term lacquer
type paint can be used to distinguish cellulose lacquers (nitrocellulose automobile lacquers, for
example) from other classes of solvent drying resin paints such as the vinyl and chlorinated
rubber paints.
As previously mentioned, oleoresinous and oil paints cure by reaction with oxygen from the air,
but lacquer type paints do not require oxygen. The resin that is in solution at the time of
application is deposited on the surface with the pigment and becomes a solid film when the
solvent evaporates. High molecular weight resins, suitable for this type of coating, are difficult to
put into solution and high solvency power solvents are required. A low solids content paint
generally results and the dry film thickness per coat of applied paint is low. Several coats may be
required to obtain desired film thicknesses. However, the use of hot spray processes permits a
high build per coat.
2.2.7
Vinyl Paints
Vinyl paints and lacquer type paints are formulated with vinyl resins in alcohol, ketone or ester
solvents. The most common resins used are copolymers of vinyl chloride and vinyl acetate with a
small amount of another constituent, such as maleic anhydride, to improve adhesion. Poor
adhesion is the principal disadvantage of these paints and the minimum surface preparation
required is abrasive blasting to white metal. However, they have outstanding resistance to severe
environments, particularly for submerged surfaces. Vinyl paints are quick drying because low
boiling solvents (for example, methyl ethyl ketone) and they must be sprayed. Using recently
developed hot spray techniques, vinyls may be applied in film thicknesses comparable to
oleoresinous or oil paints.
2.2.8
Chlorinated Rubber Paints

Chlorinated rubber paints are lacquer type paints containing, in addition to pigments,
chlorinated rubber resin, plasticizers, stabilizers and aromatic solvents. A plasticizer is required to
decrease the brittleness of the film. A stabilizer, usually an epoxide compound, is required
because the resin has a tendency to liberate small quantities of hydrogen chloride. Chlorinated
rubber paints have outstanding resistance to acids and alkalis and are used extensively where acid
fumes are present. Their adhesion is better than that of the vinyls, but their wetting ability for
dirty or rusted steel surfaces is only fair and blast cleaning is recommended. The aromatic
solvents used (for example, toluene and xylene) provide relatively quick drying properties but are
slower drying than the vinyls.
2.2.9
Latex Paints
Latex paints are usually based on aqueous emulsions of three basic types of polymers; polyvinyl
acetate, polyacrylic and polystyrene butadiene. They dry by evaporation of the water followed by
coalescence of the polymer particles to form tough, insoluble films. They have little odor, are easy
to apply, and dry rapidly. Latex films are somewhat porous so that blistering due to moisture
vapor is less of a problem than with solvent thinned paints. They do not adhere readily to
chalked, dirty or glossy surfaces. Therefore, careful surface preparation is required.
Page 1 - 19
October 1999
2.2.10 Epoxy-Coal Tar Paints

Coal tar is often added as an ingredient of epoxy paints, resulting in a significant decrease in cost
with relatively minor effect on corrosion resistance. Color choice is limited because of the black
color of the coal tar. It is used primarily for interior and submerged surfaces.
2.2.11 Silicones
Silicones are used for water repellents and for heat resistant coatings.
(i)
Water Repellents
Dilute solutions (5% solids) are used to reduce water absorption on unpainted concrete or
masonry. They usually do not affect the color or appearance of the treated surface.
(ii)
Heat Resistant Coatings
These contain a high concentration of silicone resins. When properly formulated and applied,
they can withstand temperatures as high as 1500oF. (816oC)
2.2.12 Polyurethane or Urethane Paints
There are two general types of polyurethane coatings; oil modified and moisture curing.
(i)
Oil Modified
These are similar to phenolic varnishes, although more expensive. They have better color and
color retention, dry more rapidly, are harder, and have better abrasion resistance. They can be
used as exterior spar varnishes or as floor finishes.
(ii)
Moisture Curing
These are unique in having the performance and resistance properties of two component
finishes, yet are packed in single containers. Moisture curing urethanes are used in a manner
similar to other one-package coatings except that all containers must be kept full to exclude
moisture during storage. If moisture enters or is in the container, they will gel.
2.2.13 Silicone Alkyd Paints
The combination of silicone and alkyd resins results in an expensive, but very durable, coating for
use on smooth metal.
2.2.14 Vinyl Alkyd Paints
The combination of vinyl and alkyd resins offers a compromise between the excellent durability
and resistance of the vinyls with the lower cost, higher film build, ease of handling and adhesion
of the alkyds. They can be applied by brush or spray and are widely used on structural steel in
moderately severe corrosive environments.
2.2.15 Acrylic Paints
Cross-linked acrylic resins with styrene and other materials provide a very durable and attractive
line of lacquer and enamel coatings used for automotive and appliance finishes. These coatings
require baking at temperatures of 300-400oF (149oC-204oC) after application. Water based
acrylic latex emulsion paints are used widely for wood, plaster, and masonry coatings.
Page 1 - 20
October 1999
2.2.16 Wash Coat Pretreatment

The wash coat pretreatment, also called a wash primer treatment, is a surface preparation step
rather than a paint because a chemical reaction with the surface is involved. However, a thin, 0.3
to 0.5 mil, film is left on the surface. Essentially, the material is a two part composition that
consists of an alcohol solution of polyvinyl butyral resin and phosphoric acid, pigmented with
zinc tetroxy chromate. When it is applied to a blast cleaned steel surface, an adherent film is
formed by reaction with the steel. The film improves the bond between the steel and poorly
adherent paints, such as the vinyls. The wash coat pretreatment is used to improve adhesion of
paints on such smooth metals as galvanized steel, stainless steel, magnesium and aluminum.
2.2.17 Bituminous Paints
Bituminous paints are solvent solutions of bituminous materials; that is, asphalt, coal tar, gilsonite
or vegetable pitch, with or without added fillers. These paints normally do not exhibit inhibitive
properties and metal protection is derived from a mechanical barrier obtained by applying thick
coats of 1/8 inch or more. Film thickness per coat is increased by the addition of inert fillers, such
as calcium carbonate, mica, silica, asbestos and others. Solvents used, vary from aliphatic
hydrocarbons for asphalts to aromatic hydrocarbons for coal tar materials. Good protection is
obtained with these coatings if applied in sufficiently thick films. One of the disadvantages is the
number of coats required to obtain the thickness desired. In severe exposures, a rust inhibitive
prime coat is recommended and this introduces the problem of lifting of the undercoat by the
aromatic solvent in coal tar base paints. The bituminous paints are not resistant to longterm
exposure to sunlight and weather and they must be protected when used outdoors. The use of
asbestos is not acceptable environmentally in many countries.
2.2.18 Mastics and Cements
As the result of surface tension effects on drying films, coatings are usually too thin on sharp
edges, over rivet and bolt heads, etc., to prevent corrosion. These are the places coatings
breakdown first. This, however, can be easily overcome when using vinyls or by applying vinyl
mastic on all sharp edges, rivets, bolt heads and nuts and in cracks where two or more members
are jointed. This will effectively prevent rapid coating failure. The mastic may be applied by
trowel, putty knife, brush or high pressure spray equipment.
2.2.19 Special Purpose Paints
Film forming materials other than oils and resins can be used for special coating requirements.
Zinc dust is used in an inorganic vehicle containing sodium silicate to produce a paint that
requires a chemical hardening agent. Portland cement and casein are used in water base
coatings. Water base paints consisting of water emulsions of many types of coating materials are
being used for wood and masonry surfaces but they are seldom used in metal protective paints.
Some water emulsions may be heavily pigmented and applied as very thick coats. These are the
so-called mastics. Water emulsions of polyvinyl acetate or acrylic resins are used extensively for
painting masonry surfaces. They have greater tolerance for alkaline surfaces than previously used
oleoresinous paints. Water emulsion paints are gaining wide acceptance for interior paints
because they eliminate the odor of organic solvents indoors.
Page 1 - 21
October 1999
2.3
COATING SELECTION
SELECTION
2.3.1
Service Exposures
In industrial maintenance coating, more than any other coating area, it is important to choose
that paint, of the many available types, whose resistance properties best coincide with the
demands of the service environment. A paint that performs perfectly well under one set of
conditions, may fail miserably under others. Or, a less resistant paint may be completely
satisfactory in areas where high performance coatings are sometimes used.
Table 1-4 shows the principle advantages/disadvantages of frequently used industrial coatings.
Table 1-5 shows the recommended type of coatings for refineries and terminals (inland and
coastal.)
2.3.2
Selection of Paints
The following criteria should be used in selecting a coating:
Abrasion resistance
Adhesion
Impact resistance
Flexural qualities
Resistance to a given media
Resistance to sunlight
Temperature resistance
Drying time
Appearance
Wetting time
Applied cost
Antistick properties
The coating, or coatings, having the best properties for a given set of conditions should be
selected, providing the cost is not prohibitive.
Top quality coatings should be compared generically. However, it is important to keep in mind
that identification, by generic name per se, is no guarantee of quality. Coatings should be
purchased on specifications from reliable coatings manufacturers. It is false economy to purchase
a protective coating without knowing its solids content and the resin content of the solids.
Heavy bodied vinyls and other materials are now available that can be applied from 6 to 8 mils
thick/coat with an ordinary spray gun. Where no large crevices are to be filled, this is superior to
mastic because they can be applied much faster and with regular paint-spray equipment. Mastic
or heavy bodied vinyl and some of the other materials should be applied after the prime coat is
applied.
When coated structures have large numbers and lengths of cracks and crevices, especially when
these are subject to fading action as is the case in bridges, priming preliminary caulking will not
only save time, but will insure a longer lasting job.
Vinyl and phenolic mastics have been tested with good results on steel pilings in sea water. There
are epoxy compounded cements, which may be used in conjunction with epoxy coating systems
just as vinyl mastic is used with vinyl systems.
Page 1 - 22
October 1999
Table 1-4 PRINCIPLE ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES OF FREQUENTLY USED INDUSTRIAL COATINGS

GENERIC TYPE AND
CURING MECHANISM
PRINCIPAL ADVANTAGES
PRINCIPAL DISADVANTAGES
DRYING OILS
Very good application properties

Fair exterior durability
Outstanding wetting and penetration qualities
Excellent flexibility
Good film build per coat
Relatively inexpensive
Slow Drying Soft films - low abrasion

resistance
Poor water resistance
Fair exterior gloss retention
Poor chemical and solvent resistance
One-package coating
Fair exterior durability
Moderate cost
Excellent adhesion to most
surfaces, including poorly prepared surfaces
Easy to apply
Good gloss retention
Poor chemical and solvent resistance

Fair water resistance
Poor heat resistance
Excellent exterior durability

Good film build per coat
Very good chemical resistance
Excellent water resistance
Extremely hard film
Very brittle
Critical recoat intervals
Poor gloss retention
Yellows on aging
One-package coating -unlimited pot life

Hard, durable film
Good chemical resistance
Good water resistance
High film build per coat
Moderate cost
Fair gloss retention

Not applicable over inorganic zinc
Rapid drying
Excellent durability, gloss and color retention
Good heat resistance
Moderate cost
Poor chemical resistance

Low film build per coat
Thermoplastic at elevated temperatures
Blasted surface desirable.
Rapid drying and recoating

Excellent chemical resistance
Excellent durability
Very good gloss retention
Applicable at low temperatures
Poor solvent resistance

Low film build per coat
Requires white metal blasted and primed
surface
Rapid drying and recoating

Excellent chemical resistance
Good gloss retention
Applicable at low temperatures

Blasted surface desirable
questionable over inorganic zincs
Excellent chemical and solvent resistance

Very good exterior durability
Hard, slick film
Two-Package coating -- limited pot life

Curing temperature must be above 50oF
(10oC)
Poor gloss retention
Film chalks on aging
Sandblasted surface desirable
Topcoating may require blasting
Oxidation
ALKYDS
Oxidation
PHENOLICS
Oxidation
EPOXY ESTERS
Oxidation
ACRYLICS
Evaporation
VINYLS
Evaporation
CHLORINATED
RUBBERS
EPOXIES
Polymerization
Page 1 - 23
October 1999

Very good acid resistance
Extremely hard film
Excellent abrasion resistance
Not for exterior use

Critical recoat intervals
Required white metal sandblasting
Two-package coatings - limited pot life.
Very good chemical and solvent resistance

Hard, abrasion resistant film
Excellent adhesion - - particularly to aged, intact coatings
Easily topcoated after extended periods of time with a
variety of coating types
May be applied directly to clean, dry concrete surfaces
Two-package coating -- limited pot life

Curing temperatures above 50oF (10oC)
Sensitive to early rain or dew
Excellent heat resistance

Good water resistance and water repellency
Must be heat cured

Very high cost
Requires blasted surface

Good chemical resistance
Excellent adhesion to most surfaces
Excellent gloss and color retention
Very good moisture resistance

Relatively high cost
Excellent gloss or color retention at elevated temperatures


Moderate chemical resistance
High Cost
Offers one coat protection under many service conditions

Excellent abrasion resistance
Hydrocarbon insoluble
Provides "galvanic" protection properties
Provides "permanent" primer capability when used in
conjunction with proper topcoats and/or maintenance
practices
Self-curing (some types)
Selected ability to accelerate cure - depending on type
used
High cost
Requires excellent surface preparation-relative to many other types of coatings
Spray application only-- skilled applicators
required for successful job
Not suitable for acidic or caustic service
unless properly topcoated
Requires careful selection of tie coats and
topcoats for service involved.
Selected temperature and humidity effects-depending on type used
POLYURETHANES
Excellent gloss retention (aliphatic types)
Gloss drop with high humidity
Polymerization
Can be applied at low temperatures
Limited pot life
High cost
High hardness
Good clean, dry surface required
Two-component
Isocyanate sensitivity
EPOXY
PHENOLICS
Polymerization
EPOXY
EMULSIONS
Evaporation
Polymerization
SILICONES
Polymerization
(Heat Required)
SILICONE
ALKYDS
SILICONE
ACRYLICS
INORGANIC
ZINC
EvaporationPolymerization
Regular to high film build recoatable
Page 1 - 24
Table 1-5
October 1999
RECOMMENDED COATING TYPES
REFINERIES AND TERMINALS - INLAND

TYPE OF UNIT
GOOD
BETTER
BEST
Tanks - Cone Roof
Alkyd
Epoxy Ester
Acrylic
Tanks - External Floating Roof
Shell: Alkyd
Shell: Epoxy
Shell: Acrylic
Roof: Zinc/Vinyl
Roof: Zinc/Vinyl
Roof: Zinc/Vinyl
Structural Steel
Alkyd
Epoxy Ester
Amine Epoxy
Control Equipment
Alkyd
Alkyd
Alkyd
Piping
Alkyd
Epoxy Ester
P.A. Epoxy
Zinc/ Silicone Acrylic
Silicone
Silicone
Silicone
Stacks and Breeching

to 500 oF (260oC)
o
to 1000 F (538 C)
REFINERIES AND TERMINALS - COASTAL INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENT

TYPE OF UNIT
GOOD
BETTER
BEST
Tanks - Cone Roof
Alkyd
Epoxy Ester
Acrylic
Tanks - Shell and External
Zinc High Build
Zinc High Build Vinyl
Zinc High Build Epoxy
Structural Steel
Epoxy Ester
Epoxy Ester
Zinc High Build Epoxy
Control Equipment
Alkyd
Chlorinated Rubber
P.A.Epoxy
Piping
Alkyd
Epoxy
P.A. Epoxy
Silicone
Silicone
Silicone
Floating Roof
Stacks and Breeching

to 500 oF (260oC)
o
to 1000 F (538 C)
2.4
INSPECTION
The tightest specifications and the most corrosion resistant coating systems are money wasted
without competent inspection. Because maintenance painting is not critical for the immediate
operation of an existing plant, and because a good paint job is not necessary for starting up a
new plant, their priority levels are very low. Maintenance foremen, maintenance engineers, and
unit inspectors are in the field already; therefore, one of them is usually asked to "inspect"
painting as part of his daily routine. Assistant project engineers or craft inspectors are assigned
the task on new construction. Though these men might be eminently qualified in their own field,
often they are not familiar with the coatings, equipment, inspection tools, or specifications
necessary for making the intelligent decisions required in a good inspection effort.
Equally important as the qualifications of the inspector are his methods of carrying out the
program. An inspection procedure should be written and included in the specifications and
contracts. It is important for both the customer and contractor to have this in writing. It allows
the contractor know exactly what to expect and protects the customer from complaints or
harassment because the job is being held up.
Page 1 - 25
October 1999
It is advisable to include the following steps in the procedure:

1. Surfaces to be inspected for oil, grease, or any other contaminant which will not permit
proper surface preparation.
2. All surface preparation to be inspected and approved before any coatings are applied.
3. Each coat to be inspected and approved before ensuing coats are applied.
It is desirable to stipulate that areas be kept squared up as the work proceeds. This reduces the
chances of the inspectors missing poorly cleaned areas or skippers in the paint.
The inspector must be careful that the contractor does not use him as a tool for his own benefit.
An inspector who is not careful will find himself pointing out every little discrepancy and then
waiting while it is repaired. This is the paint foreman's job, not the inspector's. When the
inspector is called to approve an area, he should assume the paint foreman has already inspected
and corrected the deficiencies. If a significant number of deficiencies are found, the entire area
under consideration should be rejected and the inspector recalled when it is ready for approval.
Taking an engineering approach toward painting, using qualified people who can write concise
specifications, select appropriate coating systems and ensure proper application by diligent
inspection, can reassure management that money spent on painting is not wasted money.
2.5
TYPES OF COATING PROBLEMS AND CAUSES
2.5.1
Lifting
Lifting is defined as softening of an undercoat by application of a topcoat. It can be recognized
by a swelling or rising of the wet coating film and occasionally a shriveled surface. Peeling occurs
as this film dries or cures. It is principally caused by incompatibility of the two coats - solvents
attacking the previous coat.
2.5.2
Blushing
The appearance of blushing will be that of a mist of milky haze and loss of gloss on the surface. It
can be caused by the condensation of moisture in the wet coating film due to the cooling effect
produced by evaporation of solvents or incompatible thinner. Blushing can be corrected by
reducing humidity, using a retarder or slow/dry thinner, or proper thinners.
2.5.3
Orange Peeling
This condition is easy to identify as the surface will have a dimpled appearance resembling an
orange peel. It is caused by droplets of coating drying prematurely due to a solvent which is too
fast, an improperly handled spray gun, or an air temperature which is too high.
2.5.4
Checking, Crazing
Checking has the appearance of a parallel pattern of cracks and checks. It is generally caused by
excessive film thickness. An irregular pattern of tiny splits, scales or cracks is referred to as
'crazing' and can result from the solvents softening the previous coat. Extreme temperature
changes can cause both problems.
Page 1 - 26
October 1999
2.5.5
Fisheyes
When small openings, holes or deep depressions form in wet film exposing previous coating or
substrate they are designated as fisheyes. This problem is traced to surface contaminants, such as
silicone, that repel the wet coating.
2.5.6
Cracking
Cracking is a splitting or disintegration of coating by breaks through film. This results from
expansion and contraction when a heavily pigmented coating is applied over a more flexible
undercoating that has greater extensibility. Inorganic zinc coatings also may crack when applied
at excessive thicknesses. This is commonly referred to as 'mud-cracking'.
2.5.7
Embrittlement
As coatings cure, they become harder and generally more impervious. Certain coatings,
particularly most epoxies, embrittle on aging. Exposure to sunlight or alkali environment
accelerates this process. The coating, at some stage, is vulnerable to cracking and chipping
should the steel substrate flex or be subjected to physical abuse.
2.5.8
Softening
Softening results from two causes: (1) coating is not resistant to corrosive environment and is
being attacked and (2) lack of cure caused by poor formulation, manufacturing or improper
mixing of two component materials. When a coating softens, it often stains, indicating a
reaction with corrosives.
2.5.9
Chalking
Organic coatings deteriorate by oxidation resulting in wearing away of the film and continues
until the binder is completely destroyed. Heavy chalking tends to accelerate erosion Measuring
yearly film loss with a thickness gauge tells when recoating is necessary.
2.5.10 Undercutting
Undercutting results when a corrosive penetrates the coating film through the pinholes or
damaged areas. Corrosion proceeds under the film with a lifting force that separates the film
from the substrate. In many cases, undercutting cannot be detected without cutting into
suspected areas with a knife. Primers having good adhesive properties and chemical resistance
will prevent or retard subfilm corrosion. With inorganic zinc coatings, undercoating does not
occur; corrosion is localized, and damaged areas are easily repaired.
2.5.11 Blistering
Blistering is defined as 'bubbling' in dry or partially dry films. Water found under blisters indicates
that the coating was applied over a moist surface. Application of topcoats before undercoat
solvents have been released will cause solvent blistering. Certain inorganic zinc coatings are
prone to cause topcoat blistering because of water soluble alkali residues that remain in the film
and are dissolved out in a wet atmosphere.
Page 1 - 27
2.6
October 1999
PAINT COST
When talking to users or potential users of blast cleaning equipment, the universal question is
always asked, "What is it going to cost to clean a specific surface?"
There are six obvious reasons why no one can give an accurate answer to this type of question.
1. The Type of Surface to be Cleaned - No one can look at a surface and determine what is on
that surface. It might be easy to see that a green coat of paint is facing you; however, you
have no knowledge of what is under the surface coat. There may be three or four mils, or
3/16" of old paint that have been applied over the many years the surface has been standing.
Beneath, may be the original rust and mill scale which caused the initial coating to fail. There
is no visual way of determining these factors and, even if there were, they could vary
considerably over different areas of the surface.
2. The Type of Abrasives Being Used - The type, particle size, shape and hardness have a large
influence on both the rate and degree of cleaning. Another prime consideration is the
delivered cost of the abrasive. Prices on abrasives can range from a locally available sand at
$4.oo per ton to products costing as high as $800.oo per ton for specially manufactured
metallic types.
3. What Is Clean? - The surface preparation required must be clearly specified, for obviously, a
white metal blasted surface requires a more thorough job than does a brush-off blasted
surface. If you have five inspectors in a room, you could probably secure five different
decisions as to what constitutes a clean surface to match the particular specification.
4. Air Pressure Available at Nozzle - The nozzle air pressure has a tremendous effect on job
efficiency and the rate of production can be seriously hampered if the nozzle pressure is too
low.
5. Operator Efficiency - The ability for the operator to perform an efficient job is one of the
largest variables.
6. The Type and Efficiency of the Blast Cleaning Equipment - Using properly balanced blasting
equipment can increase production two- or three-fold and has a great reflection on reduced
costs.
Table 1-6 AVERAGE JOB BREAKDOWN
Cost
% of Total
Costs
Surface Preparation
Coating Material Cost
Application
Accessory Products
Clean Up
15-50
15-20
30-60
2-5
5-10
Page 1 - 28
2.7
October 1999
TEMPORARY PROTECTION
PROTECTION
Essential features of any temporary preventive include the following: It must be easy to apply and
even more important, easy to remove. While it is on the metal, it must resist the corrosive effects
of humidity, fumes, fingerprints, weathering and water. These coatings prevent mechanical
damage, such as nicks and burs, and preserve the metal's original appearance.
The major preventives include (1) grease types, (2) oil types, (3) solvent types, and (4) strippable
plastic types. Each has special advantages or limitations.
2.7.1
Grease Preventives
Grease preventives are thick coat compounds that won't melt or flow at ordinary room
temperature. Materials range from soft petrolatums to hard waxlike compounds. Softer coatings
are for moderate shipping and storage temperatures. Harder coatings stand up under higher
temperatures.
Dipping in heated tanks is the usual method of applying the greases and, except for some hard
solvent/drying types, they require the most time and effort to remove.
2.7.2
Oil Preventives
Oil preventives include the non-drying, non-setting oils of various viscosities. Even with the
heaviest of these oils, protective films won't be thicker than .0002 in. They attain final thickness
by draining only, without setting or drying.
2.7.3
Solvent Cut Back Preventives

Solvent Cut Back Preventives can be subdivided according to the solvent and material dissolved
in them.
Dry Type Films
These are asphaltic, resin and waxy films which are thin, fairly hard films
that look like varnish. They are on par with protection achieved with heavy
greases and withstand abrasion and handling.
Water Displacing
These usually contain substantial amounts of soaplike materials that actually

remove droplets of water from metal surfaces by 'preferential wetting.'
Preservatives attraction toward the metal surface is greater than that of
water, displacing the water. The major reason for their use includes the
reduction of time and labor required by permitting the easy preservation of
wet parts in one simple dip.
Fingerprint
Removers
These contain water, an organic solvent and preserving additives. After

fingerprint residues (acidic organic materials, salt, etc.) are dissolved, the
additives form a protecting film. For long-term storage, remove this film
and replace it with a more lasting preservative.
Combination
Solvent
Preservatives
This solvent is combined with either an oil, grease or wax-type preservative.

If solvent content is low and it is sprayed or brushed on, the final film will
be relatively thick, comparable to greases. However, more often, these films
are thin.
Page 1 - 29
Water Soluble
Compound
October 1999
A water soluble compound is a low-cost coating from which the water

evaporates, leaving an oily film.
2.7.4
Strippable Plastics
Strippable plastics are a combination of special oils, plasticizers, inhibitors, synthetic resins and
plastics.
Coatings are thick, from .050 to .100 in, and have several unique features. They
provide top corrosion as well as mechanical protection, and they can easily be removed by
slitting and peeling. These coatings are applied from hot tanks.
2.8
GALVANIZING
Protective coating systems fall into two major groups. The first group includes paints and plastics
which provide a barrier coating but give no protection around the edges or a points of
mechanical damage. The second group includes barrier systems such as zinc coatings which
protect by sacrificial action even when they are moderately damaged. Hot dip galvanizing is used
very extensively for corrosion protection of structurals and exposed carbon steel in many
refineries, particularly those on the coast. A thick zinc multilayer coating is metallurgically
bonded to the steel substrate. The coating corrodes at a rate of about 3-10% of the underlying
steel. Typical coating weight minimum is about 610 g/m2 (2 oz/ft2). In most environments the
life of the coating is proportional to the weight of the coating. An even thickness of the
galvanized coating is applied to edges and flat surfaces. The zinc covers corners, edges seams
and rivets to give complete protection to what may be potential failure points in other protective
systems. Hot dip galvanizing applied after fabrication is tough and will tolerate handling which
would damage most other coatings. The galvanizing process may vary from plant to plant but
basically is as follows:
1. Cleaning - In most plants, this is a two step operation. The material is first immersed in a hot
caustic bath or some other similar solution to remove oil, grease and other organic
contaminants. The workpiece is then rinsed and taken into a mineral acid bath to remove
rust, mill scale and other inorganic contaminants. The material is then rinsed and is ready for
the next step in the process.
2. Fluxing - The steel is immersed in a tank containing an aqueous preflux solution to remove
any oxides which may have formed on the material during the handling process. A molten
flux blanket on the surface of the molten zinc in the kettle is also often used to clean the steel
surface before the part is immersed or dipped into the bath.
3. Coating - The workpiece is then submerged in the molten zinc bath where it remains until
the alloying reaction is complete. Depending upon the chemical composition of the steel,
configuration, and mass of the material being coated, this process can take from 30 seconds
to 8 hours. When the alloying reaction is complete, the steel is removed from the kettle.
After the material is removed, it is either allowed to air cool or is immersed in a water quench
tank. The quench tank operation freezes any further reaction between the base steel and the
coating. The quench water may be treated with other chemicals to give the coating certain
post treatments such as wash primers or zinc dust primers for eventual top coatings.
Galvanizing usually does not cause a loss of ductility problem unless the material has been
severely cold worked. Therefore, any shapes to be galvanized should be stress relieved before
galvanizing. The acid bath pickling will generate hydrogen which will accumulate in the cold
Page 1 - 30
October 1999
worked areas and embrittle the workpiece if it is not allowed enough time to diffuse out.
Bessemer steels or other steels that may strain age embrittle should not be galvanized due to
potential embrittlement problems There are ASTM specifications that cover safeguards to
prevent embrittlement, warping and distortion during hot dip galvanizing as well as a
specification covering the actual hot dip galvanizing procedure. As with any coating system, hot
dip galvanizing needs proper specifications and inspection so that a quality product is furnished.
Page 1 - 31
October 1999
Page 1 - 32
3.0
October 1999
PLASTICS
Plastics are increasingly replacing metal parts because of their light weight and good corrosion
resistance to a wide range of chemicals. However, most plastics cannot be used above 250oF
(121oC), and have lower strength than metals. The mechanical properties of the plastics may be
increased by the addition of glass fibers to the plastic resin. The chemical properties can be
altered by adding modifiers to protect it against specific environments. However, in most
petrochemical operations, safety concerns limit the use of plastics in vessels and piping because
of the potential for fires and unfamiliarity with the material. The primary uses for plastics in the
petrochemical industry include wrapping for electrical components, housing for electrical
components, hoses and protective coatings for tanks and piping.
A plastic can be defined as a material consisting of long chained, organic molecules which are
formed by combining short chained, organic molecules together in a viscous state. Plastics can
be divided into two types, based on the final structure of the chains in the molecules:
1) thermoplastics and
2) thermosetters.
Thermoplastics can be repeatedly heated with only a minimum reduction in their properties
because the side chains of the molecules are not connected. Generally, thermoplastics are
fabricated by injection molding or casting. Thermosetters have their side chains cross-linked.
When heated above their maximum use temperature, the side chains are permanently broken,
thus causing the plastic to degrade. The thermosetting plastics are usually made by combining a
liquid resin with a catalyst. An exothermic reaction is produced, causing the material to set into a
hard plastic. With the rapid advances in technology, plastics are being produced which are both
thermosetters and thermoplastic.
The selection of a particular plastic for an application is similar to choosing a metal. Design
properties for the selection of a plastic include tensile strength, heat deflection point, toughness,
creep modulus, specific gravity, shrinkage, expansion coefficient, resistance to the operating
environment, and cost. The dielectric strength is important when a plastic will be used for an
electrical application.
Plastics can undergo mechanical failure from stress corrosion cracking, fatigue, rupture,
embrittlement and overload. Corrosion is usually caused by chemicals, water, heat, and
ultraviolet light interacting with the polymer chains, causing their degradation. Physical signs of
corrosion include bloating, hardening, softening, discoloration and elongation. Unlike metals,
dissolution of material from the plastic is uncommon.
A wide range of plastics exists with each one having unique properties. Because of the
complexity of plastics, coupons of the material should be tested in the operating environment
before the selection is made. The following list gives the overall properties of some groups of
plastics, but individual plastics within the group can behave differently. Many of the materials can
be reinforced with fibers in the resin to give increased physical properties.
Page 1 - 33
October 1999
3.1 THERMOPLASTICS
ABS
(Acrylonitrilebutadiene-styrene
copolymerization)
Acetals
Fluorocarbon
Nylon
Polypropylene
Polycarbonates
Polyester
Polyethylene
Polyvinyl Chlorides
3.2
Resistant to weathering; good all around properties; should not be used

above 190oF ( 88oC); used for pipes and pump impellers
Clear; excellent fatigue life; toughness and strength; high abrasion resistance;
excellent against solvents; poor with acid and bases; may be used from -40 to
220oF ( -40 to 104oC); uses include pipes, impellers, gears
Maximum continuous use temperature of 490oF (254oC); inert to most
chemicals; low coefficient of friction; low mechanical properties, but can be
reinforced with fibers; uses include nonlubricated bearings, pipes, gaskets,
and seals
Good toughness, impact resistance, and strength; abrasion resistant; resistant
to solvents and bases, but not acids; absorbs moisture, which leads to
swelling; temperature limit of 250oF (121oC); used for gears, bearings, and
machinery
Temperature limit restricted to below 200oF (93oC); good resistance to acid
and bases, but poor to solvents; moderate physical properties; inexpensive;
uses include pipes, ropes, and ducts
High toughness and dimensional stability, low creep; temperature use up to
270oF (132oC); transparent; resistant to acids and some solvents; uses include
electrical housings.
Excellent dimensional properties; high strength, toughness, and low creep;
good chemical resistance; maximum continuous operating temperatures of
320oF (160oC); used for tanks, sinks, and pump housings
Stress cracks when exposed to solvents; low temperature limit (130oF) (54oC)
Maximum temperature limit of 150oF (66oC); high strength; resistant to acids
and bases, but poor against solvents; used for pipes, tanks, valves, and
gaskets.
THERMOSETTERS
Epoxies
High strength, impact resistance, and toughness; maximum continuous

temperature limit is 250oF (121oC); resistant to most chemicals, except for
oxidizing agents; used for linings, protective coatings, adhesives and castings
Silicones
Maximum temperature up to 500oF (260oC); resistant to moisture; chemical

resistance is poor; used for gaskets, coatings, electrical and components
Page 1 - 34
Ureas
October 1999
Corrosion resistance poor; good toughness and wear resistance; maximum

temperature at continuous use is 150oF (66oC); used for pulleys, pump
impellers, and conveyor belts
Page 1 - 35
October 1999
Page 1 - 36
4.0
October 1999
REFRACTORIES
A refractory is a non-metallic substance that is resistant to prolonged exposure at high
temperatures without undergoing a reduction in its physical properties. Refractories are widely
used within various process equipment in the refining and petrochemical industry to protect the
vessel metallurgy from excessive heat, erosion and/or corrosion.
The type of refractory selected for installation will depend on several parameters including:
1.
2.
3.
4.
the design shell temperature

the corrosiveness/erosiveness of the process
the expected service life of the lining
minimizing heat loss from the process
Consideration must also be given to the economics and ease of installation.

4.1
MATERIAL CLASSIFICATION
Refractory materials can be classified several ways. In this section, the classification will be based
on the manufacturing method used to make the material and subdivided by their common
physical properties and/or chemical properties.
4.1.1
Castable and Gunning Mixes

Castable and gunning mixes are very similar types of materials and exhibit most of the properties
of standard concrete. Installation of castables requires the addition of water to a dry mix within a
mixer. After approximately 5 minutes of mixing, the material is removed from the mixer and
poured into place between forms. Gunned refractory mixes are applied by shooting a dry or
slightly dampened mix through a high pressure air hose and adding water to the material at the
hose's nozzle. The major differences between gunning and casting grade mixes are the types of
additives used in the product to adjust the setup time for the cement and to facilitate the
application of the gunned material. Therefore, castable and gunning mixes should not be
interchanged unless the manufacturer specifies it as both gunning and casting grade material.
Most of the gunning and casting mixes consist of calcium aluminate cement phases and fired
alumina-silica rich aggregates. The types of cements and aggregates are changed to obtain the
desired properties. The calcium aluminate cement enables a refractory to be used at higher
temperatures than portland cement based concrete which is composed of calcium silicate phases
and impurities. When mixed with water, the calcium/alumina cement becomes hydrated and
forms a gel which bonds the aggregates together. Before the material can be used at high
temperatures, the water in the concrete must be removed by a controlled curing and dryout
schedule. Improper removal of the water will cause damage to the lining and vessel along with
possible endangerment to human life. This is due to the high steam pressure generated within
the refractory by evaporating the water at high temperatures.
Lightweight refractory mixes are used within fired heaters where erosion is low and maximum
heat retention is required. Gunned, medium weight mixes are the most commonly used
refractory (based on tonnage) in refinery operations. They are used in FCCU reactors,
regenerators, transfer lines, cokers and other various large volume vessels with low erosion. A
new product line of extra high-strength, medium-weight material has been developed to meet
Page 1 - 37
October 1999
more severe process conditions in these large volume vessels. Standard-weight materials are
usually installed in secondary lines that have problems with erosion, but not coking. Heavyweight materials are used in the FCCU riser lines because of their abrasion resistance and
resistance to spalling by coke impregnation but they are usually vibrocast into place. The high
alumina castables are mainly used in sulfur recovery units (SRU) and gasification vessels.
4.1.2
Vibration Castable
Vibration castables are similar to castables in chemistry. However, by installing the wet mix with
vibrators attached to the vessel shell, the air bubbles trapped in the wet castable mix are driven
out of the material. A vibrocast mix will be more dense, less porous and stronger than its cast
counterpart. The vibration energy also allows the material to be placed with a much lower water
content than a castable. Because less water is used to set up the concrete, the type and the
amount of cement will vary between a castable and vibration castable mix. Special additives are
often used to obtain better flow properties for a vibrocast material versus a regular castable mix.
Therefore, castable and vibrocast mixes are not interchangeable and the proper mix needs to be
specified prior to installation. Also vibrocast material is not suited for gunning applications.
Advantages of using vibrocast refractory over gunning and castables mixes are:
1. less porosity is present, which inhibits coke penetration
2. less water is used during installation, which reduces shrinkage and increases the strength and
abrasion resistance of the material; both improving refractory life
Disadvantages of vibrocast material versus gunning and casting include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
increased difficulty to install

higher installation cost
higher shell temperature and vessel weight
increased difficulty in tearing out the material for replacement or repairs
Vibration casting may be done in place or the line can be vibrocast in a shop and assembled in
the field. Shop casting usually offers better quality control of material but increases the number of
field joints which are considered weak links in the line. Also, shop vibrocasting can be done in
advance of a Turnaround, thus reducing the amount of time necessary for installation and easing
scheduling problems. In-place vibration casting reduces the number of field joints but improperly
placed vibrators may cause damage to welds in the line. Most vibrocasting has been done in
FCCU riser lines. Hand held vibrators are often used in casting material into gasifiers and other
large diameter vessels.
4.1.3
Plastics
A plastic refractory is made at the manufacturers' plant and has a stiff consistency similar to
modeling clay. No water is added to the plastic. Usually, the plastic is installed with pneumatic
ramming guns onto hexmetal anchors or S-bar anchors. Plastics are mainly used in erosive
environments because of their abrasion resistance. Their insulating value is poor. The most
commonly used plastics are usually 85% or 90% alumina phos-bonded material. The 85%
alumina plastics are preferred over the 90% alumina plastic because they are cheaper and no
difference in abrasion resistance has been noted when installed side-by-side in cyclones.
Installation time with plastics can be 200% quicker than the material it often replaces (Resco AA22) and less material is thrown away when using plastic over AA-22. Plastics have been used
extensively in cyclones, air rings and parts of transfer lines.
Page 1 - 38
October 1999
The limitation for plastics is that they must be cured to 750oF (399oC) without being exposed to
steam. If the material does not reach this temperature, it will become soft. Also, care must be
taken during curing and dryout, especially with linings over 1 inch, to prevent laminations from
developing that will lead to spalling. Laboratory data also indicates that the higher the
temperature the plastic achieves during dryout, the better the abrasive resistance.
4.1.4
Ramming Mixes
Ramming mixes are prepared similarly to castables but have the consistency of a plastic after
mixing. The extra stiffness of the mix allows it to be worked into place with ramming guns or
hammers. Ramming mixes usually have higher cement content than castables and are often
difficult to work with. These mixes are not widely used in the refining or petrochemical industry.
4.1.5
Chemical Setting Mixes

Chemical setting mixes, such as AA-22, are materials that will harden due to the reaction of acids
or other chemicals with the cement in the refractory mix. The materials are similar to castables
except that water and a chemical must be mixed at the same time. The reaction is more sensitive
to air temperature than a hydraulic mix, making this type of material difficult to work with in the
field. AA-22 is the standard erosion resistant material for high wear areas in slide valves and
regenerator cyclones.
Acid resistant concrete is another type of chemical setting mix usually consisting of silica grains
with a potassium silicate binder phase. Acid is added to the mix forming a gel between the
aggregates. As with castables, proper curing and dryouts are necessary before the material
develops optimal strength. During application and cure out, acid fumes may be given off and
care must be taken during installation. The material can be applied by casting or gunning, but
gunning is sometimes difficult and laminations may form in the lining. An organic membrane is
recommended to be used behind the material to further protect the shell. Acid resistant linings
usually begin to deteriorate above a pH 9, thus the lining should not be exposed to caustic wash
or when the process has a high pH.
The most common areas for acid resistant material are within incinerators, sulfur recovery vessels
which are acidic, and knockout drums. In vessels that have varying pH between 5 and 9, a
haydite/lumnite castable should be used. The lining is not as acid resistant as the potassium
silicate bonded material but is more forgiving and easier to apply.
4.1.6
Fiber Linings
Fiber linings are most often used in process heaters. Two types of lining used are: 1) wallpaper
construction consisting of layers of 1 inch thick blanket, and 2) modules consisting of blocks of
folded 1 inch blankets. The blanket consists of interwoven alumina/silica glass fibers. The fiber
blankets are very good for insulation purposes but can be easily abraded. As with other refractory
linings, anchors must be used to hold the blankets onto the vessel shell. Fiber modules are often
installed in units that need thick insulation, operate at high temperatures, or in units burning
dirty fuels because their fabrication makes them more resistant to the process, faster to install,
and more economical than wallpaper construction. The modules consist of folded blankets with
metal rods through their base to hold them together and assist in installing the modules to the
shell. During fabrication, the folded blankets are compressed which enables better wear than the
wallpaper design. Fiber boards are denser compressed fibers in a matrix. The boards are often
used in front of the blankets for abrasion protection. These types of linings are generally less
robust than conventional refractory linings and do not give good long-term performance in
firebox conditions. There are also health and safety concerns with fiber lined applications.
Page 1 - 39
October 1999
Fiber ropes, gaskets and seals have been used in various applications for expansion gaps and as
replacements for asbestos material. The gaskets and ropes are made with similar fibers, as the
blankets, but are woven together for additional strength.
4.1.7
Bricks/Formed Shapes
Bricks and formed shapes are made at the manufacturers' plant and sent to the site for
installation. The bricks are fired at high temperatures, giving them a ceramic bond instead of a
cement bond typically found in castables. Therefore, bricks tend to be more resistant to acids and
other chemicals than castables of similar chemistry. Brick installation usually takes more time than
castables and relies on mortar between the bricks to maintain the integrity of the lining. High
alumina bricks are often used in sulfur recovery units and hydrogen generation units, whereas
super-duty insulating bricks are more readily used in stacks coming off incinerators and heaters.
In most applications, low iron content in the brick is required to prevent chemical attack of the
brick by CO, CO2, and H2S04
Formed shapes are used in burner outlets of heaters and in areas of high abrasion such as air ring
nozzles. During installation, mortar is used between the bricks and formed shapes to keep gas
from moving to the shell. If the wrong mortar is used, the bricks may become loose or be
chemically attacked by the mortar.
4.2
MATERIAL SPECIFICATIONS
SPECIFICATIONS
When refractories are used, the type of material needs to be stated along with the method of
installation. Once the type of refractory is chosen, the material requested should meet minimal
specifications.
4.2.1 Chemical Composition

The chemical composition of a refractory is important for determining:
1. the maximum operating temperature
2. the corrosion resistance of the refractory to the operating environment
3. the resistance to thermal cycling
The composition of the refractory will be a function of the type of aggregates and cement
binders. The aggregates are typically alumina silicates and the binder is normally calcium
aluminates. Therefore, an increase in calcium content of the product generally corresponds to an
increase in the cement content or to the use of a lower melting, calcium aluminate cement.
Besides melting at lower temperatures, calcium rich cements do not offer good protection
against acid attack. High alkali contents in a cement reduce the quality of the refractory and limit
the temperature at which the refractory should be used. Also, a high alkali content may indicate
that additives have been mixed with the cement to adjust the setting time which should not be
done. In C02/CO rich environments, low iron refractories are specified to prevent the material
from crumbling because of the chemical reaction between iron and CO2/CO. High alumina
refractories are specified for units operating above 2200oF (1204oC) and in units with a H2 rich
atmosphere (the H2 will cause silica to vaporize).
4.2.2
Bulk Density
The bulk density of the material is needed for design purposes to assure proper loading of the
vessel or line. Generally, an increase in the density of the product will increase the strength,
thermal conductivity and abrasion resistance of the material.
Page 1 - 40
October 1999
4.2.3
Cold Crushing
The cold crushing strength becomes important in coking environments, in areas exposed to
heavy vibrations and for general mechanical stability of the lining. Higher strength material
usually lasts longer but may be more difficult to remove, have high thermal conductivity and may
undergo thermal shock compared to standard strength material.
4.2.4
Permanent Liner Change

During curing and dryout, the refractory will undergo changes due to dehydration. Normally, the
material shrinks causing cracking in the concrete. Excessive shrinkage can cause large cracks, pull
the material away from the shell, and leave gaps between different layers of refractories. Any of
these problems could lead to hot spots or poor lining performance.
4.2.5
Thermal Conductivity
The amount of heat loss from a process should be kept minimal. Therefore, materials should be
chosen with the lowest thermal conductivity to reduce heat loss. Thermal conductivity is
important in most areas except for internally lined systems such as cyclones. Different refractory
suppliers measure thermal conductivity in various ways which can produce very dissimilar results.
When comparing one refractory with another, care should be taken to ensure an accurate
comparison.
4.2.6
Abrasion Resistant
Erosion loss is important in vessels that have impingement of particles, such as catalyst, against
the side of the unit. For high wear areas, the abrasion resistance of the material is usually the
most critical parameter.
4.2.7
Temperature
Temperature limits are normally not a concern for many applications in refineries because of the
low operating temperatures. However, in sulfur recovery units, where heaters and gasifiers can
operate over 2000oF (1093oC), temperature limits are important. Most materials have a
maximum use temperature several hundred degrees lower than the melting point of the material.
However, at this temperature and under loads, the material may shrink and densify or undergo
creep, causing the lining to fail.
4.2.8
Porosity
Porosity is a concern in environments that will attack refractories such as coke, sulfur or slag. With
low porosity materials, the penetration of the attack is reduced and refractory life is increased.
However, low porosity materials are more sensitive to thermal shock, steam spalling at cure-out
and have higher thermal conductivities.
Page 1 - 41
Table 1-7
October 1999
GENERAL TYPES OF REFRACTORY MATERIAL FOR CHEMICAL PROCESS INDUSTRY (CPI) USE
NOMINAL
DENSITY
COMP.
STRENGTH
psi
COMMENTS
CASTABLES
Erosion Resistant
120-180
5000-15000
For cyclones and catalyst lines, need erosions resistance

(ASTM C-704) of 10 cc or less.
Dense High Strength
120-130
3000-6000
For high strength vessel and duct lining
Semi Insulating (one-shot)
75-95
1000-3000
For general vessel, stack and duct lining
Insulating
50-80
500-2000
For furnace and boiler linings and as back-up lining
Chemical Bond Mortars
120-180
1000-4000
Both alumino-phosphate and silicate bonded materials are

used for patching and rebuilding
120-180
1000-6000
Frequently have good erosion resistance used for patching

and rebuilding. Heat sets usually not used because of low
temperature in refining and chemical process industry
Insulating Fire (IFB)
30-80
100-1000
Used in furnaces and as back-up lining
Dense Firebrick
130-200
4000-12000
Available as working lining in high abrasion areas.
CERAMIC FIBER
4-24
--
Available in blanket, module and spray-on form.
PLASTICS
Chemical Bond
BRICK
Table 1-8 SELECTION OF REFRACTORIES FOR REFINERY USAGE

UNIT
CONDITIONS
REFRACTORY TYPE
FCCU vessels
1000-1400oF (538-760oC), mild erosion

oxidizing or reducing atmospheres
One-shot lining in independent anchors.
Cyclones,
catalyst transfer lines
and slide valves
1000-1400oF (538-760oC), extreme erosion
Special erosion-resistant castables (consult

refractory manufacturer.)
Naphtha Reformers
1000oF (538oC), low to moderate erosion,

high-hydrogen atmospheres
Insulating concrete (low iron) protected by

stainless steel shroud or layer of dense low-iron
concrete.
H2 producing units
2000-3000oF (1093-1649oC), high-hydrogen

atmospheres
Super-duty brick or castable of low silica content

(consult refractory manufacturer.)
Process furnaces, stills

and boilers
1800-2400oF (982-1316oC), oxidizing

atmospheres, some mechanical or thermal
spalling
Side walls and roof may be of insulating or oneshot concrete or of insulating firebrick; burner and
flame-impingement walls may be of super-duty
plastic, brick or high-strength refractory concrete;
floors may be of dense castable or fire-clay brick.
Stacks and breechings
600-1500oF (316-816oC), mild erosion, some

mechanical or thermal spalling
One-shot linings; areas subject to erosion or

thermal spalling can be faced with an aluminophosphate-based refractory.
Incinerators
2000-2800oF (1093-1538oC), ash attack,

mechanical or thermal spalling
Super-duty brick, plastic
Page 1 - 42
4.3
October 1999
MATERIAL TESTING
To assure that the proper material is being used for a given application, material testing needs to
be done to prequalify the material. Manufacturers generally forego extensive testing of their
material after manufacturing. Therefore, many refining companies have specified testing the
refractory before accepting the material. Material which fails these tests is often sent to a buyer
who does not have specifications or who does not test the material.
The material testing is performed by removing a sample of refractory from each pallet or at a set
interval and preparing the material similar to field installation. The samples are made according
to standard ASTM methods and are tested for cold crushing, density and permanent linear
change as a minimum. Abrasion testing is specified for erosive resistant material. Materials not
passing any one of the tests are retested. If the average of the two tests is still below specification,
the material should be rejected.
Most refractory mixes have a recommended shelf life of approximately six months. After this
time, the cement in the mix will begin to deteriorate, especially in humid conditions. Therefore,
any material stored more than 2 months after manufacturing or not kept in a protective
enclosure should be retested prior to use. For large turnarounds, the ordering of the material
should be planned in advance so that the manufacturer can deliver the material on-site at a given
date to minimize storage time.
Testing is also required during application of the material to:
1. assure the material was installed correctly
2. to assist in developing the root cause should the lining fail
If any of the field test samples fail during installation testing, core drilling and testing of the core
may be required to assure the line is in good condition. Hammer testing and visual inspection of
the liner should also be done if the unit is not immediately placed into service after dry-out or
when a prefabricated line/vessel is received at the plant.
4.4
DESIGN
The design of a refractory lining is dependent on the process conditions (temperature,
atmosphere, velocity, particulates in the gas, etc.), vessel support structures, desirable shell
temperature and length of downtime. For most applications, monolithic linings are easier to
install and maintain than a two component lining.
The main criteria for a design is to keep as much heat in the process as possible without
destroying the refractory lining through erosion/corrosion or by exerting high stresses within the
lining. High stresses can be caused by improper anchor placement, thermal cycling and improper
expansion joints. Usually the lowest temperature for design is approximately 50oF (10oC) above
dew point at the shell refractory interface to prevent corrosion of the shell. Temperature profiles
for the lowest temperature with maximum wind and highest temperature with no wind should
be calculated to assure the lining will meet design criteria for the process or the metallurgy.
Typically, materials with higher strengths and abrasion resistance are the poorest in insulating
value. Denser materials are more thermal shock sensitive but tend to last better in heavy coking
environments. Before FCC riser cracking was developed, most of the riser lines had either a
medium weight material or two component lining. Heavy coking during riser cracking forced
refineries to heavy weight material, adding an extra 10 tons to the support springs and calling for
support calculations.
Page 1 - 43
4.5
October 1999
ANCHORING SYSTEMS
SYSTEMS AND STEEL FIBERS
Most refractories need to be installed on anchoring systems. The anchors hold the material to the
shell after cracks have developed during dryout (hairline cracking is typically found after dryouts
of many linings) and normal operations. Even the loss of a few anchors may lead to the
development of a hot spot.
Steel fibers are also added to the refractory to hold gunned and cast material in place after small
cracks develop. Fibers should not be used in CO rich environments. The recommended lengths
for fibers are 3/4" for gunning applications and 1" for casting applications. Metallurgy should be
Type 304 stainless steel melt extracted fibers. Extruded fibers are not used because they can
cause safety problems during inspection since they do not bend downwards. Fibers made from
Type 410 oxidize and become embrittled more rapidly than Type 304.
The most common problem with the anchors is poor welding. Either incomplete welds are done
or poor penetration is obtained. The frequency of the problems are usually increased using
automatic stud welding. Every anchor should be visually inspected and hammer tested to make
sure the weld is properly done.
For most gunned and cast linings, wavy 'v' or 'y' anchors are recommended. Steerhorns should
not be used because they have a tendency to cause a shear plane to form at the steerhorn.
Several instances have been recorded where large sheets of material have fallen off. To reduce
chances of shear planes with the 'v' and 'y' anchors, every other anchor should be rotated 90
degrees. The typical layout for these anchors is a diamond pattern.
Hexmetal is used for 1 inch thick liners in cyclones, air rings, dragon heads and other high
abrasion areas. Poor welding or improper tie down of the hexmetal end often causes the loss of
refractory. In cases of heavy vibration and movement of the metal, the crotch of every biscuit
should be welded to the shell. Hexmetal is difficult to install on small diameter areas or in small
confined spaces even when flexible hexmetal is used. In these areas, S-bar anchors may be used.
S-bar anchors are also recommended for areas that undergo large movements from thermal
expansions or for repairing small areas of damaged hexmetal. The S-bars are not recommended
for thick lining because they can cause difficulties during installation (the anchors are difficult to
gun around because of a shadowing affect).
For 2" thick gunned linings, 1:2:4 (Haydite-Lumnite-Vermiculite) crimped anchors and wire mesh
may be used. The wire provides additional strength to the lining when using small wavy v or y
anchors. The Plibrico Taco anchor system has been used with services in several FCC locations
where hexsteel and S-bars have failed.
4.6
INSTALLATION
Even if the best material and design are used for the refractory lining, the lining will give poor
service if the installation is performed incorrectly. Testing and inspection during installation can
reduce problems in the field, but the refractory lining may have to be torn out resulting in lost
money and time.
To provide better installation, each individual installer should be pre-qualified for the job. In
many instances, the contractor may use inexperienced people to complete the jobs. To help
alleviate this problem, the API Task Force for Refractories is developing a certification system so
Page 1 - 44
October 1999
individuals will not have to be qualified on every job. During any given job, some of the
specifications may be deemed to be unrealistic, time consuming or unnecessary. Before waving
the specifications, possible problem areas should be discussed. The main problems to be aware of
during installation are:
1. Improper water content of the mix; too little or too much water will reduce the physical
properties of the material or cause installation problems in adhering the refractory to the shell
2. Improper mix time which allows poor material to be installed
3. Failure of anchors due to poor welding
4. Laminations in gunned material because of poor installers
5. Poor lining because the installer did not have the proper equipment on site
Because most facilities lack qualified inspectors or do not have enough inspectors to cover the
job, specialist third party inspection services are sometimes recommended. The inspection
services and testing of the material will add approximately 10% to the final cost of the job.
However, savings can be quickly realized by prolonging refractory life and the avoidance of
unscheduled shutdowns if in-house expertise is not available. Refiners will tend to use third party
inspectors with whom they have had good experience. Third party inspectors are similar to
installers - some are good; some are not so good.
4.7
CURING AND DRYOUT

DRYOUT
As mentioned previously, improper curing and dryout will damage the lining. During curing, an
exothermic reaction occurs causing heat to be released from the concrete. If the top of the
concrete dries out too quickly, thermo-mechanical stresses in the lining could cause excessive
cracking of the material. To alleviate this problem, curing compounds are specified for castable
and gunning installation. As with portland cement based concrete, the strength of a refractory
will develop over time. However, the refractory cannot be used at elevated temperatures until the
water in the material is driven off as steam.
Controlled dryouts are scheduled to remove the water without causing pressure buildup in the
material by the steam. Steam spalling is most likely to occur with dense, low porosity material.
Companies specializing in dryout procedures are often contracted to do the work following large
turnarounds. The contracted dryout companies will place gas forced air heaters throughout the
vessel along with thermocouples to monitor the dryout.
The dryout rate of a refractory can be increased by using burnout fibers. The fibers are composed
of organic materials which vaporize at low temperatures, leaving small interconnecting channels
from which steam can escape. The fibers are not often used because they lower the properties of
the refractory and can increase the amount of coking within the refractory.
Page 1 - 45
October 1999
Page 1 - 46

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SECTION 1

CALTEX REFINERY MATERIALS MANUAL

CARBON STEEL ............................................................................................................................1

FUNDAMENTALS OF COATING TECHNOLOGY ..........................................................................11

2.1.3 Methods Of Cure .................................................................................................................15

CALTEX REFINERY MATERIALS MANUAL

2.2.7 Vinyl Paints.........................................................................................................................19

3.1 THERMOPLASTICS .........................................................................................................................34

MATERIAL CLASSIFICATION .......................................................................................................37

CALTEX REFINERY MATERIALS MANUAL

4.2.2 Bulk Density........................................................................................................................40

CALTEX REFINERY MATERIALS MANUAL

CALTEX REFINERY MATERIALS MANUAL

LOW ALLOY (CARBON - 0.5MO)

LOW ALLOY (CR-MO ALLOYS) (1.25CR-0.5MO - 9CR-1MO)

LOW ALLOY (AISI 4140, 4340)

CALTEX REFINERY MATERIALS MANUAL

LOW ALLOY (2.5NI,

CALTEX REFINERY MATERIALS MANUAL

20Cb3 (Alloy 20)

CALTEX REFINERY MATERIALS MANUAL

CALTEX REFINERY MATERIALS MANUAL

Copper-Nickel Alloys (70-30 and 90-10)

1.8.5 Aluminum Bronze

CALTEX REFINERY MATERIALS MANUAL

HARD FACING ALLOYS (STELLITE)

CALTEX REFINERY MATERIALS MANUAL

Low Temperature Alloy Steels

Stainless Steel Ferritic/Martensitic

0.5 Ti, 0.08C

CALTEX REFINERY MATERIALS MANUAL

Nickel Welding Electrodes/Wire

7Mn, 1Ti, 2Cb

AL base, 0.1Cu, 1.25Mn, 0.6Si

2.5C, 30Cr, 12W, 54Co

1C, 29 Cr, 4W, 66Co

Hard Facing Alloys

0.8C, 21Cr, 17Ni, 10W, 44Co, 3Si, 3.25B

CALTEX REFINERY MATERIALS MANUAL

Table 1-1b COMMON ASTM SPECIFICATIONS FOR FREQUENTLY USED ALLOYS

Low Temperature Alloy Steels

CALTEX REFINERY MATERIALS MANUAL

Table 1-1b COMMON ASTM SPECIFICATIONS FOR FREQUENTLY USED ALLOYS

CALTEX REFINERY MATERIALS MANUAL

FUNDAMENTALS OF COATING TECHNOLOGY

CALTEX REFINERY MATERIALS MANUAL

Paints vs. Coatings.

Coating System Composition

TOPCOAT: Protects the primer from the environment.

2.1.2.1 The Pigment

Laminar pigments reduce permeability, and help the binder

Metallic zinc dust provides galvanic protection by combining with oxygen

A large number of pigments exert a chemical physical effect which serves

CALTEX REFINERY MATERIALS MANUAL

aromatic hydrocarbons (toluene, xylene, benzene)

CALTEX REFINERY MATERIALS MANUAL

CALTEX REFINERY MATERIALS MANUAL

CALTEX REFINERY MATERIALS MANUAL

Table 1-2 - CLASSIFICATION

OF COATINGS BY METHOD OF CURE

water soluble coatings "emulsion" coatings

silicone (crosslinked with oil material)

CALTEX REFINERY MATERIALS MANUAL

OVERCOATING TIMES OF SELECTED PAINTS