1.

Particle Nature of Matter

The entire universe is made of two things: matter and energy. For the time being we will concern ourselves with
matter only.

Elements, Compounds & Mixtures

Elements
Note that an element:

consists of only one kind of atom,

cannot be broken down into a simpler type of matter by either physical or chemical means, and

can exist as either atoms (e.g. argon) or molecules (e.g., nitrogen).

A molecule consists of two or more atoms of the same element, or different elements, that are chemically
bound together. Note that the two nitrogen atoms which comprise a nitrogen molecule move as a unit.
Compounds
Note that a compound:

consists of atoms of two or more different elements bound together,

can be broken down into a simpler type of matter (elements) by chemical means (but not by physical
means),

has properties that are different from its component elements, and

always contains the same ratio of its component atoms.

Mixtures
Note that a mixture:

consists of two or more different elements and/or compounds physically intermingled,

can be separated into its components by physical means, and

often retains many of the properties of its components.

ATOMS AND MOLECULES

ATOMS are the basic building blocks of everything you can see around you, and even lots of things
you can't see, like the air that you breathe. Atoms are so small that there are millions and billions and trillions
in the tiniest speck you can see. Solids, liquids, gases - all matter - are made up of atoms (or other things, like
molecules, that are made from atoms)!
Atoms can join together - they form bonds together - to make MOLECULES.

For example, two atoms of hydrogen hook together to form a molecule of hydrogen, H2 for short.
Pretty simple, huh?
Molecules can be much bigger. One molecule of vitamin C is made up of 20 atoms (6 carbons, 8
hydrogens, and 6 oxygens - that's C6H8O6). If you take those 20 atoms of vitamin C and mix them around,

bonding them together in a different order, you'll have a totally different molecule that not only looks
different, it acts different. (If your legs were sticking out of your head, you'd act weird too!!)
Vitamin
C6H8O6

Somebody
C6H8O6

Else

So, molecules are atoms stuck together, but not just any old way. Changing which atom is bonded to
which can change the properties of a molecule, that is, how it looks and acts - and that changes how a whole
BUNCH of molecules hanging out together will look and act. For example, water is a liquid, hydrogen is a
gas, and vitamin C is a solid.
"SO WHAT?!!" you ask. Well, when we talk about polymers, how the atoms are bonded to each other
can have a HUGE impact on what something made out of those polymers feels like and reacts when you bash
it or step on it or throw it against the wall. Like, will it stick to the wall or bounce off?

2. Atomic Structure
All atoms are made from three subatomic particles

Protons, neutron & electrons.

These particles have the following properties:
Particle

Charge

Mass (g)

Mass (amu)

Proton

+1

1.6727 x 10-24 g

1.007316

Neutron

1.6750 x 10-24 g

1.008701

Electron

-1

9.110 x 10-28 g

0.000549

In the above table I have used a unit of mass called the atomic mass unit (amu). This unit is much
more convenient to use than grams for describing masses of atoms. It is defined so that both protons and
neutrons have a mass of approximately 1 amu. Its precise definition will be given later.
The important points to keep in mind are as follows:

Protons and neutrons have almost the same mass, while the electron is approximately 2000 times
lighter.

Protons and electrons carry charges of equal magnitude, but opposite charge. Neutrons carry no
charge (they are neutral).

It was once thought that protons, neutrons and electrons were spread out in a rather uniform fashion to
form the atom (see J.J. Thompsons plum pudding model of the atom on page 42), but now we know the
actual structure of the atom to be quite different.
Protons, neutrons and electrons are the smallest pieces of matter that exist. These substances are parts of
atoms. Atoms are part of elements. The amount of protons, neutrons and electrons determine certain qualities
of an atom. Protons are positively charged and electrons are negatively charged. Neutrons have no charge.

3.

Periodic Table of Elements

The periodic table is a tabular arrangement of the chemical elements, organized on the basis of
their atomic number (number of protons in the nucleus), electron configurations, and recurringchemical
properties. Elements are presented in order of increasing atomic number, which is typically listed with
the chemical symbol in each box.
The rows of the table are called periods; the columns are called groups, with some of these having
names such as halogens or noble gases.
Dmitri Mendeleev is generally credited with the publication, in 1869, of the first widely recognized
periodic table. He developed his table to illustrate periodic trends in the properties of the then-known
elements. Mendeleev also predicted some properties of then-unknown elements that would be expected to fill
gaps in this table. Most of his predictions were proved correct when the elements in question were
subsequently discovered. Mendeleev's periodic table has since been expanded and refined with the discovery
or synthesis of further new elements and the development of new theoretical models to explain chemical

behavior.
Chemists have always looked for ways of arranging the elements to reflect the similarities between their
properties. The modern periodic table lists the elements in order of increasing atomic number (the number of
protons in the nucleus of an atom). Historically, however, relative atomic masses were used by scientists
trying to organise the elements. This was mainly because the idea of atoms being made up of smaller subatomic particles (protons, neutrons and electrons) had not been developed.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

Alexandre Bguyer de Chancourtois was a geologist, but this was
at a time when scientists specialised much less than they do today. His
principal contribution to chemistry was the 'vis tellurique' (telluric screw), a
three-dimensional arrangement of the elements constituting an early form of the
periodic classification, published in 1862.
John Newlands was British; his father was a
Scottish Presbyterian minister. He was educated by his
father at home, and then studied for a year (1856) at the
Royal College of Chemistry, which is now part of Imperial
College London. Later he worked at an agricultural college
trying to find patterns of behaviour in organic chemistry.
However, he is remembered for his search for a pattern in
inorganic chemistry.
Julius Lothar Meyer trained at Heidelberg University under Bunsen and Kirchhoff, as
did Mendeleev. So the two scientists would certainly have known each other although neither was aware of all the
work done by the other. Meyer's roots, however, were firmly in Germany. Meyer was just four years older than
Mendeleev, and produced several Periodic Tables between 1864-1870.

As we have seen, Mendeleev was not the first to

find order within the elements, but it is his attempt
successful that it now forms the basis of the modern
table.
Mendeleev did not have the easiest of starts in life.
born at Tobolsk in 1834, the youngest child of a
Siberian family. His father died while he was young, and so his mother
the family 1500 km to St. Petersburg, where she managed to get Dmitri into
school, recognising his potential. In his adult life he was a brilliant
scientist, rising quickly in academic circles. He wrote a textbook, Chemical
Principles, because he couldnt find an adequate Russian book.
to
so

attempt
that was
periodic
He was
large
moved
a good

Arrangement of Elements in the periodic table

Elements are arranged in the Periodic Table in order of increasing atomic number. The Periodic Table allows
chemists to make accurate predictions of physical properties and chemical behaviour for any element based on its
position. Features of the table are; Groups- vertical columns within the table which will contain elements with similar
chemical properties resulting from a common number of electrons in the outer shell, Periods- rows of elements
arranged with increasing atomic number demonstrating an increasing number of outer electrons and a move from
metallic to non-metallic characteristics. Key groups of elements which can be recognised are metals and non-metals,
alkali metals, halogens, noble gases and transition elements. The gaseous elements are generally to be found clustered
in the top right corner of the table.

Reactive and No reactive

Halogens on the Right
In the second column from the right side of the periodic table, you will find Group Seventeen (Group
XVII). This column is the home of the halogen family of elements. Who is in this family? The elements
included are fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine
(I),
and
astatine
(At).
What Makes Them Similar?
When you look at our descriptions of the
elements fluorine and chlorine, you will see that they both
have sevenelectrons in their outer shell. That seven-electron
trait applies to all of the halogens. They are all just one
electron shy of having full shells. Because they are so close to
being happy, they have the trait of combining with many
different elements. They are very reactive. You will often find
them bonding with metals and elements from Group One of the periodic table. The elements in the column on
the
left
each
have
one
electron
that
they
like
to
donate.
We've just told you how reactive the halogens are. Not all halogens react with the same intensity or
enthusiasm. Fluorine is the most reactive and combines with most elements from around the periodic table.
Reactivity decreases as you move down the column. As you learn more about the table, you will find this
pattern true for other families. As the atomic number increases, the atoms get bigger. Their chemical
properties change just a little bit when compared to the
element
right
above
them
on
the
table.

What is a Halide?
The elements we are talking about in this
section are called halogens. When a halogen
combines with another element, the resulting
compound is called a halide. One of the best
examples of a halide is sodium chloride (NaCl).

Don't think that the halogens always make ionic compounds and salts. Some halides of
the

world

are

part

of

molecules

with

covalent

bonds.

The Noble Gases

We love the noble gases. Some scientists used to call them the inert gases. It didn't really work
because there are a few other gases that are basically inert but not noble gases. Nitrogen (N 2) might be
considered an inert gas, but it is not a noble gas. The noble gases are another family of elements, and all of
them are located in the far right column of the periodic table. For all of you budding chemists, the far right is
also known as Group Zero (Group 0) or Group Eighteen (Group XVIII). This family has the happiest
elements
of
all.
Why Are They Happy?
Using the Bohr description of electron shells, happy
atoms have full shells. All of the noble gases have full outer
shells with eight electrons. Oh, wait! That's not totally
correct. At the top of the noble gases is little helium (He),
with a shell that is full with only two electrons. The fact that
their outer shells are full means they are quite happy and don't
need to react with other elements. In fact, they rarely combine
with other elements. That non-reactivity is why they are
called

inert.

Portfolio
in
Science
Alvin John Song Concepcion
Grade 8 Pilot
Mr. Albert Remoroza