A second developmental issue is that of stability and change, which involves the extent to

which early traits and characteristics endure throughout life or change during the developmental
process. Researchers on the side of stability argue that stability comes about as the result of
heredity and, possibly, early life experiences. They may claim, for instance, that a person who
has been shy all through life was either born shy or met with significant stress when interacting
with people as a small child. Developmentalists who consider that some change is possible over
the span of human development take the more optimistic view, arguing that the potential exists
for change through later experience.
In fact, it is the roles of early and later experience that have long been a topic for debate in the
stability-change developmental issue. The prominent concept of early experience supporters is
that a childs psychological qualities can be traced back to their origins (Kagan, 1992, 2003).
Sroufe, Egeland, Carlson, & Collins (2005) stress that development will never be optimal unless
infants experience warm, nurturing caregiving in their first year, and even early New England
ministers informed parents that the handling of their infants would determine the childrens
characters. Those who advocate later experience maintain that children
remain malleable throughout development and that later caregiving is equally as important as
earlier caregiving. Kagan (2000, 2003) points out that even children who have inherited a shy
temperament have the capability to become less shy as they get older (Santrock, 2008).
A warm parental relationship A close relationship with at least one parent who provides
warmth, guidance, an organized environment, and high expectations promotes resilience.
However, this issue is not independent of childrens personal characteristics. A child who is calm,
sociable, and adaptive is easier to nurture, and thus is more likely to experience positive relations
with parents, as well as others. Further, a child who receives parental warmth and attention is
more likely to develop an appealing nature (Conger & Conger, 2002).
Social support outside the immediate family This is the most consistent advantage of
resilient children. The caring adult does not have to be a parent but can include any adult
grandparent, aunt, uncle, or teacher who establishes a special relationship with the child
(Masten & Reed, 2002). Any adult who listens to a childs concerns provides help with solutions to
problems and handles stressors competently can serve as a model of effective coping. In
addition, children who have positive adult relationships are also more likely to associate with
peers who value school achievement, which is also linked to resilience.
Community resources and opportunities Community supports such as good schools, health
care, social services, libraries, and recreation centers promote the well-being of both parents and
children. For older children and adolescents, opportunities to take part in community life help
them deal with and overcome harsh conditions. In addition, children who participate in
extracurricular activities at school, religious youth groups, scouting, and the like, learn important
social skills such as cooperation and leadership, thus gaining self-esteem, responsibility, and
community commitment. In turn, community involvement can lead to additional opportunities to
develop meaningful relationships and new competencies, further strengthening resilience
(Seccombe, 2002).

Thus, research on resiliency underscores the intricate relationship between heredity and
environment. Children innately endowed with positive characteristics and/or positive child-rearing
experiences are more likely to engage in actions to reduce stressful conditions. However, when
there are many risks, overcoming them is ever more difficult (Quyen, Bird, Davies, Hoven, Cohen,
Jensen, & Goodman, 1998). Thus, interventions must include risk reduction and improvement of
home, school, and community relationships in order to immunize children against the negative
effects of risk. Thus, both the child and the environment must be a focus of attention, such that
the childs capacity for resilience is strengthened and the hazardous experiences are reduced.