Functions of the Different Parts of the Cell

Cytoplasm
The jelly-like fluid that fills a cell is called cytoplasm. It is made up of mostly water
and salt. Cytoplasm is present within the cell membrane of all cell types and
contains all organelles and cell parts. Cytoplasm has various functions in the cell.
Most of the important activities of the cell occur in the cytoplasm. Cytoplasm
contains molecules such as enzymes which are responsible for breaking down waste
and

also

aid

in

metabolic

activity.

Cytoplasm is responsible for giving a cell its shape. It helps to fill out the cell and
keeps organelles in their place. Without cytoplasm, the cell would be deflated and
materials would not be able to pass easily from one organelle to another.
Cytosol is the part of the cytoplasm that does not contain organelles. Instead,
cytosol is confined by the boundaries of a matrix which fills the part of the cell that
does not contain organelles.

Nucleus
The nucleus is an organelle found in eukaryotic cells. Inside its fully-enclosed
nuclear membrane, it contains the majority of the cell's genetic material. This
material is organized as DNA molecules, along with a variety of proteins, to form
chromosomes.
The nucleus is made up of a double membrane nuclear envelope that keeps the
entire organelle encased, isolating its contents from the rest of the cell, and the
nucleoskeleton which supports the cell as a whole. The nucleus maintains the
security of the genes and controls the functions of the entire cell by regulating gene
expression. This is why the nucleus is sometimes referred to as the control center,

or

the

"brain,"

of

the

cell.

Since large molecules cannot get inside the nucleus through the nuclear membrane,
small holes called nuclear pores dot the surface area of the envelope. These pores
regulate the transport of those molecules by carrier proteins embedded in the
double layer of the membrane. Small molecules and ions are able to pass through
the

membrane

freely,

however.

The nucleus is the site for genetic transcription, while keeping it separated from the
cytoplasm. This means gene regulation is taking place in eukaryotic cells that have
a nucleus, but that this gene regulation isn't available to prokaryotes. That means
the main function of the nucleus is to govern gene expression and facilitate DNA
replication during the cell cycle.

Ribosomes
Ribosomes are a cell structure that makes protein. Protein is needed for many cell
functions such as repairing damage or directing chemical processes. Ribosomes can
be found floating within the cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.
The location of the ribosomes in a cell determines what kind of protein it makes. If
the ribosomes are floating freely throughout the cell, it will make proteins that will
be utilized within the cell itself. When ribosomes are attached to endoplasmic
reticulum, it is referred to as rough endoplasmic reticulum or rough ER. Proteins
made on the rough ER are used for usage inside the cell or outside the cell.
Proteins are an essential part of all cells. Both eukaryotes and prokaryotes require
protein to function and carry out daily activities. For this reason, ribosomes are
extremely important for the survival of living things.

Golgi Apparatus
A major organelle in most eukaryotic cells is the structure of membrane-bound sacs
called the Golgi apparatus (or Golgi body, Golgi complex, dictyosome). It acts to
process and package the macromolecules such asproteins and lipids that are
synthesized by the cell. It has been likened to the cell's post office. A major
function is the modifying, sorting and packaging of proteins for secretion. It is also
involved in the transport of lipids around the cell, and the creation of lysosomes.
The sacs or folds of the Golgi apparatus are called cisternae. Typically there are five
to eight cisternae but as many as sixty have been observed. The cisternae stack
has five functional regions: the cis-Golgi network, cis-Golgi, medial-Golgi, transGolgi, and trans-Golgi network. Vesicles from theendoplasmic reticulum fuse with
the cis-Golgi network and subsequently progress through the stack to the transGolgi network, where they are packaged and sent to the required destination. Each
region contains differentenzymes which selectively modify the contents depending
on where they are destined to reside.

Endoplasmic Reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a type of organelle in the cells of eukaryotic
organisms that forms an interconnected network of flattened, membrane-enclosed
sacs or tube-like structures known as cisternae. The membranes of the ER are
continuous with the outer nuclear membrane. Endoplasmic reticulum occurs in most
types of eukaryotic cells, including the most primitive Giardia, but is absent
from red blood cells and spermatozoa. There are two types of endoplasmic
reticulum, rough and smooth. The outer (cytosolic) face of the rough endoplasmic
reticulum is studded with ribosomes that are the sites ofprotein synthesis. The
rough endoplasmic reticulum is especially prominent in cells such as hepatocytes.
The

smooth

endoplasmic

reticulum

in lipid manufacture

and

metabolism,

and detoxification.

The

smooth

lacks
the

ER

ribosomes

production
is

and

functions

of steroid

hormones,

especially

abundant

in

mammalian liver and gonad cells.

The

lacy

membranes

of

the

endoplasmic

reticulum were first seen in 1945 using electron microscopy.

Vacuole
A vacuole is usually found in all plant and fungal cells, as well as some cells of
protists, animals, and bacteria. These membrane-bound structures are basically
just enclosed compartments thatare filled with both inorganic and organic
molecules, along with water to support the organelle. Vacuoles may also
containsolutions of enzymes and occasionally solid particles that have been
engulfed.
There is no typical size or shape for a vacuole, theysimply vary depending on what
the individual cell needs. They're formed by the fusion of several different vesicles.
Vacuoles can serve a wide variety of functions in a cell, and their importance
depends on what role they play within the cell. Typically, their job includes isolating
harmful materials, storing waste products, storing valuable water in a plant cell,
helping maintain the pressure within a cell, balancing the pH of a cell, exporting
products

out

of

the

cell,

and

storing

proteins

for

seed

germination.

Vacuoles also have much more involved roles to play in the cell, such as autophagy,
supporting biogenesis and degradation of various structures, and thelysisof
unwanted proteins. Scientists have even theorized that the vacuole plays a
significant part in destroying bacterial intruders or storing helpful bacteria.

Cell Membrane
Both eukaryotic cells, including plant cells and animal cells, andprokaryotic cells,
e.g. bacteria, are enclosed by a cell membrane.

A cell membrane (see the simple diagram on the right) is a thin structure that is
also known as the plasma membrane.
The main functions of the cell membrane are:

to maintain the physical integrity of the cell - that is to mechanically enclose the
contents of the cell, and also
to control the movement of particles e.g. ions or molecules, into and out of the cell.
Lists of functions of a cell membrane ( = plasma membrane) can include various
numbers of functions because particles can move across the membrane in several
different ways, including diffusion via ion channels, active transport via membrane
pumps, endocytosis (into the cell) and exocytosis (out of the cell). Some lists count
these different transport mechanisms as different functions while other lists count
"transport of materials" as one function of the cell membrane.

Mitochondria
Mitochondria are often referred to as the powerhouse of the cell. They are small
structures within a cell that are made up of two membranes and a matrix. The
membrane is where the chemical reactions occur and the matrix is where the fluid
is

held.

Mitochondria

are

part

of

eukaryotic

cells.

The main job of mitochondria is to perform cellular respiration. This means it takes
in nutrients from the cell, breaks it down, and turns it into energy. This energy is
then

in

turn

used

by

the

cell

to

carry

out

various

functions.

Each cell contains a different number of mitochondria. The number present is

dependent upon how much energy the cell requires. The more energy a cell needs
the more mitochondria that will be present. Cells have the ability to produce more
mitochondria as needed. They also can combine mitochondria to make larger ones.

Centriole
Centrioles are tubelike structures that aid in cell division. They generally are found
close to the nucleus and are made up of nine tube-like structures that each have
three tubules.

There are two main functions of centrioles that we will focus on.
1. Cell division
The main function of the centriole is to help with cell division in animal cells. The
centrioles help in the formation of the spindle fibers that separate the chromosomes
during cell division (mitosis).

This occurs during the anaphase stage of mitosis in which the chromosomes move
towards the different poles of the cell. Without centriole's, the chromosomes would
not be able to move. In the picture above you can see the chromosomes moving to
the opposite poles and also the spindle fibers (the lines).

2. Celiogenesis
The second function of centrioles that we will focus on is celiogenesis.
Celiogenesis is simply the formation of cilia and flagella on the surface of cells.
Cilia and flagella help the cell move.

Nucleolus
The nucleus of many eukaryotic cells contains a structure called a nucleolus. As the
nucleus is the "brain" of the cell, the nucleolus could loosely be thought of as the
brain of the nucleus. The nucleolus takes up around 25% of the volume of the
nucleus.

This structure is made up of proteins and ribonucleic acids (RNA). Its main function
is to rewrite ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and combine it with proteins. This results in the
formation of incomplete ribosomes. There is an uninterrupted chain between the
nucleoplasm and the interior parts of the nucleolus, whichoccurs through a system
of nucleolarpassages. These passages allow macromolecules with a molecular
weight up to 2,000 kDato be easily circulated throughout the nucleolus.
Because of its close relationship to the chromosomal matter of the cell and its
important role in producing ribosomes, the nucleolus is thought to be the cause of a
variety

of

different

human

diseases.

Amyloplast
Amyloplasts are non-pigmented organelles found in some plant cells. They are
responsible

for

the

synthesis

and

storage

of starchgranules,

through

the polymerization of glucose. Amyloplasts also convert this starch back into sugar
when the plant needs energy. Large numbers of amyloplasts can be found in fruit
and in underground storage tissues of some plants, such as in potato tubers.
Amyloplasts are plastids, specifically leucoplasts. Plastids are a specialized class of
cellular organelles that carry their own genome and are believed to be descendants
of cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) which formed a symbiotic relationship with
the eukaryotic cell.
Starch synthesis and storage also takes place in chloroplasts, a type of pigmented
plastid involved in photosynthesis. Amyloplasts and chloroplasts are closely related,
and amyloplasts can turn into chloroplasts; this is for instance observed when
potato tubers are exposed to light and turn green.

Chloroplast

Chloroplasts are the food producers of the cell. The organelles are only found in
plant cells and some protists such as algae. Animal cells do not have chloroplasts.
Chloroplasts work to convert light energy of the Sun into sugars that can be used
by cells. The entire process is called photosynthesis and it all depends on the little
green chlorophyll molecules in each chloroplast.

Cell Wall
Cell wall is a tough, rigid layer that surrounds some types of cells. Cell wall is a
characteristic feature to cells of plants, bacteria, fungi, algae and some archaea. It
is located outside the cell membrane. The major function of the cell wall is to
provide rigidity, tensile strength, structural support, protection against mechanical
stress and infection. It also aids in diffusion of gases in and out of the cell. Cell wall
composition varies from species to species and also depends on the developing
stage of the organism. Protozoans and animals do not have a cell wall.

Lysosome
A simple description of lysosomes is that they are tiny sacs filled with fluid
containing enzymes (i.e. proteins that act as biological catalysts) which enable the
cell to process its nutrients and are also responsible for destroying the cell after it
has died.
Lysosomes are the main sites of digestion, that is the break-down of structures,
within

cells.

There are, however, some circumstances (diseases/conditions) in which lysosomes

begin to 'break-down' living cells - not just useless parts of cells or potentially
harmful structures.
A defining characteristic of lysosomes is that each one is bounded by only a single
membrane.

The functions of lysosomes concern the different ways in which the enzymes
contained within the membrane (that defines and encloses the lysosome) affect
other materials, which can originate from either outside or inside the cell.
Note that the functions of lysosomes are listed differently in different textbooks both in terms of the number of functions listed and the words used to describe the
various processes. Technical (biology) terms are indicated in bold green below, with
explanations of these words being given in standard font.
Release

enzymes

outside

of

the

cell

(exocytosis)

which may serve the purpose of destroying materials around the cell.
Break-down
i.e.

by

'digestion'
fusing

of
with

materials

from inside

vacuoles

from

the

cell (autophagy)

inside

the

cell.

This could include digesting worn-out organelles so that useful chemicals locked-up
in their structures can be re-used by the cell.
Break-down
i.e.

by

'digestion'
fusing

of
with

materials

from outside

vacuoles

from

the

cell (heterophagy)

outside

the

cell.

This could include breaking-down material taken-in by phagocytes, which include

many types of white blood cells - also known as leucocytes. Specific mechanisms of
heterophagy can be:
phagocytic - by which cells engulf extracellular debris, bacteria or other particles only occurs in certain specialized cells
pinocytic - by which cells engulf extracellular fluid
endocytic - by which cells take-up particles such as molecules that have become
attached to the outer-surface of the cell membrane.
Recycle the products of biochemical reactions that have taken place following
materials being brought into the cell by endocytosis (general term for this
'recycling'

function: biosynthesis)

Different materials (chemicals) are processed in different ways, e.g. some

structures may be processed/degraded within lysosomes and others are taken to
the surface of the cell. In general, the functions of lysosomes involve breaking-

down i.e. processing to 'make safe' or make use of, or removing from the cell e.g.
by exocytosis, useless and potentially harmful materials such as old worn-out parts
of the cell or potential threats such bacteria. Lysosomes can therefore be thought of
as the rubbish disposal units within cells.