Fortress Japanese Castles 1540-1640 Sttqr MenTurnbull - Illustrated by Peter DennisContents Introduction bpaese ater rior cont Chronology Design and development of the Japanese castle ‘The fe ann cdr “The gels ona “The moditon of one Th entopet ot ove beeps er Rare Thefts Elements and features of the Japanese castle Te orl yout The ce walle nd» Ce omar The te erp Dung eT once troa Mn on earn rapa bonbarme The living site Daly ie nthe itn pesca The ate zn a penstine +The ca a ce "he preparation lor wa Food and was Peleg preset The operational history of Japanese castles tty yn» Ses yeti epro+ pra ie aero ne Aftermath Japanese castles today Bibliography and further reading Glossary Index 21 40 49 55Tisch ois resped men te Simecde tera ‘Scorer overs oe ripen Introduction Japanese castles a8 we sce them today are not only final products of a long ‘proces of mltry evolution, bu also evidence of military evolution Inthe later half ofthe 16s century Japanese warlare was transformed. Ie changed ftom an activity characterised by the use of loosely organised troops wielding bows and arows and defending largely wooden fortifications, to one that tnvolved welllsciplined Infantry unit armed with guns fighting from castles of stone, The similarities tothe military revoition that was taking place in Europe at the same time are striking, Dut until the beginning of this period ‘thre had been no cultural contact between Japan and Europe. ‘Contact was made when a Portuguese sip was tecked on the Japanese coast in 1843, and the two cultures soon began to realise how thelr widely Sepurated worlds had been evolving in roughly similar ways. Hoth were experiencing warfare on a lager scale than ever before, which required the development of stiong intemal army organisation and good discipline, and both were seeing a move towards a preference for fighting an foot. Yet there were also some fascinating differences, atthe same time that the European knight was giving up his lance for the pistol, the mounted samural was abandoning his bow fora spear. TS However, it isn the field of cates and fortifications that both similarities and differences ae found in the greatest abundance. Italian visitors to Oda Nobunaga's castle of Azuchi in 1579 compared. favourably. with any contemporary European fortress, and remarked particularly an the richness of the decorations and the strength of the stone walls As none of these carly visitors were miltary men, rather merchants or priests, they cannot be expected to have commented upon Japanese castes from a postion of technical knowledge, but fs abundantly clear fom the impression given to them by the walls of Azuch, Osaka and Edo, all of which were enthusiastically described in contemporary Jest wings, that they were making comparisons With existing structures in Spain or fay So what were they actually comparing the Japanese cates ta? By the smid-16th century the huge sloping stone walls that surrounds Verona Sienna for Rome had become a recognised and vital part of the townseape of & succesful city. They were the defining features of the trace Halieme, the fortification style characterised by the use of the angle bastion, which was designed for artery warfare and was the most important architectural Snnovaton since the arch. The walls of fortresses such at Osaka certainly had much in common with the European system, but what the vistors Gi not Know was that these curiously similar structures had a completely ferent developmental history, were built in a completely diferent way, and were ‘designed to withstand attacks of a completely diferent nature. The pages that follow will offer a detailed discession on these points, all of which went towards making the Japanese castle into a unigue form of defensive architecture that acknowledged is own culture and tradition, yet responded imaginatively to changing conaltions of warfare. Like those #9 Contemporary Europe, Japanese castles experienced conflict on huge scale Wher al the theory bend them was tested to destruction in halla centuty of Here civil wa Japanese castles in their historical context By the time that the fst stone walls began to appear around Japanese castes, an innovation that can be seen from about 1550 onwards, Japan ad alzexdy experienced intermittent bouts of cil war for almost 1,000 years The key 0 ‘understanding the reasons for such contlcts, and the nature of the Japanese castles that arose in response to them, involves an appreciation of Japan's physleal Isolation ffom continental Asia. This protacted her from some Sanger, so that while China and Korea were being ravaged by the Mongol hho in the 13th century, ie was comparatively peaceful in Japan, Attempts to lnvade Japan were repulsed in 1274 and 1281, but this splenéid isolation also meant that Japan could not expand into her neighbour’ teritorles to acquire more culiable land, something that Japan was desperately short of A the strugle for land gree, the possession of military force was the best guarantor of securing new lands’ and of then defending them against ‘apacious neighbours, The establishment of the rule of the shogun (miltary dictator) after the tslumph of the Minamoto family in the Gempel Wars of 1180-85 proviged some measure of stability amid the vals, but invading Mongols, rebellious “emperor (who rorented the pursly ceremonial role forced pom thei red fotfice by the shagun), family leaders whose wealth rivaled that of the shogun, peasant revolts and fierce religious fanatics all played thelr par in disrupting the theoretical calm, In 1467 the Onin Wat, so called from the mengo (year period) in which it Began, broke out between fo rival samurai clans. Kyoto the Japanese capital, was laid waste and among the smouldering ruins of places and temples lay the blackened remain of shogunal prestige. Hom this time on any centalised authority that was left counted for lite aginst the naked miltary might ofthe ape (great ames) asthe rival warlords termed‘themselves. The next century and a lf is known as the Sengoku fda (The Warring States Period), which lasted until Japan was reunifed under the ‘Tokugawa, a process that culminated in the siege of Osaka in 1615, Some of the sengoku daimyé had aristocratic backgrounds; others were the sons of tradesmen. Some acknowledged centuries of military tradition and service to the shogun, other lemed rapidly how to swell the number oftheir armies by recruiting peasants as ambitious for advancement as they were themselves. Some ruled thei teritories from graceful mansions set among ancestral ice feds, but the determined ones bul ast “The castles of the early Sengoku Period locked very different fom the graceful fortresses of later yeas. Most were [ust hastlly constructed stockades (nthe tops of mountains, Linked by paths and passes and looking down on vital roads. As time went by the stronger da absorbed thelr weaker enemies and the stength oftheir fortified bases grew to be seen asa vital element in this proces. S0 single stockades became fortiied complexes of wooden stockade that were combined across scuipted hillsides. Then stone was added, and stout gatehouses, towers and keeps began to arise. At the same time the “unexpected contact with Butope introduced firearms to Japan, so instead of sing only ranks of archers, batlefelds bean to witness anks of arquebusies. The samural, who had traditionally been a mounted archer, had already adopted the spear to allow him to take the fght to dlsmounted missle troops [Now he began to dismount from his horse to fight beside the ahigam, the lower-class foot soldiers in & coordinated battle plan. This wae the military context thats the birth ofthe classi form of the Japanse castle, a syle that combined beauty with tength, and was to play vital ole in Japanese history. Chronology 104 Forti of inte aprred Lar recoded at of cobows sg in pan Koniod Mage defends anata of Aaa Siege of marin of Chay. Gunwarbegne nin War econ Hoje capere Oénwara Siege offods deal f Europeans in an Nig ba of Karagoe Arges ed Rj Sage Fr bl of Kanaan Siege of Mura ~ voles of rushes tad Frat ege of Mo eee nt Deven of Moun el by Nobumg, Death of Tad Sting Sege of Nphina Sege ane bate of Naghino Baling of Archi cde Siege of ver complex of hana Hon Balding of Parla ae Dent of Usp Kvsin Siege of Surrender far Hong Siege ofTotor by sarton order of Oh Nebuags Bate of Kor and Nephi ~eardhwors used Busing of Ona cant Iain of Kuss Sword Hone Fil sige of Odean Sege of ance ~unfeton of pn conte Festination of Korea [ease wera fom Kore Second inaon of Korea Death of Tyo: Heo Koren War nde Bre of Skipara “ogiva les Becomes tenn ‘Warer Cangaig sf Ona, Death fT las‘he ge Oxia cable by “yt eos 386.5 Coat beeen sg ‘oardaragenr of wan Sete Sng Send {orm ecriocorers Design and development of the Japanese castle The first Japanese castles The nate ofthe ist Japinese castes lustre nother factor that arose fom Japan's solution fom continental Ata the development of avery dierent tradition of defensive architecture from that of China and Kore. The bigest carton ay inthe alot total absence trom Japan of he walled town, which twos where the wealh of Ancient China was concentated ‘with no Batbaan hordes to far on the lands, the theat to Japan came minty fom interna eels who tend to eablh themselves in pel tiltiaysrongptns, As the Japenese andape is predominantly wooded ad ‘mountains, is not suring to find these ovo factors combined in the design of mot of apn’ catest fortes. Amulttudeof hilt ses povided both the defensive topography and the Bulg mates that were needed $rengthen ther neta postions, The rest was the development of sie of ante known a the juno mountain cas), which wat to continue Deng but in remote aes tong fer the ntodtion of sone castes du orton convenience and aalhty For the cates jomaia (and for simple fortesses right throughout the period) ite was done to ater the overall shape ofthe existing mountain ot Hil other than sipping the summit of enough te cover to provide building terials and to allo god fel of view andar of re: The slopes of he Steply slded hil or edge would be alowed to feta thei foreted cover 1D Prevent soll erosion and to provde another defensive barr, Fnm fotpahs frou be constracted Inking lfrent peaks toate, thus producing 2 Fumes complex that consisted simpy Of 8 numberof socked hilt Joined 0 each other here ae several Ulstaons of amas cases in the picture sls of campaigns and bates fought during the Laer Helan Perio, fom about AD 980" onwards. In all cases the landscape has been used intelligently and economically. This leads to numerous ‘atiations of yuamasiro depending on location, woth great diferences between those located in mountainous areas and these builtin tiands surrounded by rivers and flooded rice fel, where the castle would be refered t0 a8 a hivairo (pain castle. A mixture of the two styles was known as hiajumajivo (a castle on ‘mountain and plain). On. the excavated haltops there would be but quite Intricate arrangements of wooden palisaes, decorated wooden towers, gateways and. domestic Dulldings. The solid wooden walls of the pallsades were pleced with arow sls, and in Some cases rocks were slung by ropes through holes. Inthe event af an attack the rope would be cut, allowing the rocks to fall against fan enemy. Towers were enclosed at the top ‘with wooden walls or portable wooden shields, and ffom these vantage points archers fired Tongbows and crossbows, or simply. threw down stones, the only other missile weapons avalable. Domestic buildings thatched. ith rice straw would also be but fom wood, and acted as quarter forthe gatsson, reception and command areas for the gonetal, as well as Stables and stores, The main defensive purpose of the pamashiro ves to restrict a hostile forces acces to an area and also to keep his forces under surveillance. Communication between the biltop redoubes was ‘vital so tha oops could be moved along the mountain paths from one sector to anather as required, Aso, ia lower section of the jamashiro complex was los, then the overall design was supposed to permit the gation to launch & counterattack with ease, ofa the very leas slate the now hostile potion of ‘the eastle With no stout walls like these round Chinese cities to batter down, the Japanese had no need of slege catapults, for which quite a science existed ‘in China, Instead any siege machines used, such as large crossbows, tended to be employed in an anti-personnel role prior to an infantry assault, Thus we read ofthe use of oyu’ rossbows) in northern Japan thatthe arrows ell Hke rain, klling hundreds of samurai and eausing fies, but not that they broke down any walls. This was the syle of Japanese castle that played such vital role inthe Gempel Was of 1180-5. The sengoku yamashiro The above deseription ofa fly rudimentary wooden fortress on top ofa hi continued to apply for many yeas, anda dainyds smaller ovtposts during the Sengoku Period would have resembled it almost exactly. But time went by many changes occured. The fst was a moe creative use of he natural slopes ‘forded by the wooded hillides the forest cover war sped sway almost tently and the gaps between adjacent ridges were further excavated 0 ake tees. In suche way a oughly concent sees of mountain peaks could be Convered into a numberof natual inner and outer bailey, each overlooking the one below it, using not only the tops of the hills but diferent Intermediate levels also. As this techie developed, the tops of successive baileys were leveled or even enhanced fo create intetiocking elds of fie By shaping the mountainside. The resule was a series of sculpted earth bastions reminiscent ofthe ‘Old Dutch’ developed inthe Netherlands at roughly the ‘A del tom the pire srl of ‘3s Goren War showing the is beenseaces by arrow Rocke rey fo os ang y ropes ‘ro ler nthe theen srenghened by having hrough them a ih angles «> been diverted inc gulls to create to alow“The parcel ert be nosed (sey tu win ahr fet eae was epics by the Sire wah ane Sop reforenats tthe a same time, but with two important diferences. Firstly, the Dutch fortifications were built on At and low-lying surfaces and, secondly, they were created by 24ing to the landscape rather than removing considerable sections of Ht Some Ingenious sculpted forms were crested in Japan, Ditches were strengthened by having vertical cross pices built through them at right anges 10 the inner walls, Neat perpendicular sections were made more dramatic by having long ‘Channels cut out of them, dawn which rocks could be rolled. Mountain steams were diverted into gullies to create moats, and entrances to gateways Were offset to allow an enemy's approach to be covered completely. [At the same time more elaborate walls and buildings were raised and in place of the loose wooden palisades of the old days more substantial Surrounding walls were built using a form of wattle and daub construction. Stout vertical wooden posts were driven ino the earth at si-foot intervals with ‘bamboo poles placed between them and bundles of bamboo, lashed together ‘with rope, asthe core The resulting structures were plastered with a mixture of red clay and crushed rock, and were often whitewashed, giving a Japanese ‘asl ts characteristic appearance. Arrow ports were cut at regular intervals. To keep weather damage 10 a minimum the walls were topped with sloping thatch, wooden shingles, or even tes, In many cases the walls were supported ‘on the inside by 2 series of horizontal and vertical timbers, and at times of attack planks wet laid across them to provide platforms from which guns or bows could be fted over the walls. Similar plationms could also be ftted to gates The introduction of stone “The great weaknes ofthe sengokujumashit model was the inherent instability ofthe natural foundations created from a sculpted hillside, particularly where the forest cover had been removed, Thee storeys was the absolute maximum that could be risked for an enclosed tower with rooms, and outlook towers tended tobe mere skeletal structures. To bind the soil on exposed section grass was allowed to grow, but the torrential rain of Japan took a heavy toll of foundations and structures alike. Even if thete were no typhoons, earthquakes for seges to create addtional havoc, normal wear an tear demanded thatthe plastered walls be routinely repaired a least every five years, If stronger, and therefore heavier, structures such 35 eps and gatchouses were to be added, then something more substantial than a grassy bank was needed asa castle base, and the solution to the problem was to provide the Japanese caste With its most enduring visual features. These were the great stone bases, 3 fundamental design element that can be identied in even the most ruined caste site. So strong were these creations thatthe foundation walls ofthe castle of Naha in Okinawa was able to withstand a bombardment by the US Navy in 19451 ‘Toa large extent ts these tone ses that ae the essence of Japanese caste ‘of the Sengoks Period, because many never had elegant tomer keeps sch as those at Himeji and Hikone, raised above them, simple wooden buldings and plastered walls were often enough to augment the stone bass Is also wis thes Stone bases, ather than any superstructure, that comparisons can be made with the European bastions ofthe ellen. However, 3s has alteady een sated, the evolution of the Japanese form was very diferent ffom that of Europe, ‘specially with regard to constracton techniques European bastion ws but ftom scratch, ether completely from stone or from earth (wheter the earth was «lad in stone or brick revetments or not, while a Japanese one tended to be caved as inthe description above and then clad in stone, The result in elther case was the same ~an immensely thick defensive wal, Te must not, however, be thought that the new style of stone castle semmeciatly supplant the salar modale. Apart fom financal considerations there was also the added complication that few dalnpd relied on one ease alone and instead maintained networks of ‘satellite’ castles. The ental castle Jn daimyo tertory was called te honjé (matin caste, which was supported by a numberof sh satelite castles). In some cass these shjd would operate Independently of the hon, and in the fet of the Hojo family, for example they were used for administering occupied teritories. Shi were invariably commanded by members of the dain own family oe his most rusted hereditary reainers. Some shld would be miniature Versions of the howd, Ice ch tone te tt dees he Iipomoe cess ame om tg Uena show ne rama cre ebe otne te eran, io the most The ba ae (aor he cde For pregae Th singed ed of ‘he heap (ten 1597) ad an Hitcmots a de france Height above ground: 9.78m Kakegawa castle, 1610 [Avwsleome tend hatin recent years been 4 ae Japanese heey Using the correct mater and based on the plan ha he day was required by law to keep This plate of the custandng example provided by Kakegwa east Total Noor space: 30496?eed Omen oT en of ‘eto egal pe ok Etta nde ctr eppe™ ore are tbo ak node ‘jl wha cera coe ‘eh he se of eam demonstrating a similar use of stone bases and wooden towers, but elated to them would be another network of sub-stelite castes, which would probably be ‘olsyle sengatyamasio with sculpted hilsides and plastered walls, but ile tise in the way of elaboration. Finally, these sub-satellites would themselves be supported by small stockade fortresses indlstingulsable from the time-honoured umashiro, These ile castles were not necesafly pemmanently garrisoned, but weapons would be stored there and part time soldiers would take control fon declaration of an emergency situation. The Hoj's Gongenyama castle, for ‘example, had a strength of 252 men, so they were more than just lookout post. ‘As a revit of the satelite system, therefore, even as late as the 15905, it ‘was possible to see examples fom all the diferent periods of Japanese castle ‘development stl in use. The development of the tower keep ‘The inteducton of stone a 2 bulding materal not only combsted the roblem of soll erosion and weather mage i aso allowed cae designers fate new stucurcs that would previously have been thought imposible Icing to the Japanese castle 8 we know it ody. Stone case base sloped dramatically outwards, 8 did European alr batons, but the geomet teasoning behind them was very ferent. The horizontal geometry of 3 Eropean bastion was primatly concemed with dsovering the del angle fot providing covering fve with no blind spots, and its weal geometry was signed to kept a minimum the amount of soll hat would spl ot ater, bombardment hs afordnga ramp othe enemy), and to provide silent angle to mae sealing ladders impossibly long, The Japanese considerations were more ones of strength, both to hold back the inner cote (which In the {ise of a stone castle ona fat surface, such as much of Oraka case had 0 be aricialy created) and to take the weight of Keep. There wat also the Constant threat of earthquakes, whlch occ frequently in Japan, and it was found that long and geetly sloping stone walls absorbed earthquake shocks very well “The foremost exponents of stone base constriction were the masons of nou in Omi Province. They had specialised for centri im the bulling of Stone bases for temple bulings and pagodas, and their clever ise of trigonometry revolutionised japanese cate design, Through the use of masive Shaped stones the base could nat only be sloped, But could also e given Curve. The ensuted that the stress could be drcted very accurately to give the sold foundation tat was sought. The Anow masons appeat fo have come on to the scene in 1577, by which tine several tomer Kesha already bees ‘iperimented with. The daimyo Matsunaga Hise sceited with he st tower keep at his castle of Tamon in 1367, Int nothing of it has survived. Maruoka’skep as bl 1576 and survived almost sac wnt 1948 when its leveled by an earthquake, but has since been reconstriced using the onginal materials. The oldest orginal keep is probably the beatiful Matsumoto, which can be relably dated to 1597. Older beeps ext, ut they have all ben tlocsted to thelr present sites, Hikone’s hep, for example, Started feat Otsu castle in 157S'and wat moved to its present location 1s 1606. OF cates In eisence In sts prior to the slge of Osaka In 1615, Inuyam, which looks down dramatically onthe Kiso River, dates fom 1600, Matsue, on the coast of the Sea of Japan, fom 1611, and the peerless Hime west Beecen 1601 and 1610 ‘All these example, therefore, date from a time when oars were continuing s0 the popula view that consign Japans extant castes to atime en Wars had eased is fa from the tath Quite borate structures existed Sting the age of samural warfare, and this can be confirmed by pctoral sources, in particular the painted screens produced to commemorate famous Dates im Which thelr patrons took place. One important source isthe Nagishino sren in the Tokugawa Ast Muscum in Nagoya. This shows the famous charge by Takeda Katsuyort sce Oxpeys Campaign 6: Nagano 1575 Syrthe same athon, and in the ght comer there Is epresentation of ‘castle. The atl estle of Nagashing was probaly a simpler stractre than the spied one shown here, ati wa a frontier emplacement oxt inthe county, But the ease on the Seen may be [usiably regarded a8 a g008 txample ofthe developed form that would be used as dans han. One other very important source Is the screen of the Summer Campa of sak, 1615, Hee the representation ofthe keep tales very well with what known of es contemporary appearance Far fom beings product ofthe peaceful Edo Period, therefore, the elaborate ‘ower kp, sighs mich t impress an enemy by a display ofthe da seat a for military considerations, wat an integral pt of Japanese cle ‘lsgn almost as soon a thetecnigques were developed to allow ito be uit infact one ofthe most spectacular keeps fal was one ofthe earls. Ths was ‘ida Nobunaga’ lovous castle of Azuchi, burned by rebels a the time of ‘ut enough ilustations and. decptions of It have survived to allow is Sppearance to be rconstracted ith some confidence. One feature of Auch, never epested anywhere cls, was the buling of an octagonal tomer = the “Sppermost oft seven ores Tn 1586 Toyotom! Hideyoshi, who succeded Nobunaga, commissioned ‘saa caste, which was to 30d own apter to the history of Japanese castle bling. Ht was bil on thereat lope’ sala tat had formetiy housed the foie cathedral of Isiyama Hong, the headquarters of the fanaa‘ons posion sore he Ko san tw ba ne Thko ski sect who had defied Oda Nobunaga for ten yeas in Japan’s longest ver siege. The slid base, although of modest height, lay in the midst of a bewildering maze of rivers, ed beds and ever-changing islands that made up the estuary ofthe Kiso River where it entered Osaka Bay. This topography, the classic haji situation, seas cleverly exploited in the construction of Osa. ‘Concent ings of huge stone walls built around earth cores provided miple layers of defence with litle height advantage until one moved closer 10 the cental Keep, which was of such a size as to dominate i surroundings completely AS noted above, It 1s the existence ofthe huge stone bases, rather than any particular superstrcture on top of them, that essentially defines the Japanese Castle. However, the passage of time has made it increasingly dificlt to study them properly. Ths is sometimes because of neglect of the ste or alternative use ofthe land (which is often prime cy-cenre realestate), and in some cases the site has been harmed by the rebuilding of the original castle tower in concrete, This has happened, with less than perfect results, at Nagoya and (Osaka, and some reconstructions elsewhere have not even been bull in the coriginal pace. Japanese castles in Korea Curious, one ofthe best places tose Japanese castles in thee oginal tate i ‘ot Japan at all but South Korea, When Japan's invasion of Korea in 1592 faltered in the face of Chinese and Korean counteratacs, the Japanese forces ‘ase a eis of oatal forts ald wa (the castles of Wa, Le. Japan oprtect {hele communications. As the native Korean castles had fallen 3 easly othe bilekteg advance the Japanese tumed other own ted and tested method of caring up a hillside and cladding it with stone to produce a fortes. The immense amount of labour required to produce such structures in a short time wa provided by press ganged Koreans r Japanese peasants shippes across the Ses. As there wasn time to case huge tower beeps on these sractares (and ‘isan caste was Deseged even before Iwas fished) only the simplest of “seq wows wading aia pauosge pia ay porsansus Ton HUE Ba) Ye iapoom faxreavs oxoye, usm URE puTaicD as vonseg aes 9p Jo don up 4194 Jo same mee ‘fs a syervourepeues op POUL fem 1S W oof el auton 01d nappa "F650 Jo tANOs a No 3nq UTAH xD Jo WOW YELL ‘1 poo pened wopoom pu siompsee Bi00 ean pigr'erero 3 ueaigieg epeues, omyazes o4p jo euajeP eu» ne pars isin of Kore a | owse tres raved sre of oeeee towers were added, although a European visitor remarked on hove lavish the interior decoration of the domestic buildings could be. The wajé had 2 very short lifespan, four years at the most, and were abandoned to the elements when the Japanese Snally departed in 1598 and they remain in the same state to this dy. The use of earthworks Thete Is a considerable body of evidence to suggest that walls of earth formed part of some Japanese castle designs. AS in the European context, earth bastions had the advantage of speed and economy, although they were always a ‘eoporay solution, The most important example of the use of earth ramparts by the Japanese ‘occured in Korea in 1593. Being faced with the rapid advance of a Chinese army with & formidable arilery capability against Pyongyang, the Japanese amy abandoned the native Korean stone walls ofthe clty and took to the spade to throw up earthworks outside the wall. The Ming commanders, proud of their Great Wall of China, Scorned these ‘burrows’ as the creations of brrbarians until they felt the arquebus balls discharged ffom behind them, and in any case When winter came the earth ramparts froze as solid as stone, Earthworks also formed the main element of the barbican bult out to the south of Osaka castle to strengthen is defences prior to the great sege fof 1614/15. Te was named the Sanada-mare afer the castle commander, Sanada Yukimura, and saw much action in the winter of 16L4. On top fof the earth bastion a simple but effective two: Storey wooden wall ith firing platforms was constructed, ‘Te Sanada-maru was essentially a temporary structure to meet the demands ‘of the moment, and wat not copied elsewhee, Instead the inal Nourish in Japanese caste design went tothe other extreme, and by the time of the fll of (Osaka in 1615 the keeps that now grace the Japanese landscape had all been completed, Like so many other things in Japanese military history, with the ‘establishment of the Pax Tokugawa developments in castle architecture came tan end. The castes might be rebuilt after fires or earthquakes, but until the coming of Buropeans in the 18th century forced a reaction, the Japanese cast ‘remained asthe most visible and attractive symbol of past mila glory Elements and features of the Japanese castle All castes ofthe “developed style those with stone bases and a complex of Dullings) had certain design elements in common, which may be useflly explored by looking at atypical eastle ofthe pelod, such as Hikone or Matsue from its oveal layout tothe root ofits keep The overall layout The fist feature common to all the Japanese castle ses was an ove syle ‘hereby the keep ay at the highest point of the area enclosed bythe caste and sis sutounded ty sre of inteocking balleys The general tem fr the humerous courtyards and enclosed ares formed by this ind of layout was Tae Some were on the sme lve paths and sarees inked oer, and the way in which the fine felted to each etter was one ofthe st points tobe taken into consideration bythe este desger He adopted a method of planning known as mbar, which erally meant ‘marking with ope. As the term imple, thls teered tothe very Pratl fist step in designing 8 sl, whlch was to mak out the future extent of cate ing ropes ‘One ofthe most important consterations fora castle’ defesivesysem was cow these hanova would provide an ovel defensive pater forthe castle, a tnater that wa often determined bythe loc topography. Rivers, mountains aed he seu ll stints onthe scope of design Nagin castle se ofthe famous slege and battle of 1575, was bul ona tanga rock where ier ied, Takamatsu and Keaton used the sea thelr moss whe Takashima snd Zee sed Lake Suva and Lake Ba respectively to provide water defences ins tle sometimes called 4, o Roating cre Inuyema les river and s high mountain aso natural defensive cements, wile Bkch-Matsuyama faze down fom the highest ately Japan. The central ara ofthe harioa, which frequently al that has survived in many cates, was the most important in ems both of defence and pays tore was called the han mae (onan or innermost ale) and contalned the Many pane ies hve {rte Tago Maraouch beceer the meri place and ye Cane San 2keep and any other residential bulldngs for the daimyds use. The second courtyard wa called the mi no mans (second balley) and the third was the Son no mara (third bailey). The expression ‘man’ has survived to this day fn the form of addresses in old exile towns, Many have an azee of the city called Marunouchi, in other words "the area inside the mar. Tokyo's “Marunouchi district, for example, les between the imperial palace and Tokyo Cental Station Tokyo provides an extreme example of a castles outer works having disappeared under modern development, and the ground plans of eaziet ‘castles are sometimes al we have to go of when it comes to determining the layout that a castle once possessed. Archaeology and field observation can give further clues, and the resulting layout designs may be casted as follows: * * 1. Rinkaku style Fe ae im mri cs tpl mya anion pea ap lett eee porte Lae oe pepe pial peo ae ean| ===] ee re ne ee ee eran en rece pees noon meee ‘The es common ser ofcante 2. Renkaku style tom fam pe bona The nk seas the ot mr i the cent with the nm mar an he concen eka (fe) 36 san no mar on either side. When bulldng caste of this syle, twas necessary Flat red) to provide extra protection for the more exposed un mau. Mito and Sendai ae ‘examples of the renal ste 3. Hashigokaku style In the hasigokatn style, which can only apply to a yumashi setting, the hon ‘mara forms the apex of the caste while the no mara and the san no mar lescend in steps like a staircase. AS the on mara i exposed on one side, it ‘nose The maze of walls and gates that make up on cere is 2 dead end Instead we mus go othe lef and the defences of Himel caste, 16 hore the pth forks The le fork lens ino the Nai no 2 (One of ee mast mportane defensive element inthe dovloped style of ease was the need to make the approach tothe keep as dfcl as possible The ultimate ‘ample is the maze created by the succession of wal, {tes ané bays at Himeji which can sol be enoyed today The suzcenive pres are abel inthe Jspsnes slptabecal system of rh. niche, he ahough sme ofthe final Water Gates no longer et Only the upper route’ is described though there was ao a lower roe ‘hat war even more fen. ‘On proceeding north righ the San mans (Tied Bay we come tothe imposing me Lawn asthe His ‘Gate, but this js the bganng ofa long journey before we enter the keep, during which we wil be under cbservaton the whole time and wil travel nia, Saige ahead and a ede othe let i he fee ofthe alphabeial ees Gate | rom which we proceed, agin in straight line but ae co the right this time to Gate Ro. ‘We cannot see Gate Ha from her, and i we go stsighe ‘manu (Wesern Bae) and ultimately back ouside Gate but we want the right fork for Gate Ha fom where dhe keep looks so near one could almost ouch fc Bu this Is “wre th isbyrinth real bogie, Deere to ge from Case Ha to Gate Niwe have to make 3 160-fqree turn round the end af wall and flow 2 very nerow approach Passing trough the menacing Gate Ni where ‘the gael 40 much smaller than te guchouse would ‘suggest. we must make sure we do at mis de Gate Ho.or there willbe another dead end Aker Gate Ho we rn ide rou the fr corvarof he lap through Gare Hand then trough one ofthe surviving Water Gates {nto the ner Bae. bare now. bit which had oxher boldngs in iin I6U1. We cmb up some stops tothe rains of the Fourth Water Gate and eter the nl te to the keep that sche Fith Water Gate Ths isthe fRrongest of lland is amos vibe unl you arrive a being located under the bridging tomer berween the keep andthe norhwertrn tower a™ The dewlopd sg fete ada owe finrtosng wall nd at tin tbe chard ory fh otis may op to hep Fimo ths ge ond String arty parle xa an i rors needs to ack onto a lake, river or cif, Aiu-Wakamatsy ste of erce resistance uring the Me Restoration, isan example of hashigotaku style, while Inuyama fn the Kiso has a dramatic cif onthe Hon maru side In the case of a larger caste, the three maru would in turn be encircled by two oF three outying hua referted to as sotaguruna or sagummwa (he outer court). Each ofthese successive areas was so atanged that any ine of defence ‘captured by an enemy could readily be recaptured from the area inside st. The lltinate result was a maze of inteslocking walls and gates that would confuse an enemy and allow him to be observed for every inch of his way up tthe keep. Hime, with its 21 gates and labyrinthine walkways that Iterally tara back on themselves, shows this principle to perfection, and wil be deseibed in etait later The castle wall The suecessive kurawa and mart were divided from one another by moat, ditches and to sors of walls the smaller ones on top of the stone bases and the bases themselves, which presented a wall-ike outer surface of roughly Ihewn and partly dressed stone. No mortar wat used, making them the world’s sreatest diy stone walls. At fist ight the wall ook ei the stoner sere placed haphazardly, but infact they followed a very cate geometsc arrangement whereby the stones settled into a compact solldnes through their own weight The outward curve, if anys concave in shape, resulting fom the stones being placed with their smaller sides outwards and thelr larger sides inwards, slthough earlier examples tend tobe straighter ‘Behind these large stones, and rardly seen, ate two layers of pebbles that were settled into the excavated earth core ofthe wall and base. Smaller stones were also used to ill up gaps in the outer wall surface, In cros section a castle's stone base is wedge shaped, and some rach a height of 130 fet, What made Uupa castes foundations, therefore, was a series a these stone bases holding up towers and gateways linked by ther sections which only housed low walls of plaster on top of them. Nevertheless, all these stone bases were ofa similarly formidable thickness, and their outer surface projected in and out 0 give wwellconstructed and oveslapping defences, The small walls of plaster and ground rock on top of the bases were surprisingly solid, and would be pieced with openings ~ tangulse for guns, rectangulat for anows. These walls add greatly tothe aesthetic appeal ofthe ‘asl The white walls of Himeji are quite splendid, andthe back long wall of Kumamoto isa tremendous architectural feature. As they were small these ar Toe magutean ane bases rong eign an rom Ine he ry mot hay we se {© dar eh iy Foe Fraot cre feet fale of sal wa td minor walls were fequently buttressed using wood or stone, Behind the small walls a row of wees, usualy pines, would be planted. These would act as 8 sll from arrows and bullets, Dut could also provide timber inthe case of & prolonged slege, and added greatly tothe decorative eect that was in any case prt ofthe overal plan. Within the outer wall trees were also planted to veil the movements of soldiers within the defences and to provide «food soure Bridges and gates Roadways were provided to gve acces to the eae complex from ouside Sometimes these were conveyed actors bndges otherwise through a smaller terson of the stone bases described above. Te enanceat the front of the Castle was usualy called thee (meeting pac), wile the gate eas to was fnown athe dlomon. The pusage on the powcr wa called the haan Ieanlng the place where prisoner will be captured, becase postern ate tree ued a0 ports for surpie attacks htigs came In many diffrent ses Tey were usualy of wood, hough Fuku cute onthe Goto ands proves an unussal ample ofa sone bg. Ofthe xed wooden ridges mos tended tbe of eanteveredconstraion and Could be very gacefo, The ones at Hikone and Matsumoto ate parculaty Peasng examples No actual dates apea to have survived anywhere in Japan, bt we Know they existed rom dang and descriptions although they were very rae. Avaravon onthe conventional European dawbrge wi 0 found in Japan, Ts was a removable bridge tat cold be rolled ot on wheel dcrn ap along very narow horizontal suppor ‘Of the Buildings that were put of castles supestracture, the ones that a vistors encountered were te ious. A cae gatehouse would make Up quite compler microsystem 6 fence. Apa of gateways would cover entrances, The fst was dety open onto the foxdvay, and sometimes had Smal oo pojacing outwards onthe orwatd supporto the ate The second, inner, gate would beset at right anges the sso that an atacker would tave to make an abropt tir, In the cate of ete ult onal he second fate would often be portioned sot was higher than the teste shown depron on tren camgle 2. The bh wooden brie of28 Sts tar woul rt recur ‘woe oe pious A case ‘shout weuld mie que fmpec mero of ce Emer oid conwndiy® cooper crs erat ‘own hare Wiayan, ‘Th cond nr gx would Simarngeindeo etre ‘Siesta ons te ‘Sts ge cod be ther an Gates tune shows heres ‘eho Geof on very well at kone. Whatever the arrangement, there was always a roughly rectangularshaped. area between the gates that was fully enclosed and ‘overlooked fom all points. This space was called the masugta, rom the shape fof the measuring veSel (mass) commonly wed for iquids and grain, Another meaning of the teem derives from the fat that a castle commander could sssemble his men in sections in this area and thereby count them, Sm so-called xzumt or ‘secret gates’ also appear in concealed places along the wal, The actual gates that were hung in the gatehouses were of heavy timber on massive ion hinges, and were reinforced with Iron plates and spies Castle towers CGatehouses that were built in the form of a tomer were called watar au, meaning ‘the tower that bridges both sides. Yagun was in fact the generic ame fora tower, the wor literally means arrow stor’ which was ane of thelt| ginal functions. However, juga ip a Japanese castle could take many Aiferent forms apart from the conventional Western understanding of the word "tower. One common variety was the tanon of tamon jagura, which was 3 long one storey building set on top ofa stone base acting asa defensive wal, 2 lookout post and a utility building all in one. The name may deeve from ‘amon castle, which vas built by Matsunaga Hisahide and where such eta of he shannon ‘the pao wTowor atl, »20 ‘Tha eon ype Hon showing ‘tefoae eral he onan ye Acton of ever outing nd structure was effectively the first Japanese castle keep. The fine tamon yagura at Hikone was used by the makdservant as living quarters Ar the corners ofthe walls may be Seen other tower of two oF three storey. Known simply ss sum yaguna (comer towers) they comprised an Important clement in the overall castle design. Comer towers were often fitted With Iht ‘tsi stone droppers), which were the Japanese equivalent of machicolations ‘The Inul tower of Osaka cal, which lles at the northwest comer of the comples, his the unustal feature of having two storeys of equalize. Matsumoto ‘atl his a subsidiary tower that is open on the easter and southern sie, (Calle the Tsuki tower, twas not designed as amlitary stucture, rather for rmoon-viewing The castle keep The largest tower fal na japanese cases thet ak or bep. The name mieane ‘high heavenly protector’ and height usally the fost characte that fs noid In many ease, in fat, the Kee wil hae caught the vistors te long before he appreats the guts or comer towers, because the esp Is Slmostinvarabiy the highest point of te ene struct and may be Wsble formiles In some cases only the hep of Japanese castles have surved, which Gan gve a mideading inpresion ofthe orignal design ofthe foes Injen nd Maruoka cals dpa the eas features ofthe Japanese Kep. seven but fequenly thelr outward appearance di not comespond exact 0 their actual interior srcture and design Because thete were often underground cela bull deep Inside te stone coe ofthe base andthe numberof floor Stove pound ws: offer aot icemible tom the apparent number vibe fom toute. The purposes of keep inched he following key functions 2. Toact asthe final line of defence 3. To symbolise the daimes power 44 To provide secure storage. Aste Portuguese Jesuit Jono Rodrigues put it They keep their treasure here and itis here that they assemble thei wives In time of siege. When they can no longer hold out, they Kil their women ‘Auch cattle, 1576 ‘Only stone base remains of the grat Azuch caste, raised by Oda Nobunaga in 1576 as one ofthe wanders of pane wat apa first {reat tower keep ana was burned 10 he {Found when Nobunaga was susie ony sx years ter For thi reason no one can be sure for certain what Azuch seta looked the, bu the Consensus of opinion i hat this revoltonary bling had seven sore. of which she Uppermodt one was capa snd echly decorated Misary ‘corridors inside surrounded ddomesc areas u2 The fe ey of Hr Resco ue of ore oye of spies Te fst se cht el |Sroupiy rangi aape. The can a hf eve wih he {ex owing the Ine proed, bythe comee Tare aso 8 omen sae pig aon ‘and children to prevent them falling into the hands ofthe enemy; then ater setting fre to the tower with gunpowder and other materials So that rot even their bones or anything else may survive, they cut ther belles. The Sst tower keeps (nclading the original one at Himeji, demolished in 1601) were les ornate structures, resembling larger versions of the simpler comer towers, however, when embelished tothe extent revealed by many Blmost anywhere cee inthe castle, the windows, rape and bles ofthe keep were arranged in subtle and intricate pater. The shape of the Keeps roof was almost without exception inthe orate style that had been used for centuries for the most palatial residences, and the use of two contrasting styles of able fn the same elevation of a keep was also a frequently noticed aesthetic element. The first style, chido haf, was triangular in shape. The second, kana haf, was curved, with the apex flowing into the line provided by the cornice This syle of architecture can be seen to good effect at Hime} ut The windows ofa keep were generally square, though the uppermost storey was often provided with orate windows in the shape known ab kato mado, and Usually had an exterior balcony: Roofs were almost always ted with thick Diuegtey Japanese tiles, though in the easly days some castles had thatched roofs, and old photographs of Iwakunt castle confirm that it was once roofed with wooden shingles. The ridge of the topmost roof of the keep was also ‘usualy decorated with shachi (dolphins) made of meal or tl. These striking onnaments inthe shape of fish are supposed tobe charms agains evil spr and fire. They are sometimes gilded, and there is a charming story told about the shaci on the roof of Nagoya caste, which were made from a core of cypress alunite fom Shove butt proded hare by Womeyam ate er ot, This vw oig aes Osa (Suetep owe ise be Se wet nando {Bide than tetrad Sangin en a” Parola cate aces by Seelam ty 3 necesally the orginal colour oth Azwch and Osaka are known to have sported bright colours and designs of tigers and. dragons on their exterior Surface. The exceptions are the so-called ‘lack castes’ Such as Kumamoto and kayama, where the predominant colour comes from the black wood that ominates the White plaster around with aniy the mon (family crest) of the ‘hin carved on the spex of the gable ends for decoration, In some cases topographical considerations led tothe construction of keeps of unusual shapes. The idea shape fra stone base was rectangul, but this was not always achievable especially when the base had to be built round the core ofan tinct voleano, a the case with Wakayama ate In spite of intensive cating away of the hil top, the resulting area was so limited tha the keep ha to be enbic in plan with all comers ofthe bullding curved, while the small tower acent to the keep was bult on an lnregular pentagonal fist story. At smato castle the fist storey actualy overhangs the stone base soa 0 give @ rectangular shape, and the extn space crated Was used to provide ar area for dropping stones. A Bitchu-Matsuyama along cmb provides the renard of seeing stone walls integrated superbly with the natural rock, inside which the ompex housing the keep makes the best possible se” of the restricted space vallabe Building a castle The building ofa prestone sengoku pumas has been adequately described ove, bu the construction of a developed stne-clad model complet with ower kep was an altogether diferent process, Tis the chosen ste was surveyed, and the architect designed on paper he best syle of cate layout commensurate withthe constraints ofthese Before any acta! Dulding began, however, there would be a religious ceremony conducted bya Shinto ples. This consisted of ivallycting the fist sod within a sacred enclosure formed by fastening fout ropes {0 four green bamboo pols, rom the ropes paper go (teamers) would be hung, With the dai and his scpresentatives Watching, a ceemonial offering ofrlce and salt woul then be he tte carly ved esmered or le Tine wane hoo oes) ae (earned by woosen peers, Sern ntay ncn cte ‘Sthe at eompleed.and he 3s2% ont oe Sree tage nial nee Soaname After this the labourer took over, and under the guidance of supervisors, who ‘would work ftom the arcitet’ plans and sometimes even fom a relief mode! {the colosal and labour intensive busines of carving up 2 mountain would begin, Although the echnical term fr dividing up the castes was ‘marking by ropes’ it was stout timbers that provide the lines fr the workmen to keep to. Alter some preliminary ground breaking, anesly vertical groove would be dig into the hillside to provide the ist guideline. The actual line that the outer surface ofthe final stonewall wou follow was provide y along length of timber proecting parallel tothe cath line and about three fect away from i, secured into the Position by projecting Wooden stakes. About 12 yards further along a similar fuldeline would be erected. Excavation would then continve betwen the (80 ‘markers, which would be Joined by other poles horizontal to the glound when the shape was complete. Te result Would be that one section af the case was ‘beginning to take its roughly final shape, surrounded by this guidance frame that looked lke open wooden scaffolding. in Uh ease of high wall sections diferent horizontal levels would be staggered. Great care was taken to produce as near perfect an outer surface as was possible, and if there was any danger of collapse the earth surface would be sheathed in wood “The labourers who worked on the exeavation had two main tools, one for digging, an implement resembling an adze, and baskets slung on a pole Dberween the shoulders of two men for caving away’ the sll Because ofthe anger of rain bringing the fesh excavations down, the next stage, that Of adding the stone, was begun before all the site had been carved, soa eveloping castle site would have shown nearly every successive process in action at any moment. ‘The delivery to the ste of the ordinary building stones (as distinct from the ‘ceremonial’ donated ones described below) was accomplished by varus -ncans depending on thei size. Two men would carry smaller ones sing from 2 pole. Bigger ones would be taken on 2 two.wheeled cart with two men pushing and two others pulling. Oxen would pull carts for even larger varieties, ‘when the stones began to be added to the carved surface the guide poles ‘mentioned above came into their own to provide the target le for the Snished product. Careful preparation began atthe base of the section under construction, A timber base provided the exact angle for lying the bottom line of stones The crucial one was the extr-arge ne ish or r00t stone. Ths would have its top and bottom surtaces precitely worked to launch the correct ange for the chosen slope ~ the higher the wal, the lower the angle. Behind the rot stone was a layer of compacted smaller stones, and behind them a layer of pebbles pressed into the shaped earth core. From then on walk building was 3 Inatter of adding height to thls sandvich of stones and pebbles until the top of the wall was reached, Particular care was taken over external comers, whete the specially shaped comer stones ‘dovetale! As the wall progressed upwards structures were put in place for delivering materials tothe aldes, either by wooden ramps from below, or by lowering baskets of stone from above. The workmen toile on top of wooden platforms Iai along the ever increasing upper surface ofthe wall. The smaller stones were Pounded Into a compact mass using wooden drivers. ‘The placing of the outer layer of stones required much effort and great precision, particularly when the Ingest stones were added. One colourul feature {tthe proces of building the largest and most prestigious edifices concerned the transportation to the ite of huge individual stones that were tobe incorporated into the walls. In cases such asthe bullding of Hideyoshi’ Osaka caste the ‘iin vied with each othe sto who could donate the largest stone. The acval ofthese monster at the site was always a source of celebration, and numerous contemporary ilustrations depict some massive pce of rock being dragged on 8 sledge, or towed along on a barge. The stone would be festooned with banners and religous objects as fit were a portable shine ina religious festival. The Inbourers heaved on the ropes whle small boys balanced on top of the tone ‘waved fans and led the rhythmic chanting. One colossal stone at Nagoya castle bas an outside surface area of $4 square fet, and was donated by Kato Kiyomasa, excavations have revealed that some of these giants are not all that they appear to be, One, which sth fet long and ten fee igh, tums out o be only about to fee thick! ‘Once the stone base was complete a very diferent building process would begin to ras the superstructure ofthe small walls, the gatehouse, side towers and aboveall the keep. Here the Key material was wood, and the amazing sks ‘ofthe Japanese carpenter who could bald pagodas and temples came ina its ‘own, Within a scaffolding constrcte from long wooden pole, 2 huge timber ‘we fw ar sang ine of ersframework would take shape. The vertical sections were sunk deep Into the untouched core ofthe orignal hull where they rested upon masive rocks Placed there as foundations. Paster was applied to the course framework between the pillars to give the outer surface fo the bullings in 9 similar way to the building ofthe low plaster wall already described, Altematively in the ‘ase ofthe ‘back castles’ of Kumamoto and Matsui, the external surface would be of painted wood, Tiling, decoration and gilding, topped off with the traditional golden shachi, were the final stages used to produce the externa Appearance ofthe mighty edifice. Such were the human and nancial resources [vallable to a daimpd that the whole process from excavation to completion ‘ould take a surprisingly short space of time, Nagoya castle for example, was ‘completed forthe Tokugawa shag after only two yeas The principles of defence ‘Whatever their aesthetic appeal, Japanese castes were primal fortesses, and the Japanese castle represented sophisticated defence system, even the ‘way this operated is not always directly apparent. At fst sight the gracefl Superstractares look fy and very vulnerable to fie, But they were fn Tat highly fie esstant, and the Japanese also lacked the means for effective ariller bombardment unt gute late intel isto ‘One obvious disadvantage provided by the gently sloping and curved wall of the typical cate stone base was the ease With which attackers could climb them, and the way in which the lunmortared blocks of stone ited together aso grove names hao One ton the stonedropping Holes noted above which were akin to European machiolations. Unlike Iachicolations, however, the fh ots were Closed by hinged doors. An adaitional deterrent woulsbe climbers were rows of spikes pointing downwards fom certain Horizontal surfaces such seis sce othe beep a Kumamoto cst ad the Stall wall at Nagoya ‘Whereas the primary consideration behind the atl fie this was only one factor take nto Consideration in Japan, eventhough the two sles Took superctlly similar In Japan an infant attack or mining were far mote ely to occur than an any bombardment, adit sony a the siege of Osaka In 1614/15 that anything resembling 9 European cannon bombardment becomes & major feature In thin eave guns of European manufate supplied the bombardment, so for thi reson alone no Japanese castle can be regarded as an arlry ‘orcatemates as such and there would few places mounted sucessfully. Instead the mont common srinpowder ‘weapons would. be thousands of Srqcbocs with shih an atackee or defender Mould sweep his opponents line. This as the cng tha won the Rae cas fr the that took almost nothing inthe way ofan atlery tain wth Mining and countermining A fw attacks on a castle by mining wil be stated in the ‘operational history” section that follos, but there appears tobe no evidence of permanent Sachs young were ao something that could not be adequately reputed or apart fiom choosing hgh ground on which to bul one's castle Te at coding sieges of Japan, Tamas, Ota and Oks, all made use of ery atgescae civil engineering works to create yes and dive ives followed by mmenseptlence asthe waters rox, and tere was Ile the defender ould do other han tack the workmen, Many cases would have ad moss wide “nih cope with sng water eves, however, although wheter te teat of ooding was the reason they were bul shad to ser, Catapult bombardment Consideration in defensive planing fara fapanese case unt the very end of the petiod under dscason, Is prmve cousin, bombardment by crossbows and eatapits asa much longer history, but acount of thelr ef Japa ae Spanc. Both forms of mislle weapons sem to ave ben used during segs Pru anyon wages sa econ icy tee Tate in the 12th century. The catapults used were chinesestyle traction ttebuchels and infact the bes account of ther We, whlch dates tom 1468, desclbes them throwing sotcased exploding bomb not again aman’ castle walls but againt the samural defending te rdkmentarypallads setup Guring the Onin War acto trebuchets ppea in clerydeensive roe fo Scale when the Mont family attached Taiya cate and were at By Smooth iver stones loosed ftom catapults. As ate as 1614 tration trebuche ‘Shang dow ete fnckgound