Four-dimensional space

Lagrange wrote in his Mcanique analytique (published

1788, based on work done around 1755) that mechanics
can be viewed as operating in a four-dimensional space
three of dimensions of space, and one of time.[1]
In 1827 Mbius realized that a fourth dimension would
allow a three-dimensional form to be rotated onto its
mirror-image,[2] and by 1853 Ludwig Schli had discovered many polytopes in higher dimensions, although his
work was not published until after his death.[3] Higher
dimensions were soon put on rm footing by Bernhard
Riemann's 1854 Habilitationsschrift, ber die Hypothesen welche der Geometrie zu Grunde liegen, in which he
considered a point to be any sequence of coordinates
(x1 , ..., xn). The possibility of geometry in higher dimensions, including four dimensions in particular, was thus
established.
An arithmetic of four dimensions called quaternions was
dened by William Rowan Hamilton in 1843. This
3D projection of a tesseract undergoing a simple rotation in four associative algebra was the source of the science of vector
dimensional space.
analysis in three dimensions as recounted in A History of
Vector Analysis. Soon after tessarines and coquaternions
In mathematics, four-dimensional space (4D) is a ge- were introduced as other four-dimensional algebras over
ometric space with four dimensions. It typically is more R.
specically four-dimensional Euclidean space, general- One of the rst major expositors of the fourth dimenizing the rules of three-dimensional Euclidean space. It sion was Charles Howard Hinton, starting in 1880 with
has been studied by mathematicians and philosophers for his essay What is the Fourth Dimension?; published in
over two centuries, both for its own interest and for the the Dublin University magazine.[4] He coined the terms
insights it oered into mathematics and related elds.
tesseract, ana and kata in his book A New Era of Thought,
dimenAlgebraically, it is generated by applying the rules of and introduced a method for visualising the fourth [5][6]
sion
using
cubes
in
the
book
Fourth
Dimension.
In
vectors and coordinate geometry to a space with four di[7]
1886
Victor
Schlegel
described
his
method
of
visualizmensions. In particular a vector with four elements (a 4tuple, or 4D vector) can be used to represent a position in ing four-dimensional objects with Schlegel diagrams.
four-dimensional space. The space is a Euclidean space,
so has a metric and norm, and so all directions are treated
as the same: the additional dimension is indistinguishable
from the other three.

In 1908, Hermann Minkowski presented a paper[8] consolidating the role of time as the fourth dimension of
spacetime, the basis for Einsteins theories of special and
general relativity.[9] But the geometry of spacetime, being non-Euclidean, is profoundly dierent from that popularised by Hinton. The study of Minkowski space required new mathematics quite dierent from that of fourdimensional Euclidean space, and so developed along
quite dierent lines. This separation was less clear in the
popular imagination, with works of ction and philosophy blurring the distinction, so in 1973 H. S. M. Coxeter
felt compelled to write:

In modern physics, space and time are unied in a fourdimensional Minkowski continuum called spacetime,
whose metric treats the time dimension dierently from
the three spatial dimensions (see below for the denition
of the Minkowski metric/pairing). Spacetime is not a Euclidean space.

History

Little, if anything, is gained by representing the fourth Euclidean dimension as time. In

fact, this idea, so attractively developed by H.
G. Wells in The Time Machine, has led such

See also: n-dimensional space History

4
authors as John William Dunne (An Experiment with Time) into a serious misconception
of the theory of Relativity. Minkowskis
geometry of space-time is not Euclidean,
and consequently has no connection with the
present investigation.
H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular Polytopes[10]

Vectors

GEOMETRY

a b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 a4 b4 .
As an example, the distance squared between the points
(0,0,0,0) and (1,1,1,0) is 3 in both the Euclidean and
Minkowskian 4-spaces, while the distance squared between (0,0,0,0) and (1,1,1,1) is 4 in Euclidean space and 2
in Minkowski space; increasing b4 actually decreases the
metric distance. This leads to many of the well known
apparent paradoxes of relativity.

The cross product is not dened in four dimensions. InMathematically four-dimensional space is simply a space stead the exterior product is used for some applications,
with four spatial dimensions, that is a space that needs and is dened as follows:
four parameters to specify a point in it. For example, a
general point might have position vector a, equal to
a b = (a1 b2 a2 b1 )e12 + (a1 b3 a3 b1 )e13 + (a1 b4 a4 b1 )e14 + (a2
+(a2 b4 a4 b2 )e24 + (a3

a1
This is bivector valued, with bivectors in four dimensions
a 2
.
a=
forming a six-dimensional linear space with basis (e12 ,
a 3
e13 , e14 , e23 , e24 , e34 ). They can be used to generate
a4
rotations in four dimensions.
This can be written in terms of the four standard basis
vectors (e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 ), given by

3 Orthogonality and vocabulary

1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0

e1 =
0; e2 = 0; e3 = 1; e4 = 0,
0
0
0
1
so the general vector a is

a = a1 e1 + a2 e2 + a3 e3 + a4 e4 .

In the familiar 3-dimensional space in which we live there

are three coordinate axes usually labeled x, y, and z
with each axis orthogonal (i.e. perpendicular) to the other
two. The six cardinal directions in this space can be called
up, down, east, west, north, and south. Positions along
these axes can be called altitude, longitude, and latitude.
Lengths measured along these axes can be called height,
width, and depth.

Comparatively, 4-dimensional space has an extra coordinate axis, orthogonal to the other three, which is usually
labeled w. To describe the two additional cardinal direcThe dot product of Euclidean three-dimensional space
tions, Charles Howard Hinton coined the terms ana and
generalizes to four dimensions as
kata, from the Greek words meaning up toward and
down from, respectively. A position along the w axis
can be called spissitude, as coined by Henry More.
a b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 + a4 b4 .
Vectors add, subtract and scale as in three dimensions.

It can be used to calculate the norm or length of a vector,

|a| =

a a = a1 2 + a2 2 + a3 2 + a4 2 ,

and calculate or dene the angle between two vectors as

= arccos

ab
.
|a| |b|

4 Geometry
See also: Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space
The geometry of 4-dimensional space is much more complex than that of 3-dimensional space, due to the extra
degree of freedom.

Just as in 3 dimensions there are polyhedra made of

two dimensional polygons, in 4 dimensions there are 4Minkowski spacetime is four-dimensional space with ge- polytopes made of polyhedra. In 3 dimensions there
ometry dened by a nondegenerate pairing dierent from are 5 regular polyhedra known as the Platonic solids.
the dot product:
In 4 dimensions there are 6 convex regular 4-polytopes,

3
the analogues of the Platonic solids. Relaxing the
conditions for regularity generates a further 58 convex
uniform 4-polytopes, analogous to the 13 semi-regular
Archimedean solids in three dimensions. Relaxing the
conditions for convexity generates a further 10 nonconvex regular 4-polytopes.

V = 12 2 R4

This is part of the FriedmannLematreRobertson

Walker metric in General relativity where R is substituted
by function R(t) with t meaning the cosmological age of
In 3 dimensions, a circle may be extruded to form a the universe. Growing or shrinking R with time means
universe, depending on the mass
cylinder. In 4 dimensions, there are several dierent expanding or collapsing
[12]
density
inside.
cylinder-like objects. A sphere may be extruded to obtain a spherical cylinder (a cylinder with spherical caps,
known as a spherinder), and a cylinder may be extruded to obtain a cylindrical prism (a cubinder). The 5 Cognition
Cartesian product of two circles may be taken to obtain a
duocylinder. All three can roll in 4-dimensional space, Research using virtual reality nds that humans in spite
each with its own properties.
of living in a three-dimensional world can without speIn 3 dimensions, curves can form knots but surfaces cial practice make spatial judgments based on the length
cannot (unless they are self-intersecting). In 4 dimen- of, and angle between, line segments embedded in four[13]
The researchers noted that the
sions, however, knots made using curves can be triv- dimensional space.
participants
in
our
study
had minimal practice in these
ially untied by displacing them in the fourth direction,
tasks,
and
it
remains
an
open
question whether it is posbut 2-dimensional surfaces can form non-trivial, non-self[11]
sible
to
obtain
more
sustainable,
denitive, and richer
intersecting knots in 4-dimensional space.
Because
4D
representations
with
increased
perceptual
experience
these surfaces are 2-dimensional, they can form much
[13]
[14]
in
4D
virtual
environments.
In
another
study,
the
more complex knots than strings in 3-dimensional space
ability
of
humans
to
orient
themselves
in
2D,
3D
and
4D
can. The Klein bottle is an example of such a knotted surmazes has been tested. Each maze consisted of four path
face . Another such surface is the real projective plane.
segments of random length and connected with orthogonal random bends, but without branches or loops (i.e. actually labyrinths). The graphical interface was based on
4.1 Hypersphere
John McIntoshs free 4D Maze game.[15] The participating persons had to navigate through the path and nally
estimate the linear direction back to the starting point.
The researchers found that some of the participants were
able to mentally integrate their path after some practice
in 4D (the lower-dimensional cases were for comparison
and for the participants to learn the method).

6 Dimensional analogy

Stereographic projection of a Cliord torus: the set of points

(cos(a), sin(a), cos(b), sin(b)), which is a subset of the 3-sphere.

Main article: Hypersphere

The set of points in Euclidean 4-space having the same A net of a tesseract
distance R from a xed point P0 forms a hypersurface
known as a 3-sphere. The hyper-volume of the enclosed To understand the nature of four-dimensional space, a despace is:
vice called dimensional analogy is commonly employed.

DIMENSIONAL ANALOGY

Dimensional analogy is the study of how (n 1) dimen- Similarly, objects in the fourth dimension can be mathsions relate to n dimensions, and then inferring how n di- ematically projected to the familiar 3 dimensions, where
mensions would relate to (n + 1) dimensions.[16]
they can be more conveniently examined. In this case, the
Dimensional analogy was used by Edwin Abbott Ab- 'retina' of the four-dimensional eye is a three-dimensional
bott in the book Flatland, which narrates a story about array of receptors. A hypothetical being with such an eye
a square that lives in a two-dimensional world, like the would perceive the nature of four-dimensional objects by
surface of a piece of paper. From the perspective of inferring four-dimensional depth from indirect informathis square, a three-dimensional being has seemingly god- tion in the three-dimensional images in its retina.
like powers, such as ability to remove objects from a
safe without breaking it open (by moving them across the
third dimension), to see everything that from the twodimensional perspective is enclosed behind walls, and
to remain completely invisible by standing a few inches
away in the third dimension.

The perspective projection of three-dimensional objects

into the retina of the eye introduces artifacts such as foreshortening, which the brain interprets as depth in the third
dimension. In the same way, perspective projection from
four dimensions produces similar foreshortening eects.
By applying dimensional analogy, one may infer fourBy applying dimensional analogy, one can infer that a dimensional depth from these eects.
four-dimensional being would be capable of similar feats As an illustration of this principle, the following sequence
from our three-dimensional perspective. Rudy Rucker il- of images compares various views of the 3-dimensional
lustrates this in his novel Spaceland, in which the protago- cube with analogous projections of the 4-dimensional
nist encounters four-dimensional beings who demonstrate tesseract into three-dimensional space.
such powers.

6.1

Cross-sections

6.3 Shadows

A concept closely related to projection is the casting of

As a three-dimensional object passes through a two- shadows.
dimensional plane, a two-dimensional being would only
see a cross-section of the three-dimensional object. For
example, if a spherical balloon passed through a sheet of
paper, a being on the paper would see rst a single point,
then a circle gradually growing larger, then smaller again
until it shrank to a point and then disappeared. Similarly,
if a four-dimensional object passed through three dimensions, we would see a three-dimensional cross-section of
the four-dimensional objectfor example, a hypersphere
would appear rst as a point, then as a growing sphere,
with the sphere then shrinking to a single point and then
disappearing.[17] This means of visualizing aspects of the
fourth dimension was used in the novel Flatland and also
in several works of Charles Howard Hinton.[18]

6.2

Projections

A useful application of dimensional analogy in visualizing the fourth dimension is in projection. A projection is a way for representing an n-dimensional object
in n 1 dimensions. For instance, computer screens
are two-dimensional, and all the photographs of threedimensional people, places and things are represented
in two dimensions by projecting the objects onto a at
surface. When this is done, depth is removed and replaced with indirect information. The retina of the eye
is also a two-dimensional array of receptors but the brain
is able to perceive the nature of three-dimensional objects
by inference from indirect information (such as shading,
foreshortening, binocular vision, etc.). Artists often use
perspective to give an illusion of three-dimensional depth
to two-dimensional pictures.

If a light is shone on a three dimensional object, a

two-dimensional shadow is cast. By dimensional analogy, light shone on a two-dimensional object in a
two-dimensional world would cast a one-dimensional
shadow, and light on a one-dimensional object in a onedimensional world would cast a zero-dimensional shadow,
that is, a point of non-light. Going the other way, one
may infer that light shone on a four-dimensional object in
a four-dimensional world would cast a three-dimensional
shadow.
If the wireframe of a cube is lit from above, the resulting shadow is a square within a square with the corre-

5
sponding corners connected. Similarly, if the wireframe
of a tesseract were lit from above (in the fourth dimension), its shadow would be that of a three-dimensional
cube within another three-dimensional cube. (Note that,
technically, the visual representation shown here is actually a two-dimensional image of the three-dimensional
shadow of the four-dimensional wireframe gure.)

6.4

Bounding volumes

Dimensional analogy also helps in inferring basic properties of objects in higher dimensions. For example,
two-dimensional objects are bounded by one-dimensional
boundaries: a square is bounded by four edges. Threedimensional objects are bounded by two-dimensional surfaces: a cube is bounded by 6 square faces. By applying dimensional analogy, one may infer that a fourdimensional cube, known as a tesseract, is bounded by
three-dimensional volumes. And indeed, this is the case:
mathematics shows that the tesseract is bounded by 8
cubes. Knowing this is key to understanding how to interpret a three-dimensional projection of the tesseract. The
boundaries of the tesseract project to volumes in the image, not merely two-dimensional surfaces.

6.5

Visual scope

Being three-dimensional, we are only able to see the

world with our eyes in two dimensions. A fourdimensional being would be able to see the world in three
dimensions. For example, it would be able to see all six
sides of an opaque box simultaneously, and in fact, what is
inside the box at the same time, just as we can see the interior of a square on a piece of paper. It would be able to
see all points in 3-dimensional space simultaneously, including the inner structure of solid objects and things obscured from our three-dimensional viewpoint. Our brains
receive images in the second dimension and use reasoning
to help us picture three-dimensional objects.

6.6

Limitations

Reasoning by analogy from familiar lower dimensions can

be an excellent intuitive guide, but care must be exercised
not to accept results that are not more rigorously tested.
For example, consider the formulas for the circumference
of a circle C = 2r and the surface area of a sphere: A =
4r2 . One might be tempted to suppose that the surface
volume of a hypersphere is V = 6r3 , or perhaps V =
8r3 , but either of these would be wrong. The correct
formula is V = 2 2 r3 .[10]

See also
Euclidean space

Euclidean geometry
4-manifold
Exotic R4
Fourth dimension in art
Dimension
Four-dimensionalism
Fifth dimension
Sixth dimension
4-polytope
Polytope
List of geometry topics
Block Theory of the Universe
Flatland, a book by Edwin A. Abbott about two- and
three-dimensional spaces, to understand the concept
of four dimensions
Sphereland, an unocial sequel to Flatland
The Planiverse, a book by A. K. Dewdney about
a two-dimensional being, in a logically consistent
physical world, in contact with University students
in our 3d world
Charles Howard Hinton
Dimensions, a set of lms about two-, three- and
four-dimensional polytopes
4D vector
List of four-dimensional games

8 References
[1] Bell, E.T. (1937). Men of Mathematics, Simon and Schuster, p. 154.
[2] Coxeter, H. S. M. (1973). Regular Polytopes, Dover Publications, Inc., p. 141.
[3] Coxeter, H. S. M. (1973). Regular Polytopes, Dover Publications, Inc., pp. 142143.
[4] Rudolf v.B. Rucker, editor Speculations on the Fourth Dimension: Selected Writings of Charles H. Hinton, p. vii,
Dover Publications Inc., 1980 ISBN 0-486-23916-0
[5] Hinton, Charles Howard (1904).
ISBN 1-5645-9708-3.

Fourth Dimension.

[6] Gardner, Martin (1975). Mathematical Carnival. Knopf

Publishing. pp. 42, 5253. ISBN 0-394-49406-7.
[7] Victor Schlegel (1886) Ueber Projectionsmodelle der
regelmssigen vier-dimensionalen Krper, Waren

10

[8] Minkowski, Hermann (1909), "Raum und Zeit",

Physikalische Zeitschrift 10: 7588
Various English translations on Wikisource: Space
and Time
[9] C Mller (1952). The Theory of Relativity. Oxford UK:
Clarendon Press. p. 93. ISBN 0-19-851256-2.
[10] Coxeter, H. S. M. (1973). Regular Polytopes, Dover Publications, Inc., p. 119.
[11] J. Scott Carter, Masahico Saito Knotted Surfaces and
Their Diagrams
[12] Ray d'Inverno (1992), Introducing Einsteins Relativity,
Clarendon Press, chp. 22.8 Geometry of 3-spaces of constant curvature, p.319, ISBN 0-19-859653-7
[13] Ambinder MS, Wang RF, Crowell JA, Francis GK,
Brinkmann P. (2009). Human four-dimensional spatial
intuition in virtual reality. Psychon Bull Rev. 16(5):81823. doi:10.3758/PBR.16.5.818 PMID 19815783 online
supplementary material
[14] Aalo TN, Graziano MS (2008). Four-Dimensional
Spatial Reasoning in Humans. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance
34(5):1066-1077.
doi:10.1037/0096-1523.34.5.1066
Preprint
[15] John McIntoshs four dimensional maze game. Free software
[16] Michio Kaku (1994). Hyperspace: A Scientic Odyssey
Through Parallel Universes, Time Warps, and the Tenth
Dimension, Part I, chapter 3, The Man Who Saw the
Fourth Dimension (about tesseracts in years 18701910).
ISBN 0-19-286189-1.
[17] Rucker, Rudy (1984), The Fourth Dimension /A Guided
Tour of the Higher Universes, Houghton Miin, p. 18,
ISBN 0-395-39388-4
[18] In particular, Hinton, Charles Howard (1904). Fourth Dimension. pp. 1114. ISBN 1-5645-9708-3.

Further reading
Andrew Forsyth (1930) Geometry of Four Dimensions, link from Internet Archive.
Gamow, George (1988). One Two Three . . . Innity: Facts and Speculations of Science (3rd ed.).
Courier Dover Publications. p. 68. ISBN 0-48625664-2. Extract of page 68
E. H. Neville (1921) The Fourth Dimension,
Cambridge University Press, link from University of
Michigan Historical Math Collection.

EXTERNAL LINKS

10 External links
Dimensions videos, showing several dierent ways
to visualize four dimensional objects
Science News article summarizing the Dimensions videos, with clips
Garrett Jones tetraspace page
Flatland: a Romance of Many Dimensions (second
edition)
TeV scale gravity, mirror universe, and ... dinosaurs
Article from Acta Physica Polonica B by Z.K. Silagadze.
Exploring Hyperspace with the Geometric Product
4D Euclidean space
4D Building Blocks - Interactive game to explore 4D
space
4DNav - A small tool to view a 4D space as four 3D
space uses ADSODA algorithm
MagicCube 4D A 4-dimensional analog of traditional Rubiks Cube.
Frame-by-frame animations of 4D - 3D analogies

11
11.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Four-dimensional space Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-dimensional_space?oldid=725248852 Contributors: Zundark, The

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11.2

Images

File:120-cell_graph_H4.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/120-cell_graph_H4.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tomruen
File:24-cell_graph.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/24-cell_graph.svg License: Public domain Contributors: I (Tom Ruen (talk)) created this work entirely by myself. Original artist: Tom Ruen (talk)
File:4-cube_t0.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/4-cube_t0.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
Own work Original artist: self
File:4-cube_t3.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/4-cube_t3.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
Own work Original artist: self
File:4-simplex_t0.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/4-simplex_t0.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tomruen
File:600-cell_graph_H4.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/600-cell_graph_H4.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tomruen
File:8-cell-simple.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/8-cell-simple.gif License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: JasonHise at English Wikipedia
File:CDel_3.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/CDel_3.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own
work Original artist: User:Tomruen
File:CDel_4.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/CDel_4.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own
work Original artist: User:Tomruen

11

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:CDel_5.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/CDel_5.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own

work Original artist: User:Tomruen
File:CDel_node.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/CDel_node.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Tomruen
File:CDel_node_1.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/CDel_node_1.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Tomruen
File:Clifford-torus.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Clifford-torus.gif License: CC0 Contributors:
Created using Maya and Macromedia Fireworks. Original artist: Jason Hise
File:Cube-edge-first.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Cube-edge-first.png License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tetracube
File:Cube-face-first.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Cube-face-first.png License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tetracube
File:Cube-vertex-first.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Cube-vertex-first.png License: CC BY 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tetracube
File:Schlegel_wireframe_8-cell.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Schlegel_wireframe_8-cell.png
License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Jalo using CommonsHelper. Original artist: The
original uploader was Tomruen at English Wikipedia
File:Tesseract-perspective-cell-first.png
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/
Tesseract-perspective-cell-first.png License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tetracube
File:Tesseract-perspective-edge-first.png
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/
Tesseract-perspective-edge-first.png License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tetracube
File:Tesseract-perspective-face-first.png
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/
Tesseract-perspective-face-first.png License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tetracube
File:Tesseract-perspective-vertex-first.png
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/
Tesseract-perspective-vertex-first.png License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tetracube
File:Tesseract.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Tesseract.gif License: Public domain Contributors:
Own work Original artist: Jason Hise at English Wikipedia
File:Tesseract_net.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Tesseract_net.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: de:Benutzer:Byteemoz
File:Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.
svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.
File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau

11.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0