Questions of Locality

Author(s): Doreen Massey

Source: Geography, Vol. 78, No. 2 (April 1993), pp. 142-149
Published by: Geographical Association
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Questionsof Locality
Doreen Massey
studiesof locality' and 'place'.
ABSTRACT: This paper exploresissues surrounding
Reasonsfor therenewedemphasison suchstudiesare examined,beforeconsideration
of
twocontroversial
aspects. Thefirstis thechargeofparochialism,whichis contested.It
is arguedthat,whenconceivedin a particularway,localitystudiescan be at theheart
both in its recognitionof geographical
of a geographywhichis trulyinternationalist,
and in its analysis of the {unequal) relationswhichbind
uniquenessand difference,
issuesare examined,and it is argued
different
places together.Secondlymethodological
that,far frombeingconfinedto description,
localitystudiespose productivetheoretical
challenges.

and of thecloselyrelated- indeedsometimes

The issueof locality,
indistinguishable
on the
conceptsof place and regionhave in the last few yearsfiguredprominently
agenda.The questionof place and localityhas been centralto a major
geographical
of researchfundedby the Economicand Social ResearchCouncil.1There
programme
of thisfocus,abouttheintellectual
havebeenstormsof debateabouttheappropriateness
and indeedabout the
frameworks
neededforgeographical
analysisof suchphenomena,
in the firstinstance.Finallythe notionsof place
of place/region/locality
verydefinition
as geographical
and localityfigure
conceptsand as focifortheorganisation
prominently,
theNationalCurriculum.
within
ofgeography,
oftheteaching
thisnew(or renewed)
in explaining
whichseemto be important
Thereare manyfactors
emphasis.A numberof authorshave in recentyearsexpressedtheviewthatgeography
betweenplacesand itsability
of thedifferences
stoodin dangerof losingitsappreciation
is notmerelyone whichderives
in realdepth.Thisargument
to explainthosedifferences
has strains
of place,althoughit certainly
to thespecificity
froman emotionalattachment
that
ofthatwithin
it; butit has othersources,too. On theone handthereis theargument
is a necessary
to difference,
to geographical
a greaterattentiveness
variation,
component
of otherpartsof the world.Thus
of a widersocial projectof greatercomprehension
has written:
Gregory
one of the raisonsd'treof the human sciencesis surelyto comprehendthe 'otherness'of other
cultures.There are fewtasks more urgentin a multicultural
world,
societyand an interdependent
of
and yet one of moderngeography'sgreatestbetrayalswas its devaluationof the specificities
place and of people (Gregory,1989,p. 358).
It is in the context of arguments such as this that calls have recentlybeen made for the
rebirth of (a re-thought) regional geography. Moreover, the reference in the quotation
WaltonHall,
in theFacultyofSocialSciencesat theOpenUniversity,
ofGeography
DoreenMasseyis Professor
1993.
MiltonKeynesMK7 6AA TheGeographical
Association,
142

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GEOGRAPHY

143

ratherthanonlyto geography
to "thehumansciences"generally
fromGregory
pointsto
to it) is a wordwhichis
a largerissue. For 'difference'
(and the need to be attentive
currently
sweepingthroughalmost all the social sciences.And one focus of the
is thatbetween
to difference
attention
places.
geographer's
is now moresalientwithinthe
Thereare otherreasons,too, whylocality/place/region
of
the
theoretical
a
that
some
include
These
approacheswhich
perhaps feeling
discipline.
in recentdecades(fromthemathematised
havebeendominant
regionalsciencesto certain
to specificity.
Thereis also thefactthat,
formsof Marxism)havetendedto be insensitive
or so yearsof economic
thelast twenty
bothin theUnitedKingdomand internationally,
It has beenvery
and socialchangehave involveda profoundgeographical
restructuring.
obvious,for instance,that changesat nationallevel whichmay go by one name
willoftenhave quitedifferent
forinstance,or 'monetarism')
resonances,
(Thatcherism',
effects
and resultin quitedistinct
(not onlyeconomicbut social,culturaland politicalas
in orderto assessand
Thus it becameimportant,
well),in different
partsof thecountry.
the impactand meaningof those 'national'phenomena,also to go down
understand
theirvariability
withplace.It was concerns
of this
belowthenationalleveland investigate
ofthe'localities'
behindtheinitiation
naturewhichwerean important
partof thethinking
researchprogramme
(Massey,1991a). And therehave been otherreasonstoo forthe
ofthe
communication
between
relevance
of
(and understanding
locality:thegreater
greater
a greater
relations
between)economicand socialgeography,
emphasison cultural
integral
issues,and in wayswhichlinkedin to otherpartsof geography
(Jackson,1989),a greater
the
of theneedto startfromthepositionof humanagency,to understand
appreciation
in
its
local
and
of
life
to-ings fro-ings
dynamics daily
in locality/place/region
is one
I shouldperhapsdeclarefromthestartthatthisinterest
whichI shareand support.HoweverI do so withsomestrongcaveatswhichshouldbe
I am verywaryof 'fashions',
and of overly-strong
bornein mindin whatfollows.Firstly,
follow
them.
The
calls
for
a new focuson
of
and
interest
as
people
swings emphasis
are not calls forthosefocito dominate
localitiesand a newsortof regionalgeography
at theexpenseof otherthings.Indeed,as willbecomeclearin whatfollows,
geography
to any seriousfocuson the
otheraspectsof geographyare absolutelyindispensable
A
is
of
focus
on
just one,perhapsuntilrecently
place/locality/region
understandingplace.
the
of
'the
Secondly, newsalienceof localityhas
aspect
compleatgeographer'.
neglected,
in seminars,
conferences
and journals,and not a little
discussion,
provokedconsiderable
In thesectionsbelowI shallpickup and analysesomeof thesedebates.But
disagreement.
is a tensionat theheartof the
it seemsto me thatwhattheirveryexistence
highlights
debateabout theway in whichwe do localitystudies.Many of thosewho are waryof
such studieswould argue that theyare necessarily
parochialin contentand 'merely'
in form.I shall arguebelownot onlythattheyneed not be eitherof these
descriptive
how. But thereis no
thingsbut thattheyshouldnot be, and I shalltryto demonstrate
doubtthatsuchdangersexist.The question,then,is howto avoidthem.

A focuson thelocalityneednotbe parochial

In educationalcirclesit is sometimes
relatemoreeasilyto studies
arguedthatstudents
- withingeographical
of thingswhichare local to them,including
studies- theirlocal
areas.The argument
is made thattheyare likelyto be moreinterested
in thelocal and
I am personally
familiar.
somewhat
of
this
have
sceptical
argument
(I
alwaysbeenequally
fascinated
But thereis no doubtthatlinkingone's teachingintothe
by the far-away).
concreterealityof dailylifecan 'bringmessageshome'in a particularly
forceful
way.Of
coursestudiesof localitycan equallywellbe of placeson theothersideof theworld,but
wherever
a
theyare theyrunthedangerof being'parochial'.A parochialwayof studying
Geography) 1993

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GEOGRAPHY

144

on theplaceitself,
whichtriesto definea unique
localityis one whichfocussesexclusively
identityfor that place and wherethe notion of a 'sense of place' resonateswith
and nostalgia.
romanticism
A non-parochial
viewofplace

But thereis anotherway of studyinglocalitieswhichis preciselythe oppositeof

parochial.This is the viewof localitywhichstressesits linkageswiththe widerworld.
Theselinksexistin manywaysand at manylevelsand theyare notjust productsof the
modernera.The sourcesofthefood,theclothesand goodsin theshopswillbe global;the
of 'local'
petrolin thegaragelinksin to somepartoftheworldin thenews;theownership
not all be withinthe area; the reasonfora recentclosureor
companieswillcertainly
in manyareas themixof
fromelsewhere;
redundancies
maybe traceableto competition
Even in the most
the local populationwill displaya varietyof non-localinheritances.
in
the
middle
of
most
little
nowhere
the
churchtoweror
'undisturbed',
'local',
village
in
in
whose
son
was
born
far-off
now disputed
rises
to
honour
a
lands,
god
steeple
territory.
The pointis thatthereare todayveryfew,if any,placesin theworld,and certainly
understood
or explainedin isolation
nonein the UK, whichcan be at all satisfactorily
in whichtheyare set.The nature
bothnationaland international,
fromthewidercontext,
of theconcernsof humangeography,
from
of suchlinkswillrangeacrossthespectrum
and influence),
to political(theimpacts
economic(through
trade,and products,
ownership
to
of decisionsmade elsewhere,
perhaps,fromMaastrichtto the GATT negotiations)
of homein theheadsof people
cultural(thefilmson at thelocal cinemaor thethoughts
of theNorthin those
as theygo about theirdaily,apparently
local, business:thoughts
of those
whohavecomesouthin searchof work,storiesof Cyprusheardin thefamilies
who emigrated
yearsago). These thingstie one localityto manyothersin a myriad
of
different
theyare morethan'links',theyare partof theconstitution
ways.Moreover,
character.
theplace,partofwhatgivesit itsownparticular
of suchlinksis rarelynew,althoughthenatureof themwill
theexistence
Furthermore,
in hisbook On Livingin an Old Country,
writes
havechangedovertime.PatrickWright,
in the
are told:theplacewas firstmentioned
of thewayin whichso manylocal histories
a
of
villanes
.
.
.
and
so
it
had
ten
on,
Book,
stately
through
progression
Domesday
is
1985).Such history
changesall of whichare boundedby thelocal area itself(Wright,
bitof
of thatnow-disputed
indeed'parochial',seeingonlytheplaceitself.Thusa history
as a storyoffieldsgivingwayto docks
calledLondonDocklandscouldbe written
country
in
financethen
turn
and
and working-class
offices,
cedingplace to high-tech
housing,
so wouldbe to missa lot ofwhat
residences.
Butto tellthehistory
housesand 'executive'
ofthat
and to miss,too,muchoftheexplanation
gavethearea itsshapeand itscharacter,
For thestoryof thechangefromdocksto financehousesis also thestoryabout
history.
at theheartof one of the
thearea'schanging
placein theworld,fromportand processor
and financelinkin thechainof late
world'sbiggestempiresto a vitalcommunications
rolein a particular
worldcities.In eachperiodthearea playeda distinct
twentieth-century
divisionof labour. And each period left its mark and tracesof the
international
namesto themixofthelocalpopulation.
international
links,fromstreet
and their
of localitiesin thiswayis to stressthattheirformation,
The pointof thinking
cannotbe understoodmerelyby lookingat the place alone. Any serious
character,
of any one place necessitates
standingback, takinga broaderview,and
understanding
one's own local area can be the
in
In
this
even
it
a
wider
context.
studying
way
setting
oppositeof parochial;it can indeedreallymakemoreconcretethelinksbetween'us' and
not onlyhow thelocal is affected
'them',and to understand
by theglobalbut how the
actionsof 'local people' at 'local level' are fullyimplicatedin, and thus have some
for,eventsin, and conditionsof, people in lands whichmay oftenseem
responsibility
remote.
Geography 1993

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GEOGRAPHY

145

ofinterdependence
ofan
For 'links'withotherplacesare reallyrelations
and,moreover,
whichis rarelyequal. What need to be analysedare the aspectsof
interdependence
influence
and powerwhichtheselinksembody.Throughan
subordination,
domination,
therealityof a locality's'place in theworld'and a
analysisof theseone can understand
gooddeal ofwhatmakeit whatit is,whatgivesit itsidentity.
Theidentity
ofplace
of place' must
For ifall thisis so, thenthequestionof whatis meantby 'theidentity
of
also be set in a widercontext.For identities,
too, are formedin partby thehistory
relationswithotherplaces.Those 'linksto otherplaces' do notjust allow us to follow
themin orderto discoverwhatlies at theotherend (thoughthatis a usefulpedagogical
function);
theyare also part of whatgivesany place its character.It is impossibleto
of theplace
theidentity
forexample,to understand
whatit is to be 'British',
understand
has
theimpactof theworldrolewhichthecountry
theUK, without
deeplyappreciating
The quintessentially
of theseislandsthemselves.
'English'cup of
playeduponthecharacter
in the
tea was bornout of theactionsof theEast India Company,and sugarplantations
Caribbean.
to uniqueness
contributes
It is in thiswaythatinterdependence
1985).
(OpenUniversity,
as twosidesof thesamecoin,
can be understood
and uniqueness
Indeedinterdependence
of
and theidentity
in whichtwofundamental
concepts- unevendevelopment
geographical
to
the
can
each
contribute
in
with
each
other
and
held
tension
can
be
explanation
place
oftheother.
as
ofplacesareconstantly
and in partbecauseofthis,theidentities
Moreover,
changing
neweffects
of theroleof theplacein thewiderschemeof things,
ofhistory,
newproducts
are added to the old. What is meantby talk of 'the real Lancashire'?A picture
risesintoviewof proudcottonmillsand huddledterraces
(somevariantof a
immediately
foronlya hundredand fifty
yearsof the
yetcottonhas beenimportant
Lowrypainting);
forevenless.
and dominant
ofthatpartofthecountry,
history
A senseofplace
whichare so
to a 'senseof place' it is nottheseanalysedhistories
Yet whenone refers
relevantbut ratherthe feelingswhichpeople carryroundwiththem.Thereare many
in
it recently
otherswhohavewritten
widelyon thisissue,and StephenDanielsconsidered
(Daniels,1992).But thereare two aspectsof thedebatewhichrelateto that
Geography
over localities.Firstly,therewill in all likelihoodbe more than one 'sense' of any
thewhiteworkingparticular
place.In theHackneyof whichPatrickWrightwas writing
notionof thearea,different
classhas a verydifferent
meeting
placesand routesthrough
of what is its past, fromeitherthe ethnic-minority
it, even different
understandings
In Docklandstheworking
class of theIsle
middle-classes.
or thegentrifying
communities
of Dogs thinksin termsof Millwallwhiletheincoming
yuppiescomposeimagesof status,
and of 'theVeniceof theNorth'.Evenin localitieswhichappearseamless,
of pioneering,
suchas miningvillages,a woman'ssenseof theplace,forinstance,is likelyto be very
inhabitant
of
froma man's.The senseof whatis 'Britain'to a second-generation
different
to thatofdenizensofthevillagesoftheCotswolds.
Brixton
is likelyto be in contrast
thosedistinct
sensesof a placecan happilycoexist,through
Moreoverwhilesometimes
sometimestheymay be
mutualignoranceor throughregularpatternsof negotiation,
In
the
memories
of thewhiteworking
conflict.
and
even
into
Hackney
contradictory
erupt
of howtheplaceoughtto be ('thereal
class,theimagestheybringto mindwhenthinking
by the unwantedarrivalof new groups,bothethnicHackney'),are rudelyinterrupted
of
and middle-class.In Docklands the occasional bouts of spray-painting
minority
what
but
a
clear
conflict
about
the
end
of
not
cars
are
witness
to
is,
only
sharp
expensive
senseofplace.
ofthearea and itsdominant
aboutwhatshouldbe,theidentity
1993
Geography

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146

GEOGRAPHY

I;iii. 1. Reminders of Fimpire in Kilburn. Photo by the author.

Further,and this is the second point,a sense of place - just as much as the
or the'objective'analysisof its
structure
of its economicor demographic
understanding
- can be in partconstructed
of the locality'splace in the
out of consciousness
identity
I walkdownKilburnHighRoad to do myshopping,
world.When,on Saturdaymornings
the IRA graffiti
and the Irishpubs,the Indiansari shop and the noticesforMuslim
whichtellsthatthisis themainroute
as
well
as theconstantsnarlof traffic
gatherings,
to thinkof Kilburnwithout
fromthecentreof Londonto theMl, all makeit impossible
of thehistory
of theBritish
it in to centuries
Empireand placeshalfa worldaway
linking
(Massey,1991b)(Fig. 1). The veryfeelof Kilburn,mysenseof it as a uniqueplace,is in
outofitsglobal(as wellas widernational)connections.
partconstructed
precisely
ratherthanthrough
Moreover,sucha senseof place,constructed
throughinteraction
to establish.For a senseof place whichassumesit is uniqueand
closure,is important
eternal,and constructed
onlyout of materialsfoundin thatplace,can be a dangerous
and finala senseof placecan be usedto
too coherent
thing.At one endof thespectrum,
suburb("it reallydoesn'tfitin withthe
hostel
out
of
a
well-heeled
a
keep community-care
such
and horrors
character
oftheplace").At theotheritcan lead to nationalist
nostalgias
as ethniccleansing.
of the
is to retainan appreciation,
and an understanding
The challenge
forgeographers
on
that
other
side
of
the
of
while
of
the
always
place
insisting
importance,
uniqueness,
ofanyplacewithothers.
coin,thenecessary
interdependence

Descriptionand explanation
whichhave been made of localitystudiesis the chargethat
Amongthe criticisms
The burdenof theaccusationis thatno
methodologically
theyrelysolelyon 'description'.
theoryis involved.Thereare manywaysin whichsucha chargeshouldbe questioned.
Geography 1993

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GEOGRAPHY

147

it is manyyearsnow sincethe notionwas challengedthatthereis any

Most evidently,
in the sense of a description
whichis devoidof any
such thingas 'meredescription'
contentwillbe implicit
content.It maywellbe thatsuchtheoretical
theoretical
only,and
be there.Thereis
thatit maynotevenbe recognised
by theauthor,butit willinevitably
uninformed
no such thingas a totallyneutraldescription
by a worldviewof whatis
therecognition
of thishas
are
linked
and
of
how
Further,
together.
phenomena
significant
ofdescription
and of thedifferent
of thepotential
beendevelopedintoa fullerrecognition
involvescomplexissuesof interpretation
and
formswhichit can take.Thick description'
in a rangeof
thatany realitycan be interpreted
an understanding
incorporates
precisely
is
of theadjective'mere'to description
different
ways(Daniels,1992).So theattachment
studiesof localitiescan fallintothetrapof 'bad'
tenable.Nonetheless
no longerseriously
of the theoretical
framework
on
withoutexplicitrecognition
unselfconscious
description
structures
whichit assumes,or the issueswhichare at
whichit rests,the explanatory
stake.
mostcertainly
however,
requires
enquiryintoplaceor locality,
Anyseriousgeographical
A simple'contemplation
ofthelocal' willnotdo.
theorising.
explicit
andlocality
studies
Theory
of any particular
a notionof locality,or an understanding
locality,is a
Constructing
drawn
frommany
theoretical
It
means
challenge.
combiningtogetherunderstandings
ofsystematic
branches
geography.
thewiderforceswhichlinkthelocalityto the
At thebroadlevel,thatof understanding
to drawon an understanding
of nationaland international
worldbeyond,it is necessary
character
of
a
To
understand
the
economic
place is in partto bringin to play
processes.
the role of the localityin widerspatialdivisionsof
theoriesof location,to understand
in otherwords,in
to see thelocality,
of trade.It is necessary
labourand broaderpatterns
theparticular
To understand
thewholecontextof unevendevelopment.
populationmixit
the
histories
of otherplaces
to
back
to
studies
of
and
be
migration,
may necessary go
to
(Ireland,maybe,as in thecase of Kilburn,or the countriesof the Commonwealth),
and urban/rural
patternsof
studythe break-upof Empiremaybe,or inter-regional
withinthe UnitedKingdomitself.To understand
culturalchangesit maybe
migration
cultural
on a worldwide
scale
to
sensitive
to
broader
of
be
influence,
geographies
necessary
of a place,in other
level.A seriousanalysisof thefoundations
and at an intra-national
ofspatialchangethatgeography
has at
words,behovesthatwe drawuponall thetheories
itsdisposal.
But someof thecriticsof localitystudiesaccusedthemof beingdescriptive
mainlyon
is to
thesimplegroundsthattheyare 'local', whichis to say small-scale.
This,however,
does notonlyconcernitselfwiththe
confusethenatureof theory.
Theoryand explanation
of capitalaccumulation
at thegloballevelforinstanceor regionally
bigbroadstructures,
at the intra-national.
unevendevelopment
Local, small-scalephenomenaare equally
The
of local labourmarkets
and
amenableto, and demanding
of,theorising. functioning
the functioning
of local households
the dynamicsof genderrelations,
housingmarkets,
local as wellas the
all requiretheorising
at thespecifically
and theirdominantstructures
broaderlevel,becauseit is at the local levelthatmanyof theirmostcrucialprocesses
operate.
theunique
Explaining
holdwater,(or should
of localitystudiesas a-theoretical
Butifnoneof thesecriticisms
not do so if localitystudiesare well carriedout), the finalchargeis thatin the end
individual,places are not amenableto analysispreciselybecause theyare
particular,
withingeography
of regionalsciencethinking
producedtheaphorism
unique.The hey-day
it".
that"thereis littleone can do withtheuniquesavecontemplate
Geography( 1993

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148

GEOGRAPHY

The currentresurgenceof interestin localitieslooks set finallyto underminethis view.

One can, of course,contemplatethe unique, and one can delightin it, but one can also go
some way towards explainingit. Indeed since every actual event in time and space is
indeedunique we would be in a poor way if thiswerenot so.
So what are the sources of the uniqueness of place which we should as geographers
address?They are numerous.There is the veryfact of uneven developmentitself,which
means thatmost broadersocial forces,whethertheybe economicor culturalor whatever,
in fact occur unevenlyover space. So simplyfromthe operationof broader mechanisms
Moreover if we take up the argumentof the firstsection,that
places will be different.
are
the
of
product the intersectionof social relations(most of which will have a
places
broadergeographythan the place itself),thenpart of the uniquenessof each place derives
fromthe fact that nowhereelse has quite this particularintersection.Only in Kilburn is
put togetherquite this set of relationshipswith Ireland, the Caribbean, the North of
England and the rest of inner London. Moreover,the veryfact that thingsare brought
togetherin space, in place, oftenproduces furthereffects.The meetingin Docklands of
yuppiesand the manual working-classhas had effectson the opinions and the actions of
both groups. This, indeed, is one of the ways in which it can be said that the spatial
organisationof societyhas an effecton the operation of society.For the happenstance
juxtapositionswhich occur in place will oftenresultin furthersocial processes,and add
anothercomponenttherebyto the uniquenessof thatlocality.
The uniquenessof place, of course,derivesalso fromthe historyof the area but meant
here in the sense of a historyseen as a succession of roles in, and links to, the wider
national and internationalcontext.And here we come full circle, for it is this existing
whichis part of the basis for the constructionof uneven development,as
differentiation
the unevenarticulationof the new combineswithexistingplaces, the productsof specific
all thesesourcesof uniquenessare more than the
histories.Finally,and most importantly,
inexorableplaying-outof structuralforces.They must be viewed, too, not only as the
resultsof humanagencybut also throughthe lens of "what people have made of it", what
in whichtheyfindthemselves.
theyhave constructedas theirlivesin thecircumstances
Places as exemplars
There is one more way in which a focus on a particularlocalitycan link in to wider
theoreticaldebates. This is when its studyis used eitherto highlightor to investigatein
moredetail processeswhichare occurringon a broaderscale. A localitymay thusbe used
as a laboratoryforexploringissues in depth.Or it may be selectedas being exemplaryof
particularsets of forcesor changes.Los Angeles,forinstance,has been used by a number
the hypothesisedshiftfroma
to exemplify
of writers(as well,forinstance,as film-makers)
modernto a post-modernsociety.This is the city,so it is argued,wherecan be seen most
clearlyand in most abundance tendencieswhich are particularlycharacteristicof these
times. Most places, if in less spectacularways, can be studied,not only for theirown
as
sakes, but as specificexemplarsof some more generalphenomenonwhose investigation
of
its
real
enables
a
closer
of
of
the
of
the
analysis
place
particularity
complexities
part
workings.

But whatare localities?

The stressthathas been laid hereon the opennessof localities,on theirconstructionon
the basis of linksto the outsideratherthan demarcationfromit, inevitablyraises the issue
of boundaries.Geographersseem to love drawingboundaries.And yet in principlethis
difficult.
Rather,
approach to the notionof localitymakes any formof boundary-drawing
places are best thoughtof as netsof social relations.
Geography 1993

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GEOGRAPHY

149

Moreover,whatmay best be definedas a place forone purpose- a focuson the

- is notnecessarily
network
of socialrelations
housingmarketperhaps,or on a particular
thebestforanother a study,say,ofgender-relations.
Eventhenotionofa senseofplace
willnotsolvetheproblem,
sinceit has alreadybeenarguedthatthesewillbe multiple
and
maywellhavedifferent
geographies.
Localitiesin the sensediscussedhereare alwaysprovisional,
alwaysin theprocessof
beingmade,alwayscontested.In an issue of a journaldevotedto culturalstudiesand
nationalidentity
it has recently
beenwritten
thata "KentuckyFriedChickenfranchise
in
Paris, for example,surelydoes not qualifyas part of Frenchnationalidentity.A
McDonald'soutletin KyotohardlyexpressestheJapaneseethos"(Schiller,1992,p. 21).
The truthof thestatement
is indisputable.
And yet... thesenewculturalimports
haveto
as following
olderones,and notas invasionsof whathad previously
be understood
been
an internally-coherent,
are incorporated,
pristine,
purity.New arrivals,newconnections,
moulded,overtime.Thisdoes notmeanthat'anything
goes',thatthereis no roleforany
or preservation.
Howeverit does meanthatthereshouldbe debate
notionofconservation
and innovation.
aboutthetermsand natureof bothpreservation
And thisin turnshould
take account,not just of the natureof the 'characterof the area' but of how that
characterwas formedin inextricable
linkageto other places (the well-heeledarea
to
resist
the
hostel
community-care livesin directrelationto theinnercityfrom
organising
willcome).Suchconsiderations
wherethenewresidents
takeus intowiderrealmsof social
debateand politics.Anddebatesaboutlocalities,
theirmeanings
and whatshouldbe their
are one of thegeographical
arenasin whichsuchsocial and politicalissuesare
futures,
condensed.
NOTE
1. The researchprogrammeon The ChangingUrban and Regional System,The Economic and Social Reseach
Council. See, forinstance,Cooke, 1989.

REFERENCES
Cooke, P. (ed.) (1989) Localities,the ChangingFace of
UrbanBritain,London: Unwin Hyman.
Daniels, S. (1992) "Place and the geographical
imagination",Geography,77, 4, pp. 310-322.
Gregory,D. (1989) "The crisis of modernity?Human
geographyand criticalsocial theory",in Peet, R.
and Thrift,N. (eds.) New Models in Geography:the
Political Economy Perspective,vol. 2, London:
UnwinHyman,pp. 348-385.
to
Jackson,P. (1989) Maps of meaning:an Introduction
CulturalGeography,London: Unwin Hyman.
Massey, D. (1991a) "The political place of locality

studies", Environmentand Planning A, 23, pp.

267-281.
Massey, D. (1991b) "A global sense of place",
MarxismToday,June,pp. 24-29.
Open University(1985) Changing Britain, Changing
World: GeographicalPerspectives,a second level
Geography Course, Milton Keynes: Open
University.
Schiller,H.I. (1992) "Fast food, fastcars, fastpolitical
rhetoric",Intermedia,20, 4-5, pp. 21-22.
Wright, P. (1985) On Living in an Old Country,
London: Verso.

Geography 1993

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