Unit Operation Model Guide

USIM PAC 3.
Unit Operation Model Guide
USIM PAC
UNIT OPERATION MODEL GUIDE
BRGM Software
USIM PAC 3.0

Version 3.0.7.0
Caspeo
3 avenue Claude Guillemin - BP 6009
45060 ORLEANS CEDEX 2 FRANCE
Tel: +33-238-643615
Fax: +33-238-259742
E-mail: info@caspeo.net
BRGM is the author of USIM PAC
Copyright BRGM 1986 2004, Caspeo 2004
USIM PAC
BRGM Software
USIM PAC
BRGM Software
USIM PAC 3.0

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 9
1 - GENERAL MODELS ............................................................................................... 10
1.1 - Level 0 models ............................................................................................ 11
Model 1 - Mixer (0)_____________________________________________ 11
Model 2 - Solid/Liquid Separator (0) _______________________________ 12
Model 3 - Flow Split - % (0) ______________________________________ 13
Model 4 - Flow Split - Flowrate (0)_________________________________ 14
Model 11 - Liquid Split (0) _______________________________________ 15
Model 24 - Splitter with a known output_____________________________ 16
Model 25 - Flow Split - global ____________________________________ 17
Model 32 to 35 - n-Output Split ___________________________________ 18
Model 18 - 2-Output Split + Power_________________________________ 19
Model 5 - Density Regulator (0)___________________________________ 26
Model 15 - Addition Regulator for Density ___________________________ 27
Model 16 - Feed Control ________________________________________ 28
Model 6 - Volumetric Regulator (0) ________________________________ 29
Model 13 - Reagent Concentration Regulator ________________________ 30
Model 9 - Density and reagent concentration regulator_________________ 31
Model 14 - Reagent Addition Regulator_____________________________ 33
Model 22 - Concentration Regulator _______________________________ 35
Model 8 - Feeder (0) ___________________________________________ 36
Model 7 - Feeder per component (0) _______________________________ 37
Model 28 - Flowrate feeder ______________________________________ 38
1.2 - Level 1 models ............................................................................................ 39
Model 12 - Conveyor (1) ________________________________________ 39
Model 17 - Pump (1) ___________________________________________ 41
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BRGM Software
Model 23 - Chemical Reactions___________________________________ 43

2 - COMMINUTION MODELS ...................................................................................... 45
2.1 - Level 0 models ............................................................................................ 47
Model 131 - Crusher from database _______________________________ 47
Model 107 - Jaw crusher (0) _____________________________________ 51
Model 124 - Jaw crusher with fines (0) _____________________________ 52
Model 105 - Gyratory crusher (0)__________________________________ 53
Model 125 - Symons cone crusher (0)______________________________ 56
Model 101 - Classifier (0A) ______________________________________ 57
Model 110 - Classifier (0B) ______________________________________ 59
Model 136 - Classifier (0C) ______________________________________ 61
Model 102 - Partition curve per component__________________________ 62
Model 108 - Perfect classifier (0) __________________________________ 63
Model 104 - Mill (0A) ___________________________________________ 64
Model 112 - Mill (0B) ___________________________________________ 65
Model 109 - Perfect hydrocyclone (0) ______________________________ 66
Model 103 - Hydrocyclone (0A) ___________________________________ 67
Model 111 - Hydrocyclone (0B) ___________________________________ 69
Model 153 - Screen (0) _________________________________________ 71
2.2 - Level 1 models ............................................................................................ 72
Model 114 - Screen (1A) ________________________________________ 72
Model 115 - Screen (1B) ________________________________________ 75
Model 118 - Spiral and rake classifier (1) ___________________________ 78
Model 117 - Rod mill (1) ________________________________________ 80
Model 116 - Ball mill (1) _________________________________________ 84
Model 113 - Hydrocyclone (1) ____________________________________ 88
Model 127 - Air cyclone (1) ______________________________________ 92
Model 126 - Attrition cell (1)______________________________________ 97
2.3 - Level 2 models ............................................................................................ 99
Model 135 - Crusher (2)_________________________________________ 99
Model 106 - Cone crusher (2) ___________________________________ 101
Model 119 - Ball mill (2) ________________________________________ 103
Model 120 - Rod mill (2) _______________________________________ 108
Model 121 - Hydrocyclone (2) ___________________________________ 109
Model 129 - SAG/AG mill (2) ____________________________________ 113
Model 138 - SAG/AG mill + Trommel (2) ___________________________ 120
Model 128 - Screen (2) ________________________________________ 122
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BRGM Software
Model 137 - SALA Agitated Mill (2) _______________________________ 124

2.4 - Level 3 models .......................................................................................... 130
Model 122 - Ball mill (3) ________________________________________ 130
Model 123 - Rod mill (3) _______________________________________ 134
Model 133 - SAG/AG mill (3) ____________________________________ 135
Model 132 - SAG/AG mill + Trommel (3) ___________________________ 140
Model 134 - Pebble mill (3) _____________________________________ 142
Model 130 - Pebble mill + Trommel (3) ____________________________ 146
3 - SEPARATION MODELS ....................................................................................... 148
3.1 - Level 0 models .......................................................................................... 149
Model 201 - Gravity Separation (0) _______________________________ 149
Model 202 - Separator (0) ______________________________________ 150
Model 203 - Flotation (0) _______________________________________ 151
3.2 - Level 1 models .......................................................................................... 152
Model 204 - Spiral Concentrator (1) ______________________________ 152
Model 209 - Jig (1)____________________________________________ 159
Model 210 - Shaking Table (1) __________________________________ 161
Model 205 - Flotation (1) _______________________________________ 163
3.3 - Level 2 models .......................................................................................... 164
Model 207 - Conditioner (2) _____________________________________ 164
Model 206 - Flotation (2A) ______________________________________ 165
Model 208 - Flotation (2B) ______________________________________ 170
Model 211 - Flotation (2C) ______________________________________ 172
3.3 - Level 3 models .......................................................................................... 175
Model 214 - Column Flotation (3A) _______________________________ 175
Model 213 - Column Flotation (3B) _______________________________ 181
4 - HYDROMETALLURGICAL MODELS.................................................................... 183
4.1 - Level 0 models .......................................................................................... 186
Model 303 - Leaching (0)_______________________________________ 186
Model 320 - Leaching with Evaporation (0) _________________________ 187
Model 301 - CIL - Carbon-In-Leach (0A) ___________________________ 188
Model 329 - CIL - Carbon-In-Leach (0B) ___________________________ 189
Model 302 - CIP - Carbon-In-Pulp (0A) ____________________________ 190
Model 328 - CIP - Carbon-In-Pulp (0B) ____________________________ 191
Model 307 - CIC - Carbon-In-Column (0)___________________________ 192
Model 304 - Elution (0) ________________________________________ 193
Model 321 - Evaporation (0) ____________________________________ 194
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Model 308 - Solvent Extraction (0) _______________________________ 196

Model 309 - Precipitation (0A) ___________________________________ 197
Model 314 - Precipitation (0B) ___________________________________ 198
Model 325 - Cementation (0) ____________________________________ 200
Model 310 - Filter - Washer (0) __________________________________ 201
Model 327 - Electrolysis (0A)____________________________________ 202
Model 326 - Electrolysis (0B) with Cathodes ________________________ 203
4.2 - Level 1 models .......................................................................................... 204
Model 313 - Leaching (1A) _____________________________________ 204
Model 305 - Leaching (1B) _____________________________________ 206
Model 318 - CIL - Carbon-In-Leach (1A) ___________________________ 208
Model 332 - CIL - Carbon-In-Leach (1B) ___________________________ 211
Model 312 - Belt Filter - Washer (1)_______________________________ 222
Model 337 - Solvent Extraction (1) _______________________________ 226
4.3 - Level 2 models .......................................................................................... 231
USIM PAC
BRGM Software
INTRODUCTION
The selection of a model that is suited to the objectives is a key element in
methodologies based on simulation.
The basis of a simulator for a mineral processing plant consists of the process models,
each of which reproduces the behavior of the stream components within a unit
operation. The validity of the simulations or of the dimensioning depends on the
accuracy with which each model reproduces the operation of the unit it represents.
Unfortunately in mineral processing, there is no precise and universal model. The
models with the best performance are based on mathematical formulae, the
parameters of which must be estimated from experimental data.
Models of lower performance, however, have the advantage of being able to be used
with very little information.
One can therefore define several levels of models:
Level 0 models enable the user to directly specify the performance of the units.
For example the performance of a classification unit can be modeled by a partition
curve for which the user indicates the bypass, the imperfection and the d50
(cut-size). Such models do not take into account any dimensional parameters.
During the simulation, the performance of the unit will be independent of its
dimensions and the flowrate of the material (ore, liquid, etc.) feeding it.
Level 1 models take dimensional parameters into account. They require very little
experimental data. A typical example is a ball mill model, which uses only the Bond
Work Index as experimental parameter. If no data is available, it is even possible to
estimate the Work Index. Obviously, the precision of such models is limited, but
they are easy to use.
Models of higher level are much more accurate, but they require the estimation of
some of their parameters. This estimation can be carried out:
either on the basis of experimental data obtained from the continuous

operation of the unit (level 2 models);
or from such data supplemented by information obtained from specific

tests, generally carried out in the laboratory (level 3 models).
In order to use these models most effectively, the following principal errors must be
avoided:
selecting models which are unsuited to the accuracy of the available experimental
data, and/or the objectives of the simulation study;
estimating the parameters of the models on the basis of unreliable experimental

data.
Each model description sheet shows:
the name of the icon;
the name of the model;
the names and default values of the visible parameters;
a brief theory of the model with relevant literature references;
the model calibration capabilities.
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1 - GENERAL MODELS
General models allow the user to specify some setpoints (i.e. percent solids or pulp
split) or to represent some minor units on the flowsheet (tank, sump, pump...) without
using a sophisticated model.
The general models that already exist in your version of the USIM PAC software are:
mixer model:
Mixer (0)
thickener and filter model:
Solid/Liquid Separator (0)
splitter model:
Flow Split - % (0)

Flow Split - Flowrate (0)
Liquid Split (0)
Splitter with a known output
Flow Split - Global
n-Output Split
n-Output Split + Power
regulator model:
Density Regulator (0)

Addition Regulator for Density
Feed control
Volumetric Regulator (0)
Reagent Concentration Regulator
Density and reagent concentration regulator
Reagent Addition Regulator
Concentration Regulator
feeder model:
Feeder (0)
Feeder per component (0)
Flowrate feeder
conveyor model:
Conveyor (1)
pump model:
Pump (1)
chemical reactor model:
Chemical Reactions
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1.1 - Level 0 models

Model 1 - Mixer (0)
Mixer
No parameter
One output stream
The model represents the transmission of the entry stream to the single exit stream of
the unit without any modification having been made to the flowrates or to the quality of
the different phases (particle size or composition). If there are many entry streams the
sum of the different partial flowrates is calculated and transmitted into the output
stream.
This model is used to represent tanks, agitated mixing vessels, feeders, pumps, etc.
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Model 2 - Solid/Liquid Separator (0)
Two output streams:

Thickener and filter
1 parameter
Output1: Pulp stream

Output 2: Water stream
Parameter
1 Percent solids of the slurry stream (mass %)
Default value
90
The model represents perfect solid/liquid separation: all the solids contained in the feed
report to the underflow (or the cake in the case of a filter), whose percent solids is
specified by the user. Supplementary water reports to the overflow (or filtrate in the
case of a filter).
If the percent solids of the feed is greater than that specified by the user then the
flowrate of the water stream leaving the unit will be null and the pulp stream in the
underflow (or the cake) will have the same percent solids as the feed.
Phase model requirement
The phase model must have at least one solid or ore phase and one liquid phase.
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Model 3 - Flow Split - % (0)
Splitter
1 parameter
Parameter
1 Split of feed stream to output #1 (%)
Two output streams
Default value
50
This model represents a splitting of the feed stream into the two streams leaving the
unit. The partition is perfect: the two exit streams have the same descriptions (particle
size, composition or percent solids) but the feed flowrate is divided following the split %
specified in parameter #1.
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Model 4 - Flow Split - Flowrate (0)
Splitter
2 parameters
Parameter
1 Split of feed stream to the specified output (t/h)

2 Specified output number (1 or 2)
Two output streams
Default value
200
1
unit. The value indicated in parameter #1 takes only into account the ore and solid
phases. The liquid phases are separated with the same ratio as the ore and solid
phases.
The partition is perfect: the two exit streams have the same particle size and
mineralogical distributions and the same percent solids.
When the solid feedrate is smaller than the indicated flowrate (parameter #1) for the
specified output (parameter #2), all the material reports to this latter stream. When, on
the other hand, the solid feedrate is greater than the indicated flowrate, then only this
flowrate reports to the specified output, the excess reporting to the other output.
Remark
This model has been modified from the version 2.1 to be identical to the model number
10 which has been removed from the library. Files coming from previous versions are
translated to take these changes into account.
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Model 11 - Liquid Split (0)
Splitter
2 parameters
Parameters
Two output streams
Default value
1 Maximum flowrate of liquid to the specified output (t/h)
2 Specified output number (1 or 2)
unit. The value indicated in parameter #1 only takes into account the liquid phases.
The other phases all report to the stream that has not been specified in parameter #2.
The partition is perfect: the liquid in the two exit streams has the same composition.
When the liquid feedrate is smaller than the maximum flowrate specified, all the liquid
reports to the stream defined by parameter #2. When, on the opposite, the liquid
feedrate is greater than the flowrate specified, then only this flowrate reports to the
output specified, the excess reporting to the other output.
The phase model must have at least one liquid phase.
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Model 24 - Splitter with a known output
Splitter
1 parameter
Parameters
1 Number of the stream in which the data are given
Two output streams
Default value
0
This model represents a splitting of the feed stream into a stream with a known
description and a stream calculated as the difference between the feed and the known
stream.
The number of the known stream is given by parameter #1 which is the stream number
in the flowsheet. This number must correspond to one of the two output streams.
Note
The difference is calculated only on the global flowrate, the size distribution and the
composition.
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Model 25 - Flow Split - global
Splitter
1 parameter
Parameters
Two output streams
Default value
1 Number of the stream in which the data are given
2 Type of data (%, t/h or m3/h)
3 Phases concerned (All phases, Solids, Liquids or Gases)
All phases
4 Split value
unit.
The calculated stream is identified by parameter #1, which is the stream number in the
flowsheet. This number must correspond to one of the two output streams.
The splitting is made for the desired phases as defined by parameter #3. The nondesired phases all report to the non calculated output stream.
Parameter #4 gives the split factor according to the data type (parameter #2):
% - split factor gives the percentage of feedrate going to the calculated stream.
t/h - split factor gives the mass flowrate of the calculated stream, in metric tons per
hour.
m3/h - split factor gives the volumetric flowrate of the calculated stream, in cubic
meters per hour.
For the last two data types, when the feedrate is smaller than the maximum flowrate
specified, all the phase reports to the calculated stream. When, on the opposite, the
feedrate is greater than the flowrate specified, only this flowrate reports to the
calculated output stream, the excess reporting to the other output.
Note
This model can replace the models of numbers 3, 4 and 11 by offering a more flexible
use.
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Model 32 to 35 - n-Output Split
Split n-outputs
2 parameters
Parameters
n output streams
Default value
1 Number of outputs
2 Split of feed (%)
n
0
The number of outputs (parameter #1) is fixed for each model and cannot be modified.
The split factor is the percentage of each phase component of the input stream
reporting to the different outputs. The sum of the split factors of a given component
may not be equal to 100 %
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Model 18 - 2-Output Split + Power
2-Output Splitter
5 parameters
2-Output Plant
Two output streams
Parameters
Default value
1 Percentage of feed in stream 1
2 Percentage of feed in stream 1 per component
3 Stream used for power calculation (Feed, Output 1 or Output 2)
Feed
4 Energy consumption (GJ/t)
5 Calculated energy consumption (kW)
Model focus example
Model focus/Splitter/ Multi Output Split + Power
This model has two functions:
Splitting of the input stream into 2 output streams. Output #1 can be a percentage
of the different phases of the feed stream (parameter #1) or constructed from a
percentage of the different components of the different phases of the feed stream
(parameter #2). Output #2 is then the difference between the feed and the output
#1.
Calculation of the energy consumption of the splitting stage. The energy

consumption (parameter #5) is calculated using the specific energy consumption
(parameter #4) by components of the different phases of the stream specified in
parameter #3.
Notes
For a given phase, if the percentage of a component (parameter #2) is 0, the split
percentage used for this component is the percentage of the entire phase (parameter
#1).
The calculated energy consumption is displayed as the output model parameter #5 in
kW, in the "Operating Parameters Display" in GJ/h and kW, and in the "Calculated
Power Consumption" in kW.
Use of the model
This model may be used for any type of application where a split operation can be
defined by such split percentages and where energy consumption has to be calculated.
It has been used for metal life cycle study where the different transformations (mining,
metallurgy, use, recycling and environmental return) can be modeled by this splitter
and required global energy consumption calculation (see M. Reuter).
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3-Output Splitter
7 parameters
3-Output Plant
Three output streams
Parameters
Default value
5 Stream used for power calculation (Feed, Out 1, Out 2 or Out 3)
Feed
Model focus example
Splitting of the input stream into 3 output streams. Outputs #1 and #2 can be a
percentage of the different phases of the feed stream (parameter #1 and #3) or
constructed from a percentage of the different components of the different phases
of the feed stream (parameter #2 and #4). Output #3 is then the difference between
the feed and the outputs #1 and #2.

parameter #5.
Notes
For a given phase, if the percentage of a component (parameter #2 or #4) is 0, the split
percentage used for this component is the percentage of the entire phase (parameter
#1 or #3).
Use of the model
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4-Output Splitter
9 parameters
4-Output Plant
Four output streams
Parameters
Default value
7 Stream used for power calculation (Feed, O 1, O 2, O 3 or O 4)
Feed
Model focus example
Splitting of the input stream into 4 output streams. Outputs #1, #2 and #3 can be a
percentage of the different phases of the feed stream (parameter #1, #3 and #5) or
constructed from a percentage of the different components of the different phases
of the feed stream (parameter #2, #4 and #6). Output #4 is then the difference
between the feed and the outputs #1, #2 and #3.

parameter #7.
Notes
For a given phase, if the percentage of a component (parameter #2, #4 or #6) is 0, the
split percentage used for this component is the percentage of the entire phase
(parameter #1, #3 or #5).
Use of the model
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5-Output Splitter
11 parameters
5-Output Plant
Five output streams
Parameters
Default value
9 Stream used for power calculation (Feed, O 1, O 2, O 3 or O 4)
Feed
Model focus example
Splitting of the input stream into 5 output streams. Outputs #1, #2, #3 and #4 can
be a percentage of the different phases of the feed stream (parameter #1, #3, #5
and #7) or constructed from a percentage of the different components of the
different phases of the feed stream (parameter #2, #4, #6 and #8). Output #5 is
then the difference between the feed and the outputs #1, #2, #3 and #4.

parameter #9.
Notes
For a given phase, if the percentage of a component (parameter #2, #4, #6 or #8) is 0,
the split percentage used for this component is the percentage of the entire phase
(parameter #1, #3, #5 or #7).
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Use of the model

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Model 5 - Density Regulator (0)
Two output streams:

Regulator
1 parameter
Output 1: pulp stream

Output 2: liquid stream
Parameter
1 Percent solids at regulator output (%)
Default value
50
This model regulates the water flowrate leaving the regulator to adjust the percent
solids of the pulp stream leaving this unit to the value specified by the user.
Notes
If the feed density is lower than that specified by the user (pulp over-diluted in the feed
stream) then the flowrate of the water leaving the regulator will be negative, implying a
thickening of the pulp.
If the liquid phase used for regulation has been defined in the phase model with
components, the behavior of the model depends on the initial values in the water
addition stream:
the water addition stream is not initialized: only the last component is added,
the water addition stream is initialized: the grades of each component remain.
Use of the model

The use of this model is recommended when, in a simulated circuit, there are models
of units which are sensitive to the feed percent solids or to the pulp flowrate, as for
example the level 1 hydrocyclone model.
This model can either represent automated regulation existing in the plant or the
influence of the operator who, during his shift, modifies the settings of the water
addition valves so as to bring the water input to the required value.
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Model 15 - Addition Regulator for Density
Three output streams:

Output 1: regulated stream
Sump-distributor-regulator
2 parameters
Output 2: water addition

stream
Output 3: remaining water
stream
Parameters
Default value
50
2 Stream number of distribution
This model regulates the percent solids of the pulp leaving the regulator (output #1) by
adding water from a distribution line.
Water distribution
line
Output #3 Remaining water in

the distribution line
Output #2 water added
for regulation
Pulp to be
regulated
Output #1
Regulated pulp
The necessary quantity of water to be added to reach the percent solids (parameter
#1) is calculated and reported to stream output #2. This quantity is picked from the
water distribution line with the same composition. The feed stream of the distribution
line is given by parameter #2. The remaining quantity is reported to output #3 and can
be used by another regulator.
Note
The water distribution line can carry solids such as remaining fines after clarification.
These solids are reported into the reactor. The percent solids of the distribution line
has to be less than the expected one.
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Model 16 - Feed Control
Sump
11 parameters
One output stream
Parameters
Default value
1 Returned stream number
2-11 Calculated regulation flowrate (kg/h) for phase #1-10
This model adjusts the quantity of utility (water, reagent, solids) to add into a
distribution line to avoid the remaining quantity in the returned stream.
In the following example, unit #3 uses the Feed Control model to calculate the
minimum quantity of fresh water to add to stream #2 to provide sufficient water for
regulators #1 and #2 and to avoid any remaining water in stream #6:
PERCENT SOLIDS REGULATION IN DISTRIBUTION LINE

Fresh water
1
3
6
DL feeder
DL return
Cyclone UF
11
Feed DL
Pulp feed
3
Pick up 1
8
Ball mill feed
1
12
Pick up 2
Ball mill product
Ball mill
Mill regulator
10
Cyclone feed
Cyclone
Cyclone regulator
Cyclone OF
The composition of the output stream is the same as the input stream.
Parameter #1 gives the number of the returned stream to be avoided.
Output parameters #2 to #11 contain the calculated phase flowrates of the output
stream.
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Model 6 - Volumetric Regulator (0)
Two output streams:

Regulator
1 parameter

Parameter
1 Pulp volumetric flowrate at regulator output (m3/h)
Default value
50
This model regulates the flowrate of the water leaving the regulator to adjust the
volumetric flowrate of the pulp stream leaving this unit to the value specified by the
user.
Notes
If the volumetric flowrate of the feed is greater than that specified by the user, then the
flowrate of the water stream leaving the regulator will be negative, implying a
thickening of the pulp.
Use of the model
This model can represent the regulation of the water addition in a sump or in a tank,
according to a constant level set point. The effect of this model on the water addition is
the opposite of the effect of the density regulator: when the solids flowrate decreases,
the water addition increases, producing a dilution of the pulp.
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Model 13 - Reagent Concentration Regulator
Two output streams:

Reagent addition
4 parameters

Output 2: reagent stream
Parameters
Default value
1 Concentration setpoint at regulator output (g/l)
2 Density of the solution at regulator output
3 Concentrations in the regulation stream (g/l)
4 Density of the solution used for regulation
This model regulates the concentration of one component of the liquid phase leaving
the regulator by adding the reagent.
The reagent must contain the component that is to be regulated and the concentration
of that component in the regulation stream (parameter #3) must be greater than its
concentration set point at the regulator output (parameter #1).
Notes
If the densities are set to 0 in parameters #2 and #4, the model takes into account the
densities defined in the phase model.
If the setpoints are specified for several components, only the first one is taken into
account.
The phase model must have one liquid phase with components.
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Model 9 - Density and reagent concentration regulator

Reagent and water addition
5 parameters

Parameters
Default value
50
4 Concentrations in the regulation stream (g/l)
5 Density of the solution used for regulation
This model regulates the water and the reagent addition flowrates leaving the regulator
to adjust the percent solids of the pulp stream leaving this unit and the reagent
concentration in the liquid phases to the values specified by the user.
Feed stream
Reagent solution addition stream
Output stream
Water addition stream
Parameter #1 is used to determine the total addition of liquid that has to be done.
Parameter #2 allows the calculation of the flowrate of reagent solution. The difference
between the total flowrate to be added and the flowrate of the reagent is then provided
by pure water.
Notes
of that component in the regulation stream must be greater than its concentration set
point at regulator output.
If the total flowrate of liquid to be added is lower than the flowrate of reagent that
should be necessary to satisfy the concentration set point, only the percent solids set
point is verified.
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If a concentration setpoint is specified for several components, only the first one is
taken into account.
The phase model must have at least one solid or ore phase and one liquid phase with
components. Pure water has to be the last component in the liquid phase.
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Model 14 - Reagent Addition Regulator

Sump-distributor-regulator
Output 2: addition reagent

stream
3 parameters
Output 3: remaining reagent

stream
Parameters
Default value
3 Stream number of reagent distribution
This model regulates the concentration of one component of the liquid phase leaving
the regulator (output #1) by adding the reagent from a distribution line.
Reagent
distribution line
Output #3 Remaining reagent

in the distribution line
Output #2 Reagent
added for regulation
Solution to be
regulated
Output #1
Regulated solution
The necessary quantity of reagent to be added to reach the concentration setpoint

(parameter #1) is calculated and reported to stream output #2. This quantity is picked
from the reagent distribution line with the same composition. The feed stream of the
distribution line is given by parameter #3. The remaining quantity is reported to output
#3 and can be used by another regulator.
of that component in the regulation stream must be greater than its concentration set
point at regulator output (parameter #1).
Notes
If the density is set to 0 in parameter #2, the model takes into account the density
defined in the phase model.
account.
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The phase model must have one liquid phase with components.
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Model 22 - Concentration Regulator
Two output streams:

Reagent addition
5 parameters

Parameters
Default value
1 Set point of component concentration (g/l)
2 Liquid density in output stream (kg/l)
3 Concentrations in addition stream (g/l)
4 Liquid density in addition stream (kg/l)
5 Negative flowrate (Unauthorized / Authorized)
Unauthorized
This model regulates the concentration of one critical component of the liquid phase
leaving the regulator by adding the reagent.
The reagent must contain the component that is to be regulated.
The model can be used as well to increase or to decrease the concentration of the
critical component. To increase the critical component concentration, its concentration
in the regulation stream (parameter #3) must be greater than its concentration set point
at regulator output (parameter #1). To decrease the critical component concentration,
its concentration in the regulation stream (parameter #3) must be less than its
concentration set point at regulator output (parameter #1).
Depending on the input condition, the reagent addition flowrate can be negative to
reach the objective. Parameter #5 authorizes or not negative flowrate. If it is
unauthorized and the solution needs a negative flowrate, the calculated flowrate is 0.
Notes
The model treats the liquid phases independently.
account.
The phase model must have at least one liquid phase with components.
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Model 8 - Feeder (0)
Feeder for solids
2 parameters
Parameters
One output stream
Default value
1 Output d80 (m)
1000
2 Flowrate scaling factor
the d80 specified in parameter #1 allows the user to shift the size distribution of the
stream fed to the unit,
the scaling factor in parameter #2 multiplies the flowrate of all phases of the feed
stream.
Note
If the size distribution has to remain identical to that of the feed stream, parameter #1
must be set to the real d80. The value of the d80 is easily obtained from the special
points of the size distribution curve.
Use of the model
This model may be used when the feed stream has to be changed often in the
simulation study. It is especially useful during a sensitivity analysis of a circuit by using
the supervisor of simulation.
The phase model must have at least one solid or ore phase with size classes.
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Model 7 - Feeder per component (0)
Feeder for solids
2 parameters
Parameters
1 Output d80 per component (m)

2 Flowrate scaling factor
One output stream
Default value
1000
1
the d80 specified in parameter #1 allows the user to shift the size distribution of
each component of the stream fed to the unit,
the scaling factor in parameter #2 multiplies the flowrate of all phases of the feed
stream.
Note
If the size distribution has to remain identical to that of the feed stream, parameter #1
must be set to the real d80. The value of the d80 is easily obtained from the special
points of the size distribution curves.
Use of the model
The phase model must have at least one solid or ore phase with components and size
classes.
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Model 28 - Flowrate feeder
Feeder
2 parameters
One output stream
Parameters
Default value
1 Global flowrate (kg/s)
2 Phase flowrate (kg/s)
This model changes:
the global flowrate (sum of the different phase flowrates) using parameter #1 if it is
not null,
or the phase by phase flowrate using multiple parameter #2 if parameter #1 is null,
of the input stream and reports the change to the output stream.
The phase size distribution, composition, etc are kept.
Use of the model
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Model 12 - Conveyor (1)
Belt conveyor
7 parameters
One output stream
Parameters
Default value
1 Maximum capacity (t/h)
150
2 Length of the conveyor (m)
100
3 Width of the belt (m)
0.65
4 Vertical lift (m)
10
5 Linear speed of the belt (m/s)
6 Friction coefficient
0.03
7 Calculated power (kW)
This model calculates the power consumed by the conveyor and writes a message in
the "Operating Parameters Display" if the flowrate is above the maximum capacity
The model does not change anything in the feed stream.
The power is calculated according to experimental formulae as the sum of three
components:
P = P1 + P2 + P3
(1)
This power (output parameter #7) is the power necessary at the headshaft. It does not
take into account the mechanical and electrical losses (generally around 20% of P).
1. power at headshaft for empty conveyor:
P1 =
C f Wm (L + 50 )V
(2)
75
Wm = 0.587 l + 0.5
where:
P1
power in horsepower
Cf
parameter #6, friction coefficient (typical value = 0.03)
Wm
weight of the mobile parts (kg/m), linearly dependent on
parameter #3, belt width (cm)
parameter #2, length of the conveyor between centers of the drums (m)
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parameter #5, linear speed of the belt (m/s)
2. power at headshaft to move load horizontally:
P2 =
C f (L + 50 )Ft
270
where:
P2
power in horsepower
Ft
total flowrate of material (t/h)
3. power at headshaft to lift load vertically:
P3 =
Ft H
270
where:
P3
power in horsepower
parameter #4, vertical lift (m)
Notes
This model is intended for the design and optimization of crushing circuits.
The linear speed of the belt generally varies between 1.5 and 2.5 m/s.
Equation 2 has been calculated from experimental data taken with belt widths ranging
from 40 cm to 1.2 m.
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Model 17 - Pump (1)
Pump
6 parameters
Parameters
One output stream
Default value
1 Number of pumps in parallel
2 Slurry pump factor
3 Head lost in piping (m)
4 Pump efficiency for water (%)
60
6 Total efficiency for pulp (%)
This model calculates the power consumed by the pump.

Power calculation
The power consumed by the pump is proportional to the head of slurry lost in piping
according to the formula (Kelly, E.G., Spottiswood, D.J., Introduction to mineral
processing, Ed. John Wiley and sons, 1982):
KH wQ
E
PW =
where:
Pw
power consumption (W - output parameter #5)
its value 977.1 N/m2 has been empirically established by Hicks and
Edwards (Hicks, T.G. and Edwards, T.W., Pump Application Engineering,
Mc Graw-Hill, 1971)
Hw
equivalent head of water (m)
inlet flowrate (m3/min)
pump efficiency for slurry (% - output parameter #6)
Generally, manufacturers pump data are available for water, so they have to be
adapted to slurry. The pump efficiency is then expressed as:
E = Ew (1 K sp )
where:
Ew
USIM PAC
pump efficiency for water (parameter #4)
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42
K sp
slurry pump factor (parameter #2), function of the average particle size and
of the solids specific gravity, obtained from a slurry pump factor chart (after
McElvain and Cave and issued from Kelly and Spottiswood book, p. 385)
volume fraction of solids in slurry
Hw =
H
1 K sp
where:
total head (m) of slurry lost in piping (parameter #3)
The results of the power consumption calculation (power and total efficiency of the
pump for slurry) are also written in the "Calculated Power Consumption" and
"Operating Parameters Display" files.
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Model 23 - Chemical Reactions
Leaching tank
9 parameters
Parameters
One output stream
Default value
1 Number of reactions
2 Reaction numbers
3 Level of the reactions
4 Ratio of the reactions
100
5 Progress ratio (% of components)
100
6 Concentration of output per component (g/l)
7 Liquid density at the exit of the reactor (kg/dm3)
8 Convergence criterion
9 Maximum number of iterations
0.001
100
The chemical reaction model calculates the composition of the output stream after
reaction between the different components of the input stream(s).
The mathematical model takes into account the material balance for the list of the
different chemical reactions occurring. This list is described by the number of reactions
(parameter #1) and the reaction numbers (parameter #2) referring to the global list of
chemical reactions described during the phase model stage.
If there are many chemical reactions, they can be classified in different levels
(parameter #3). The level 1 reactions will first take place: their reactants (left hand side
member of a reaction) will be consumed and their products (right hand side member of
a reaction) will appear. Then the level 2 reactions will take place taking into account the
remaining reactants and appearing products from the previous level. And so on up to
the last level.
The reactions can be limited following three ways:
The progress ratio (parameter #5) gives the proportion of reagent that can react.
The component concentration of output (parameter #6) gives the concentration (in
g/l) of a product after reaction. This limitation concerns components in liquid
phases only.
The reaction ratio (parameter #4) gives the split factor of a reagent appearing in
two (or more) reactions of the same level.
The main parameter list box is as follows:
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Parameters #1 through #4 are grouped as Reactions into the same dialog box:
The reaction number is chosen through the reaction name list. To know the reaction
equation, select it and click with the right button on the name.
Notes
The global list of chemical reactions can be modified directly from the "unit of
equipment" interface through the menu item Tools / Chemical Reactions (see part B
for more detailed).
The computation of the solution requires an iterative calculation, which can be
controlled using the maximum number of iterations (parameter #9) and the
convergence criterion (parameter #8). The smaller the convergence criterion, the
higher the solution accuracy.
Use of the model
The chemical reaction model can be used as flash reactor where solids, liquids and
gas can coexist.
The model phase needs to contain chemical reactions. It is simpler to write chemical
reactions in molar form than in mass form. To do that, choose predefined phases as
Solid Chem or Liquid Chem that contain molecular mass properties.
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2 - COMMINUTION MODELS
Comminution models allow the user to describe and simulate comminution circuit from
crushing to grinding to size classification..
The comminution models that already exist in your version of the USIM PAC software
are:
crusher model:
Crusher from database

Jaw crusher (0)
Jaw crusher with fines (0)
Gyratory crusher (0)
Symons cone crusher (0)
Mill (0B)
Crusher (2)
Cone crusher (2)
spiral and rake classifier model:
Classifier (0A)
Classifier (0B)
Partition curve per component
Perfect classifier (0)
Spiral and rake classifier (1)
screen model:
Screen (0)
Screen (1A)
Screen (1B)
Screen (2)
air cyclone model:
Classifier (0C)
Air cyclone (1)
dynamic separator model:
Classifier (0C)
rod mill and ball mill model:
Mill (0A)
Mill (0B)
Rod mill (1)
Ball mill (1)
Rod mill (2)
Ball mill (2)
Rod mill (3)
Ball mill (3)
autogenous mill model:
Mill (0B)
SAG/AG mill (2)
SAG/AG mill + trommel (2)
SAG/AG mill (3)
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SAG/AG mill + trommel (3)

hydrocyclone model:
Perfect hydrocyclone (0)

Hydrocyclone (0A)
Hydrocyclone (0B)
Hydrocyclone (1)
Hydrocyclone (2)
attrition cell model:
Attrition cell (1)
vertical Mill model:
SALA Agitated Mill (2)
pebble mill model:
Pebble mill (3)

Pebble mill +trommel (3)
As in the case of the level 2 models, the level 3 models are more accurate than
the level 1 models, but they require the adjustment of some parameters of the model
on the basis of experimental data obtained from the continuous operation of the unit
and from specific tests, often carried out in the laboratory (e.g. determination of
breakage matrix).
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Model 131 - Crusher from database
Crusher
20 parameters
One output stream
Parameters
Default value
1 Number of crushers in parallel
2 Closed side setting (mm)
10
3 Adjustment of capacity according to material properties
4 Database file name
Crusher.dat
5 Order in database
6 Work index per component (kWh/st)
14
7 Work index for the adjustment of Bond formula (kWh/st)
8 Flowrate for the adjustment of Bond formula (t/h)
9 D80 of product for the adjustment of Bond formula (mm)
10 D80 of feed for the adjustment of Bond formula (mm)
11 Power consumed for the adjustment of Bond formula (kW)
12 Work index for the adjustment of Magdalinovic formula (kWh/st)
13 Flowrate for the adjustment of Magdalinovic formula (t/h)
14 D80 of product for the adjustment of Magdalinovic formula (mm)
15 D80 of feed for the adjustment of Magdalinovic formula (mm)
16 Power consumed for the adjustment of Magdalinovic formula (kW)
17 Calculated power - Bond - without adjustment (kW)
18 Calculated power - Magdalinovic - without adjustment (kW)
19 Calculated power - Bond - with adjustment (kW)
20 Calculated power - Magdalinovic - with adjustment (kW)
This model allows the user to store in a database the typical output size distributions of
the crusher for each exit setting according to manufacturer's data or on-site
information.
The size distribution for a given setting (parameter #2) is calculated by interpolation.
The crusher maximum capacity may also be stored in the database for each exit
setting and each feed size range. The model creates advisory messages, which can be
seen in the 0perating Parameters Display especially if the crusher is not used in the
proper conditions of feed size, feed flowrate and crusher setting.
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Use of the model

Several sets of data may be stored in the database for several crushers. This gives an
easy way of selecting a crusher size, or type, for a specific production. To fill the
database, a specific dialog box is required:
Fields are similar and operate as those of the standard model box (see B.2.2.). The
database file name (parameter #4) is displayed and can be changed by clicking on the
associated Edit button.
The name of the selected crusher (parameter #5) is also displayed at this level. The
associated Edit button allows visualization of the crusher database:
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The first table gives the list of the different crushers available in the database. The
selected crusher is indicated by the check mark. The crusher names can be changed.
To add new crusher characteristics, select the menu item Crusher/Add (to add a
line at the end of the table) or Crusher/Insert (to insert a line at the active line
location). The following dialog box is displayed:
Enter the numbers of settings, %-passing and feed size classes and click on OK to
display the new crusher characteristics.
To remove a crusher, click on the corresponding name and select the menu item
Crusher/Remove.
The second table displays the characteristics of the activated crusher. To display
characteristics of one crusher, click on its name in the crusher list.
The first line gives the different settings for which there is typical output size
distribution. These size distributions are given as dX: size under which there are X% of
material. The X values are displayed in the %-passing column, the following columns
giving the dX for different settings. To add, insert or remove a setting column, select
the menu item Crusher/Exit Settings and to add, insert or remove a %-passing line,
select the menu item Crusher/%-Passing.
Data concerning maximum capacity are displayed in the last lines. Each line
corresponds to a feed size range between a minimum size (first column) and a
maximum size (second column). The other columns give the capacity, in t/h, for the
corresponding feed size range and exit setting. To add, insert or remove a feed size
classes line, select the menu item Crusher/Feed Size Classes.
Power calculation
The power consumption is calculated using the Bond formula:
1
1
P = 10 BWi Q
P
F80
80
or the Magdalinovic formula:
P=
1
A
1
10Wi Q
n
P
P80
F80
80
Wi
Bond work index of the material (parameter #6),
feed flowrate,
P80
d80 of the product,
F80
d80 of the feed,
adjustment parameter of the Bond formula. Default value: 1.
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adjustment parameter of the Magdalinovic formula. Default value: 105.
adjustment parameter of the Magdalinovic formula. Default value: 0.5.
The power consumption values calculated from the previous formulas with default
value for adjustment parameters are displayed in parameters #17 and #18 and in the
Calculated Power Consumption file if it is generated during direct simulation.
It is also possible to calculate power consumption using adjusted formula. In that case
the adjustment parameters are calculated using data coming from a test: work index
(parameter #7 or #12), feed flowrate (parameter #8 or #13), product d80 (parameter #9
or #14), feed d80 (parameter #10 or #15) and the measured power consumption
(parameter #11 or #16). The adjusted Bond formula will use the first set of data and the
adjusted Magdalinovic formula will use both sets of data. The calculated values of the
power consumption with adjustment are displayed in parameters #19 and #20 and in
the Calculated Power Consumption file if it is generated during direct simulation.
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Model 107 - Jaw crusher (0)
Jaw crusher
#
1 Exit setting (m)
1 parameter
Parameter
One output stream
Default value
0.05
In this model, the shape of the particle size distribution at the output has been
determined on the basis of data taken from the reference manual of a crusher
manufacturer. The particle size distribution curve at the output is translated according
to the exit setting value.
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Model 124 - Jaw crusher with fines (0)
Jaw crusher
#
1 Exit setting (m)
1 parameter
Parameter
One output stream
Default value
0.05
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Model 105 - Gyratory crusher (0)
Cone crusher
2 parameters
One output stream
Parameters
Default value
1 Number of crushers in parallel
2 Open side setting: OSS (mm)
0.2
3 Amount of particles larger than OSS that are broken (fraction)
0.99
4 Crusher type (Primary or Secondary)
Primary
14
6 Work index for the adjustment of Bond formula (kWh/st)
7 Flowrate for the adjustment of Bond formula (t/h)
8 D80 of product for the adjustment of Bond formula (mm)
9 D80 of feed for the adjustment of Bond formula (mm)
10 Power consumed for the adjustment of Bond formula (kW)
11 Work index for the adjustment of Magdalinovic formula (kWh/st)
12 Flowrate for the adjustment of Magdalinovic formula (t/h)
13 D80 of product for the adjustment of Magdalinovic formula (mm)
14 D80 of feed for the adjustment of Magdalinovic formula (mm)
15 Power consumed for the adjustment of Magdalinovic formula (kW)
16 Calculated power - Bond - without adjustment (kW)
17 Calculated power - Magdalinovic - without adjustment (kW)
18 Calculated power - Bond - with adjustment (kW)
19 Calculated power - Magdalinovic - with adjustment (kW)
20 Capacity calculation (No, Taggart or Broman)
No
21 Measured capacity for Taggart formula calibration (t/h)
22 Measured speed for Taggart formula calibration (rpm)
23 Open side setting for Taggart formula calibration (mm)
24 Feed opening (mm)
25 Pride (mm)
26 Crusher speed (rpm)
27 Discharge head diameter (mm)
28 Eccentric throw (mm)
29 Eccentric throw for Broman formula calibration (mm)
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to the open side setting (parameter #3).
Power calculation
The power consumption is calculated using the Bond formula:
1
1
P = 10 BWi Q
P
F80
80
or the Magdalinovic formula:
P=
1
A
1
10Wi Q
n
P
P80
F80
80
Wi
Bond work index of the material (parameter #5),
feed flowrate,
P80
d80 of the product,
F80
d80 of the feed,
adjustment parameter of the Bond formula. Default value: 1.
adjustment parameter of the Magdalinovic formula. Default value: 105.
adjustment parameter of the Magdalinovic formula. Default value: 0.5.
The power consumption values calculated from the previous formulas with default
value for adjustment parameters are displayed in parameters #16 and #17 and in the
Calculated Power Consumption file if it is generated during direct simulation.
It is also possible to calculate power consumption using adjusted formula. In that case
the adjustment parameters are calculated using data coming from a test: work index
(parameter #6 or #11), feed flowrate (parameter #7 or #12), product d80 (parameter #8
or #13), feed d80 (parameter #9 or #14) and the measured power consumption
(parameter #10 or #15). The adjusted Bond formula will use the first set of data and the
adjusted Magdalinovic formula will use both sets of data. The calculated values of the
power consumption with adjustment are displayed in parameters #18 and #19 and in
the Calculated Power Consumption file if it is generated during direct simulation.
Capacity calculation
The crusher capacity is calculated using the Taggart formula:
Q = 0.6K t Dm NOss (E G )
or the Broman formula:
Q = 3.6Dm NOss (D Oss )T cot (aK b )

Kt
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Adjustment parameter of the Taggart formula,
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Dm
Real density of the ore (apparent density is
Rotation speed (parameter #26),
Oss
Open side setting (parameter #2),
E
G
Feed opening (parameter #24)
55
0.6 Dm ),
Pride (parameter #25),
D
T
Discharge head diameter (parameter #27),
Kb
Adjustment parameter of the Broman formula,
Eccentric throw (parameter #28),
a = 25
The capacity calculation uses adjusted formula. The adjustment parameters are
calculated using measured data coming from a test: capacity (parameter #21), speed
(parameter #22), open side setting (parameter #23) and eccentric throw (parameter
#29). The calculated values of the capacity with adjustment are displayed in the
Operating Parameter file if it is generated during direct simulation.
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Model 125 - Symons cone crusher (0)
Cone crusher
#
1 Exit setting (m)
1 parameter
Parameter
One output stream
Default value
0.02
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Model 101 - Classifier (0A)
Screen, spiral classifier and

rake classifier
3 parameters
Two output streams
Parameters
Default value
1 Short circuit of fines (%)
10
2 Corrected cut size: d50c (mm)
0.3
3 Corrected partition curve imperfection
0.3
This classifier model uses Rosin-Rammler's function to represent the particle size
partition curve which expresses the proportion of each particle size class in the feed
which reports to the coarse product of the classifier, using the mean particle size in this
class.
Rosin-Rammler's function is the following:
M
0.693* X
50 c
Y ( X ) = H + (100 H ) 1 e
where:
mean size of the particles in one particle size class
Y ( X ) percentage of the class reporting to the coarse product

H
short circuiting fraction (parameter #1)
d50c
corrected d 50 (parameter #2), that is to say the particle size at which

there is an equal partition between the coarse and fine products, the
effect of the short circuiting fraction having been eliminated
parameter called the "slope" which characterizes the sharpness of the

separation:
0.77
I
imperfection of the corrected partition curve (parameter #3).
By definition:
I=
(d 75c d 25c )
2d 50 c
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where d 25c and d 75c represent the particle sizes for which 25% and 75% respectively
of the particles report to the coarse product when the short circuiting fraction effect has
been eliminated.
The percentage of water going to the coarse stream is the short circuit (parameter #1).
This model can be used for vibrating screens, curved and flat screens and spiral or
rake classifiers.
Calibration of the model
The partition curve can be displayed, making it possible to estimate visually the short
circuiting fraction.
The corrected d 50 c and the imperfection of Rosin-Rammler's equation can be
calibrated at the same time. Finally, the short circuiting fraction can be estimated.
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Model 110 - Classifier (0B)
Screen
3 parameters
Two output streams
Parameters
Default value
10
2 D80 of output fine stream (mm)
0.3
0.3
The corrected partition curve imperfection is given by:
I=
(d 75c d 25c )
2d 50 c
As with the level 0A classifier, this model uses Rosin-Rammler's function to represent
the partition curve:
M
0.693* X
d 50 c
Y ( X ) = H + (100 H )1 e
The calculation of
d50c
is performed by an iterative method. As a first estimate,
d50c
d80 given as the parameter #2. This value is used to calculate the partition
Y ( X ) for each size class. The calculation of the output streams is made, for
is equal to
efficiency
each class, with:
Y ( X ) x input stream (X)
output coarse stream (X) =
output fine stream (X) = input stream (X) - output coarse stream (X).
The d80 of the fine stream is then calculated and the

to the error:
d50c
is corrected proportionally
(d80given d80calculated )
(d80given )
until the error is less than 0.1%.

The percentage of water going to the coarse stream is the short circuit (parameter #1).
This model is used for vibrating screens, curved and flat screens and spiral classifiers.
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The calibration is identical to level 0A classifier. The best way to calibrate the d80 of
the fine stream is, nevertheless, to plot the particle size distribution of the fine stream.
Notes
In preliminary grinding circuit design, the d80 of the fine stream defines the
performance of the circuit. Therefore, the use of this model makes such a design much
easier.
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Model 136 - Classifier (0C)
Air cyclone, dynamic

classifier
4 parameters
Two output streams
Parameters
Default value
1 Cut size: d50c (m)
25
2 Diameter of partition curve minimum (m)
10
3 Partition curve minimum (%)
4 Efficiency criteria
0.5
This classifier model uses the Lippek function (Lippek, E., & Espig, D.:
Forschungsarbeiten zur mathematischen, Modellierung von Trockenmahlangen,
Freiberger Forschungsheft a 602, 1978, pp. 77-78.) to represent the partition curve.
This function is typical of a partition curve with a "fish-hook".
Lippek's function is the following:
X Dm
ln
2
d 50 c Dm
Y ( X ) = T0 + (100 T0 )1 e
where:
geometric mean size of the particles in one particle size class
Y ( X ) percentage of the class reporting to the coarse product
T0
partition curve minimum (parameter #3)
d50c
corrected cut size (parameter #1)
Dm
particle size at partition curve minimum (parameter #2)
slope of the curve (parameter #4)
This model can be used for air classifiers (air cyclone, dynamic classifier, etc.)
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Model 102 - Partition curve per component
Screen
3 parameters
Parameters
Two output streams
Default value
10
2 Corrected cut size: d50c (mm)
0.3
0.3
The theory of this model is identical to that of classifier 0A (Model 101), except that the
parameters are defined for each component of the ore and solid phases.
For each component:
The partition curve can be displayed, making it possible to estimate visually the
short circuiting fraction (corresponding to the lowest point or to an asymptotic value
to the null size).
The corrected d 50 c and the slope of Rosin-Rammler's equation can be calibrated

at the same time. Finally, the short circuiting fraction can be estimated.
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Model 108 - Perfect classifier (0)
Screen, spiral classifier and

rake classifier
2 parameters
Parameters
Two output streams
Default value
1 Separation cut-size (mm)
2 Percent solids in the coarse stream (%)
95
This model is used to simulate a perfect classification without any short circuit or
imperfection. All particles coarser than the cut size (parameter #1) report to the coarse
stream. All the finer particles report to the fine stream.
The water split is given by the percent solids in the coarse stream (parameter #2).
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Model 104 - Mill (0A)
Rod mill and Ball mill
3 parameters
Parameters
1 Product particle size distribution slope (fixed or calculated)

2 Slope of the Rosin-Rammler distribution, if fixed
3 d80 at the mill discharge (mm)
One output stream
Default value
Calculated
1.2
1
This model represents the mill discharge particle size distribution by a Rosin-Rammler
straight line where the user specifies the d80 (parameter #3). The user may also
specify the slope of this line (parameter #2): he must then select "Fixed" for parameter
#1 to indicate to the model that the slope is fixed.
If not, that is to say if parameter #1 is "Calculated", the model will not take into account
the value of parameter #2 and will calculate the slope of the Rosin-Rammler line which,
by regression, is nearest to the feed particle size distribution.
Then the model will set the discharge slope at the value it has found for the feed.
A Rosin-Rammler straight line expresses the cumulative rejects of a particle size
distribution as a function of particle size using the following equation:
R( X ) = e

X0
where:
R( X )
proportion of particles coarser than X
coefficient called the Rosin-Rammler slope
X0
particle size such that: R(X0) = 0.3679

The parameters to be calibrated are the "Slope of the Rosin-Rammler distribution if
fixed" and "d80 at the mill discharge (mm)". You must fix the slope of the distribution at
the discharge (parameter #1 = Fixed) so that the adjustment of the distribution is taken
into account.
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Model 112 - Mill (0B)
Jaw crusher, cone crusher,

rod mill, ball mill,
autogenous mill
2 parameters
One output stream
Parameters
1 Size distribution (Cumulative passing, individual fractions or

cumulative retained)
Default value
Individual
2 Percentage per size class and component (%)
This model can be used to define the size distribution at the output of a comminution
unit operation (crushers, grinding mills). It allows the description of the size distribution
of each particle type.
Notes
The model does not check if the size distribution of the output is coarser than the input.
If the size distribution is given as cumulative % passing, the passing at the first size
must be 100%.
If the size distribution is given as cumulative % retained, there must be 0% retained at
the first size.
If the size distribution is given as individual fractions, the sum must be 100%.
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Model 109 - Perfect hydrocyclone (0)
Hydrocyclone
2 parameters
Parameters
Two output streams
Default value
1 Separation cut-size (mm)
0.1
2 Underflow percent solids (%)
40
This model is used to simulate a perfect cyclone classification without any short circuit
or imperfection. All particles coarser than the cut size (parameter #1) report to the
underflow. All the finer particles report to the overflow.
The water split is given by the percent solids in the underflow (parameter #2).
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Model 103 - Hydrocyclone (0A)
Hydrocyclone
3 parameters
Two output streams
Parameters
Default value
25
2 Corrected cut size: d50 c (mm)
0.07
0.3
This hydrocyclone model uses Rosin-Rammler's function to represent the particle size
partition curve which expresses the proportion of each particle size class in the feed
which reports to the underflow of the hydrocyclone, using the mean particle size in this
class.
Rosin-Rammler's function is the following:
M
0.693* X
50 c
Y ( X ) = H + (100 H ) 1 e
where:
mean size of the particles in one particle size class
Y ( X ) percentage of the class reporting to the underflow

H
short circuiting fraction (parameter #1)
d50c
corrected d 50 (parameter #2), that is to say the particle size at which

there is an equal partition between the underflow and the overflow, the
effect of the short circuiting fraction having been eliminated
parameter called the "slope" which characterizes the sharpness of the

separation:
0.77
I
imperfection of the corrected partition curve (parameter #3).
By definition:
I=
(d 75c d 25c )
2d 50 c
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where d 25c and d 75c represent the particle sizes for which 25% and 75% respectively
of the particles report to the underflow when the short circuiting fraction effect has been
eliminated.
The percentage of water going to the underflow is the short circuit (parameter #1).
The partition curve can be displayed, making it possible to estimate visually the short
circuiting fraction.
The corrected d 50 c and the imperfection of Rosin-Rammler's equation can be
calibrated at the same time. Finally, the short circuiting fraction can be estimated.
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Model 111 - Hydrocyclone (0B)
Hydrocyclone
3 parameters
Two output streams
Parameters
Default value
25
2 d80 of output fine stream (mm)
0.07
0.3
The corrected partition curve imperfection is given by:
I=
(d 75c d 25c )
2d 50 c
As with the level 0A hydrocyclone, this model uses Rosin-Rammler's function to

represent the partition curve:
M
0.693* X
d 50 c
Y ( X ) = H + (100 H )1 e
The calculation of
d50c
is performed by an iterative method. As a first estimate,
d50c
d80 given as parameter #2. This value is used to calculate the partition
efficiency Y ( X ) for each size class. The calculation of the output streams is made, for
is equal to
each class, with:
Y ( X ) x input stream (X)
output coarse stream (X) =
output fine stream (X) = input stream (X) - output coarse stream (X).
The d80 of the fine stream is then calculated and the

to the error:
d50c
is corrected proportionally
(d80given d80calculated )
(d80given )
until the error is less than 0.1%.

The percentage of water going to the underflow is the short circuit (parameter #1).
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The calibration is identical to level 0A screen. The best way to calibrate the d80 of the
fine stream is, nevertheless, to plot the particle size distribution of the fine stream.
Notes
In preliminary grinding circuit design, the d80 of the fine stream defines the
performance of the circuit. Therefore, the use of this model makes such a design much
easier.
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Model 153 - Screen (0)
Screen
4 parameters
Two output streams
Parameters
Default value
1 Screen openings (mm)
2 Efficiency (%)
90
95
The partition curve used for this model has the following shape:
Y(X)
100
S
0
dmin
SO
SO
Screen opening (parameter #1).
Short circuit of fines (parameter #3).
dmin Size under which particles are considered fines.
Y ( X ) = S
log X log d min

Y ( X ) = S + (100 S )
log SO log d min
Y ( X ) = 100
for X d min
for d min < X < SO
for X SO
The value of dmin is chosen to reach the given efficiency (parameter #2).
The water split is calculated to obtain the desired percent solids in the coarse stream
(parameter #4).
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Model 114 - Screen (1A)
Screen
8 parameters
Two output streams
Parameters
Default value
1 Number of screens in parallel
3 Wire width (mm)
1.5
4 Screen width (m)
5 Length / width ratio
1.5
6 Loading parameter
7 Efficiency parameter
6.8
10
9 Volumetric Flowrate (Solid or Pulp)

10 Fine bypass (Splitted water, Retained water or Independent)
11 Solid percent in retained stream
Solid
Splitted water
90
12 Screen type (DSM, Stationary or Vibrating)
DSM
13 Radius (for DSM) (5 ft 1 inch or 2 ft 6 inch)
5 ft 1 inch
14 Steel (for stationary) (Stainless or Carbon)
Stainless
15 Deck (for vibrating)
Single
This model uses the computation of the elementary probability that a particle of a given
size will pass through the meshes of a screen.
The surface area of the screen may be considered as the juxtaposition of elementary
openings. If one considers that, when the length of an opening is greater than its width
(Oc) the effect of the length of the opening on the probability that a particle of size d will
pass through it may be neglected, this probability will be:
Oc d
Oc + I B
when d < Oc,
when d > Oc
Where:
Oc
screen openings (parameter #2)
IB
width of the wires (parameter #3)
particle diameter.
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Consequently, the probability P that a particle will remain in the oversize after one
contact with the screen is given by:
P =1
Oc d
Oc + I B
when d < Oc
Then the probability for a particle not to pass through the screen after N attempts:
O d
PN = P = 1 c
Oc + I B
As N is large:
O d
NOc
d
PN exp N c
exp
1
=
O
Oc + I B
O
I
+
c
B
c
The term
N Oc
Oc + I B
is the separation strength considered by VALLIANT.
N, mean number of contacts which the particles make with the screen whilst passing
over it, is computed with an empirical function:
N=
E.L
C.Q
1 +
l
.
O
c
where:
L
screen length
screen width (parameter #4)
volumetric solid feedrate if parameter #9 is Solid or volumetric pulp

feedrate if parameter #9 is Pulp.
efficiency parameter, equivalent in the case of a very lightly loaded screen

to the mean number of contacts per unit length of the screen (N/L)
(parameter #7)
loading coefficient which can only be determined, for a given screen and
level, on the basis of knowledge of at least two different operating
conditions of the screen at different feed rates (parameter #6).
The mean number of contacts is assumed to be independent of the particle size.

The size partition function is then given by:
Y (d ) = S + (1 S )PN (d )
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where S is the short circuit (or bypass) of fine particles.

There are three methods to calculate the water split and the short circuit of fine
particles depending on the parameter #10:
1. Short circuit of fines is given by parameter #8 and water splitting is equal to the
short circuit.
2. Water splitting is calculated to achieve the solid percent in the retained stream
given by parameter #11. The short circuit of fines is equal to the water splitting.
3. Short circuit of fines is given by parameter #8 and water splitting is calculated
independanly to achieve the solid percent in the retained stream given by
parameter #11.
Structure and use of the model
This model does not account for the water flowrate when computing the
performance of the screen. It does not therefore reproduce the favorable or
unfavorable effects of any variations in the feed percent solids on the screen efficiency
when carrying out wet screening.
The adjustment parameters can vary considerably from one case to another during
calibration. This arises from major differences in the behavior of ores, depending on
their higher or lower clay contents, their 'stickiness' and so on, to which must also be
added the differences linked with operating under wet or dry conditions and the
characteristics of the plant, since neither the angle of inclination of the screen nor the
frequency of vibration of a vibratory screen are taken into account in the model. It is
therefore recommended that calibration be carried out on adjustment parameters 6
and 7 of the model whenever this is possible or, failing this, to use the model with care,
paying attention to the probability of the simulated performance as a function of one's
knowledge of the ore involved.
Parameters #12 to #15 are used for capital cost estimation.
Note
The initial hypothesis used in computing the elementary probability, according to which
the length of an opening must be larger than its width, practically does not exclude the
use of the model to represent a screen with square openings provided that calibration
has been carried out.
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Model 115 - Screen (1B)
Screen
18 parameters
Two output streams
Parameters
Default value
2 Screen width (m)
3 Length/width ratio
1.5
4 Minimum screen opening (mm)
5 Screen wire diameter (mm) or 0 for slotted or non-square openings
6 Angle of screen from horizontal (degree)
10
95
8 Position of screen in multiple deck screen

9 Adjustment of cut-size (d50)
Top
1
10 Adjustment of imperfection
11 Adjustment of bypass fraction
12 To be calculated (Efficiency or Screen area)
Efficiency
13 Efficiency (%)
14 Screen area (m2)
15 Screen type (DSM, Stationary or Vibrating)
DSM
16 Radius (for DSM) (5 ft 1 inch or 2 ft 6 inch)
5 ft 1 inch
17 Steel (for stationary) (Stainless or Carbon)
Stainless
18 Deck (for vibrating)
Single
The model is based upon the work of Karra (V.K. Karra, "Development of a model for
predicting the screening performance of a vibrating screen", CIM Bulletin, April 1979,
pp. 167-171).
The model basically relates the d50c empirically to the major equipment and feed
stream parameters. A partition curve is used to describe the solid-solid separation and
parameter # 7 is used for the water split.
The model has been slightly modified (water split, bypass of fines and calibration) by
L.R. Plitt at BRGM in 1990.
The d50c is expressed as follows:
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Tu
S
d 50c = ht
A.B.C.D.E.F .G
0.148
where:
ht
through fall aperture of a square mesh screen (m)
angle of the screen with the horizontal (degree)
opening of the screen (m)
wire diameter (m)
Tu
S
theoretical undersize tonnage (t/h)

screening area (m2)
nominal screen capacity per unit area of screen
oversize correction factor
half-size correction factor
deck location factor
wet screening factor
density factor
near-size factor
ht = (h + d ) cos d

The water split is given by parameter #7 and, by default, the bypass of fine particles to
the coarse stream relates directly to this split. The third adjustment parameter
(parameter #11) allows the user to calibrate this bypass to a realistic value.
The two other adjustment parameters (parameters #9 and #10) allow the user to
calibrate the d50c (cut-size) and the imperfection of the partition curve.
By default, you know the screen width (parameter #2) and length/width ratio (parameter
#3), then area (output parameter #14), and the model generates the output size
distributions according to the partition curve characteristics. The efficiency is then
calculated and displayed in parameter #13 and in the Operating Parameters Display
file.
Efficiency (%) = quantity of passing material / quantity of material finer than screen
opening.
It is also possible to calculate the screen area for a given efficiency. In that case,
choose "Screen area" for parameter #12 and enter the expected efficiency in
parameter #13. The area will be calculated (parameter #14) as the screen width
(parameter #2) keeping the length/width ratio.
Parameters #15 to #18 are used for capital cost estimation.
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Note
This model is valid only for a screen opening larger than 1mm.
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Model 118 - Spiral and rake classifier (1)
Spiral and rake classifier
11 parameters
Parameters
Two output streams
Default value
1 Number of classifiers in parallel
2 Classifier length (m)
3 Classifier width/length ratio
0.2
4 Percent solids in coarse product stream
80
5 Adjustment of the corrected d50c
6 Adjustment of the corrected partition curve imperfection
7 Adjustment of the solids bypass to sand (coarse product)
8 Decanting efficiency: useful area/total area (0.35 or 0.5)
0.5
9 Classifier type (rake or spiral)
Spiral
10 Calculated spiral diameter (m) if spiral classifier
11 Spiral type (simplex or duplex)
Simplex
This model is based upon Stokes' law. It assumes that the diameter of a particle, with a
settling velocity equal to the mean rising fluid velocity, is equal to the d50c of the
classifier. Each particle type present in the ore will have a different d50 due to the
particle density differences. The model calculates a d50 at average feed density:
d50
18VS
=
980.66( s o )
0.5
where:
d50
cut size at average feed density (cm)
VS
mean rising velocity (volumetric overflowrate / net classifier area)
apparent viscosity of the pulp in the overflow
average feed density
density of the pulp in the overflow.
The d50 is then corrected by the Masliyah coefficient (Chem. Eng. Sci., vol. 34, p. 1166,
1979) to extend the applicability beyond the laminar settling regime. The equation
becomes:
d50c = d 50 1 + 0.15 Re0.687

where:
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BRGM Software
Re
79
Reynolds number = d50 VSo/
The Rosin-Rammler type equation first proposed by Plitt (CIM Bull. vol. 64, p. 42, 1971)
is used to represent the partition curve. The equation is:
m
Di
(1 a ) + a
Pi = 1 exp 0.693
50 c
where:
Pi
Di
fraction of particles in size class i which report to the coarse stream

geometric mean of the particle size in class i
bypass of feed solids to the coarse product
parameter characterizing the sharpness of the classification, commonly

termed the "slope"; m is related to the imperfection as follows:
1
1
0.77
I = 0.5 2 m 0.415 m
In the model, m is related to the
d50c
according to the equation:
m = 1.5 + 40d50c
As the fluid properties used to calculate the d50c are based upon the properties of the
overflow slurry, which in turn is determined by partition curve parameters such as d50c,
an iterative solution is required. Reaching convergence usually requires less than 10
iterations.
The model can be used to simulate the performance of any gravity classifier in which a
settling pool area can be defined. Here, only spiral and rake classifiers are included.
The three adjustment parameters multiply the value of the d50c, the slope, and the solid
bypass to the coarse stream. The most difficult aspect is the choice of the real
efficiency (parameter #8). For rake classifiers, values between 0.2 and 0.7 depending
upon rake speed are recommended (Roberts & Fitch, section 3D-1, SME Mineral
Processing Handbook). The simulator uses default values of 0.35 for the rake classifier
and 0.5 for the spiral classifier.
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Model 117 - Rod mill (1)
Rod mill
14 parameters
One output stream
Parameters
Default value
1 Number of mills in parallel
2 Inside mill diameter (m)
2.4
3 Length/diameter ratio
1.6
4 Percent volumetric loading of rods
35
5 Fraction of critical speed
0.7
6 Rod specific gravity
7.8
14
8 Adjustment of power
9 Adjustment of slope of the output Rosin-Rammler distribution
10 Size of the largest rods (mm) (Calculated if 0)
11 Calculated mill power (kW)
12 Calculated rod load (metric tons)
13 Calculated largest diameter of rods (mm)
14 Take into account EF4, EF5, EF6 (No or Yes)
Yes
This model is based on the energetic theories of grinding and in particular on Bond's
law and the Allis Chalmers methods for dimensioning grinding mills. (Ref.: Rowland
C.A. and Kjos D.M., "Rod and Ball mills", chapter 12, in "Mineral Processing Plant
design", A.L. Mular and R.B. Bhappu ed., Society of Mining Engineers Publ., 1978, pp.
239, 278).
One of these empirical formulae makes it possible to determine the power consumed
by a mill as a function of its operational characteristics.
In the case of a rod mill the power consumed per metric ton of rods is given by:
Wst
1
= 1.752.D 3
(6.3 5.4Tc )Vr
where:
Wst
power consumed per metric ton of rods (kW)
mill diameter (m)
Vr
rotation speed expressed as a fraction of the critical speed
Tc
loading fraction: fraction of mill volume occupied by the rod charge.
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Bond's formula links the total power consumed by milling to the d80 of the mill feed and
the mill discharge by using the Work Index of the ore:
E=
10WI
10WI
d80 P
d80 F
where:
E
energy consumed to grind one short-ton of material to the desired size

(kWh/short ton)
WI
Work Index of the ore (kWh/short ton)
d80P
d80 of the mill product
d80F
d80 of the mill feed, where
d80
dimension of the screen mesh through which 80% of the product would pass (
m).
The Allis Chalmers method for dimensioning mills also involves the use of correction
factors to the power available for milling before applying Bond's formula. These
correction factors are as follows:
EF1:
for dry grinding: this factor has the value 1.3 (instead of 1) when grinding is
carried out dry.
EF2:
open circuit: this parameter is not used for the rod mill model.
EF3:
diameter correction: the value of this factor depends on the mill diameter,
using the following relationship
2.44
EF 3 =
D
EF4:
0.2
(where D is in meters)
oversize feed: when the particle size distribution of the feed is larger than the
optimal size, this factor is:
EF 4 =
Rr + (WI 7 )
(d80 F d80r )
d80 r
Rr
where:
Rr
reduction ratio = d80F/d80P
d80r
optimal d80 of feed, given by:
EF5:
fine product: this correction factor is not used in the rod mill model.
EF6:
non-optimal reduction ratio: this is involved when the grinding reduction ratio
is not between Rro-2 and Rro+2, Rro being the optimal reduction ratio. One then
has:
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d 80r = 16000.
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2
(
Rr Rro )
EF 6 = 1 +
150
where:
L
Rro = 8 +
5L
D
and Rr is the reduction ratio: d80F/d80P
length of the rods
EF7:
is used only for ball mills.
EF8:
feed to rod mills: this correction factor depends on the preparation of the ore
used to feed the mill. It has not been taken into account in the Rod mill (1)
model.
The methodology described above makes it possible to compute the d80P of the mill
discharge if one knows the d80F of the feed, the Work Index of the ore and the
characteristics of the mill. However, just knowing the d80P is not sufficient to describe
the complete particle size distribution of the mill discharge, which any simulation model
must provide.
It is therefore necessary to develop hypotheses on the shape of this distribution in
order to be able to describe it. In this model, it is assumed that the particle size
distribution of the mill discharge follows a Rosin-Rammler straight line:
R( x ) = e
x

x0
where:
R(x) mass proportion of particles coarser than x
m
slope of the Rosin-Rammler straight line
xo
particle size such that 36.79 percent of the particles in mass are coarser than xo.
Knowing one point of the Rosin-Rammler curve, that for d80P, it is only necessary to
characterize the 'slope' m of this curve for it to be fully defined. Furthermore, it has
been found that, when the particle size distribution of the mill feed is similar to a
Rosin-Rammler distribution, the particle size distribution of the mill discharge often has
the same slope: a regression is run on the feed particle size distribution to obtain an
adjustment of the Rosin-Rammler law; this gives the slope m of this law, and it is
considered that the particle size distribution of the mill discharge follows a
Rosin-Rammler curve of the same slope, passing through the d80P given by the Allis
Chalmers methodology.
Since the computation is carried out by particle type, each of these being characterized
by a Work Index, the model makes it possible to predict the selectivity of grinding when
the ore is composed of minerals of different grindabilities.
Within the model, the computation is iterative: some correction factors such as EF4
and EF6 can only be computed when d80P of the milled product is known.
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The convergence within the model is reached with a Newton method.

However, the EF6 factor leads to illogical results when the ratio of reduction Rr is lower
than Rr0. Then, the model is simplified by replacing Bond formula by a straight line for
values of Rr less than Rr0 - 2.
In any case, the method employed in the model is clearly expressed in the Operating
Parameters Display.
The grindability index (kWh/short ton) for each mineral must be indicated:
fragile mineral: 6
resistant mineral: 15
For a simulation involving only a single mineral, use the Bond Work Index.
It is recommended to use a description of the ore, which includes a minimum of eight
particle size distribution classes, so as to obtain a good description of the grinding
process.
Parameter #14, if set to "No", allows the user to avoid the iterative calculation that is
employed if the inefficiency factors EF4, EF5, EF6, which depend on the output d80, are
taken into account. Its default value is "Yes".
This model has two adjustment parameters:
the first is used in computing the power available for grinding by dividing it: default
value is 1,
the second is used in modifying the slope of the size distribution at the mill
discharge. Its default value is 1, which means that the slope of the mill feed (in
terms of the Rosin-Rammler distribution) is used to describe the mill discharge.
If you do not have any continuous operation data, no calibration of the model is
possible. If you have determined the Bond Work Index in the laboratory, then use this
index for each mineral.
If you have a continuous operation data set, but if you have not determined the Work
Index in the laboratory, you should adjust the Work Index for each mineral.
If you have a set of continuous operation data, once the power has been adjusted, you
should adjust the Work Index for each mineral to take into account the selectivity of
grinding.
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Model 116 - Ball mill (1)
Ball mill
15 parameters
One output stream
Parameters
Default value
4 Percent volumetric loading of balls
40
0.7
6 Ball specific gravity
7.8
14
8 Mill discharge (Overflow or Grate discharge)
Overflow
10 Adjustment of slope of the output Rosin-Rammler distribution
11 Size of the largest balls (mm) (calculated if 0)
13 Calculated ball load (metric tons)
14 Calculated largest diameter of balls (mm)
15 Take into account EF4, EF5, EF6 (No or Yes)
Yes
This model is based on the energetic theories of grinding and in particular on Bond's
law and the Allis Chalmers methods for dimensioning grinding mills. (Ref.: Rowland
C.A. and Kjos D.M., "Rod and Ball mills", chapter 12, in "Mineral Processing Plant
design", A.L. Mular and R.B. Bhappu ed., Society of Mining Engineers Publ., 1978, pp.
239, 278).
One of these empirical formulae makes it possible to determine the power consumed
by a mill as a function of its operational characteristics. In the case of a ball mill, this is
given by:
0.1
Wst = 4.879 D 0.3 (3.2 3Tc )Vr 1 9 10V

r
2
where:
Wst
power consumed per metric ton of balls (kW)
mill diameter inside liners (m)
Tc
loading fraction: fraction of the mill volume occupied by the ball charge
Vr
rotation speed expressed as a fraction of the critical speed.
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Bond's formula links the total power consumed by milling to the d80 of the mill feed and
the mill discharge by using the Work Index of the ore:
E=
10WI
10WI
d80 P
d80 F
where:
E
energy consumed to grind one short-ton of material to the desired size

(kWh/short ton)
WI
Work Index of the ore (kWh/short ton)
d80P
d80 of the mill product
d80F
d80 of the mill feed, where
d80
dimension of the screen mesh through which 80% of the product would pass (
m).
The Allis Chalmers method for dimensioning mills also involves the use of correction
factors to the power available for milling before applying Bond's formula. These
correction factors are as follows:
EF1:
for dry grinding: this factor has the value 1.3 (instead of 1) when grinding is
carried out dry since the energy consumption is then 1.3 times greater than in
the case of wet grinding
EF2:
open circuit: this parameter is always applied in simulation since, in the model,
the computation of the mill outlet is carried out as a function of that at the entry
as if the mill was in open circuit. A value of 1.2 for this factor has been chosen
from the table of values given for the Allis Chalmers method for use in the Ball
mill (1) model
EF3:
diameter correction: the value of this factor depends on the mill diameter,
using the following relationship
2.44
EF 3 =
D
EF4:
0.2
(where D is in meters)
oversize feed: when the particle size distribution of the feed is larger than the
optimal size, this factor is:
EF 4 =
Rr + (WI 7 )
(d80 F d80r )
d80 r
Rr
where:
Rr
reduction ratio = d80F/d80P
d80r
optimal d80 of feed, given by:
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d80 r = 4000.
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EF5:
fine product: this correction factor is applied when d80P is smaller than 75
microns:
EF 5 =
(d80 P + 10.3)
(1.145.d80 P )
EF6:
this factor, which relates to rod mills, is not used.
EF7:
low reduction ratio: this correction factor is applied when the reduction ratio Rr
is less than 6.
EF 7 =
EF8:
2(Rr 1.35) + 0.26

2(Rr 1.35)
like EF6, this only concerns rod mills.
The methodology described above makes it possible to compute the d80P of the mill
discharge if one knows the d80F of the feed, the Work Index of the ore and the
characteristics of the mill. However, just knowing the d80P is not sufficient to describe
the complete particle size distribution of the mill discharge, which any simulation model
must provide.
It is therefore necessary to develop hypotheses on the shape of this distribution in
order to be able to describe it. In this model, it is assumed that the particle size
distribution of the mill discharge follows a Rosin-Rammler straight line:
R(x ) = e
x

x0
where:
R(x) mass proportion of particles coarser than x
m
slope of the Rosin-Rammler straight line
xo
particle size such that 36.79 percent of the particles in mass are coarser than xo.
Knowing one point of the Rosin-Rammler curve, that for d80P, it is only necessary to
characterize the 'slope' m of this curve for it to be fully defined. Furthermore, it has
been found that, when the particle size distribution of the mill feed is similar to a
Rosin-Rammler distribution, the particle size distribution of the mill discharge often has
the same slope: a regression is run on the feed particle size distribution to obtain an
adjustment of the Rosin-Rammler law; this gives the slope m of this law, and it is
considered that the particle size distribution of the mill discharge follows a
Rosin-Rammler curve of the same slope, passing through the d80P given by the Allis
Chalmers methodology.
Since the computation is carried out by particle type, each of these being characterized
by a Work Index, the model makes it possible to predict the selectivity of grinding when
the ore is composed of minerals of different grindabilities.
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Within the model, the computation is iterative: some correction factors such as EF4,
EF5 and EF7 can only be computed when d80P of the milled product is known.
The convergence within the model is reached with a Newton method.
However, the EF7 factor leads to illogical results when the ratio of reduction Rr is low. It
becomes infinite when this ratio is close to 1.35. It is negative when the ratio is
between 1.35 and 1.22.
Then, the model is simplified by replacing Bond formula by a straight line for low ratios
of reduction. This straight line is the tangent to Bond formula which passes through the
point (Rr = 1, E = 0).
In any case, the method employed in the model is clearly expressed in the Operating
Parameters Display.
The grindability index (kWh/short ton) for each mineral must be indicated:
fragile mineral: 6
resistant mineral: 15
For a simulation involving only a single mineral, use the Bond Work Index.
It is recommended to use a description of the ore, which includes a minimum of eight
particle size distribution classes, so as to obtain a good description of the grinding
process.
Parameter #15, if set to "No", allows the user to avoid the iterative calculation that is
employed if the inefficiency factors EF4, EF5, EF7, which depend on the output d80,
are taken into account. Its default value is "Yes".
This model has two adjustment parameters:
the first is used in computing the power available for grinding by dividing it: default
value is 1,
the second is used in modifying the slope of the size distribution at the mill
discharge. Its default value is 1, which means that the slope of the mill feed (in
terms of the Rosin-Rammler distribution) is used to describe the mill discharge.
If you do not have any continuous operation data, no calibration of the model is
possible. If you have determined the Bond Work Index in the laboratory, then use this
index for each mineral.
If you have a continuous operation data set, but if you have not determined the Work
Index in the laboratory, you should adjust the Work Index for each mineral.
If you have a set of continuous operation data, once the power has been adjusted, you
should adjust the Work Index for each mineral to take into account the selectivity of
grinding.
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Model 113 - Hydrocyclone (1)
Hydrocyclone
14 parameters
Two output streams
Parameters
Default value
1 Number of hydrocyclones in parallel
2 Cyclone diameter: D (m)
0.3
3 Distance between the underflow and overflow nozzles/D
4 Diameter of the feed nozzle/D
0.25
5 Diameter of the overflow nozzle/D
0.3
6 Diameter of the underflow nozzle/D
0.18
7 Adjustment of the corrected d50
8 Adjustment of the imperfection of the partition curve
9 Adjustment of the short circuiting fraction
60
This model is based on the empirical equations established as a result of experimental

work by L.R. Plitt (L.R. Plitt, "A mathematical model of the hydrocyclone classifier", CIM
Bull., Dec. 1976). Plitt considered that the corrected partition curve of a hydrocyclone
corresponds to a Rosin-Rammler formula:
Yc (d ) = 1 e
d
0.693
d 50 c
where:
d
particle size
Yc
proportion of the particle population of size d which reports to the cyclone

overflow, without accounting for the short circuiting fraction
d50c corrected d50

m
parameter characterizing the sharpness of the classification commonly termed

the "slope". It is related to imperfection as follows:
1
1
0.77
m
m
I = 0.5 x 2 0.415
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Four basic empirical equations characterize, directly or indirectly, the parameters of the
corrected partition curve and the short-circuiting fraction as a function of the
geometrical parameters of a cyclone and the characteristics of its feed:
d50i
P=
52.5 D 0.46 DA0.6 DO1.21 e0.063

= 0.71 0.38 0.45
0.5
DU H QV ( mi )
1.88QV1.78 e0.0055
D 0.37 DA0.94 H 0.28 DU2 + DO2

m = 1.93 e
D
1.9 u
D
S = o
-1.58R V
D2H
Q
v
3.31
H 0.54 Du2 + Do2
0.87
0.15
0.36 0.0054
Pm0.24 D1.11
where:
D
internal diameter of the cyclone (cm)
DA diameter of the feed nozzle (cm)

DO diameter of the overflow nozzle (cm)
DU diameter of the underflow nozzle (cm)
H
free vortex height or distance between the overflow and underflow nozzles (cm)
percent solids by volume in the feed pulp to the cyclone
QV volumetric flowrate of the feed pulp (l/min)
mi specific gravity of particle type i (t/m3)
specific gravity of liquid (equal to 1 in the model)
RV fraction of the volumetric feedrate passing to the underflow

P
pressure drop in the cyclone (kPa)
Pm P expressed in pulp height (m)

S
ratio between the volumetric flowrates in the underflow and the overflow.
Notes
For each particle type class i, the model computes a corrected d50 (d50i), taking into
account the specific gravity of this particle type mi. This accounts for the difference in
the cut-size between minerals that one observes when the ore is composed of minerals
of different specific gravity.
A computation of the pressure drop is done in the model. The value obtained is written
to the Operating Parameters Display when the simulation converges.
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This model reproduces, with a reasonable level of accuracy, the operation of

hydrocyclones in mineral slurries having a medium to high feed pressure and a feed
percent solids lower than 30%, even when the model is used without calibration, using
the default values of 1 for the three adjustment parameters. By contrast when it is a
matter of simulating a cyclone with a high feed percent solids (typical of a cyclone in a
grinding circuit) calibration is absolutely necessary.
The three adjustment parameters multiply the values of the corrected d50 (d50i), the
imperfection of the partition curve and the fines short circuit respectively. Their default
value is 1; that is to say there is no modification of the values predicted by Plitt's
formulae when the model is not calibrated.
The model relates exclusively to cyclone classifiers with underflow umbrella discharge.
It must not be used to simulate a cyclone thickener (with roping discharge from the
underflow). If, during a simulation, the operating conditions of the cyclone lead to
roping of the underflow, a warning message will be written into the Operating
Parameters Display. In such a case, the results of the simulation of the cyclone must
be viewed with great suspicion.
Since the performance of cyclone classifiers is very sensitive to the percent solids of
the feed, it is recommended to precede the cyclone by a density regulator when
drawing the flowsheet.
Power calculation
The power consumed by the pump associated with the hydrocyclone is proportional to
the head inside the hydrocyclone according to the formula (Kelly, E.G., Spottiswood,
D.J., Introduction to mineral processing, Ed. John Wiley and sons, 1982):
PW =
KH wQ
E
where:
Pw
its value 977.1 N/m2 has been empirically established by Hicks and Edwards
(Hicks, T.G. and Edwards, T.W., Pump Application Engineering, Mc Graw-Hill,
1971)
Hw
E = Ew (1 K sp )
where:
Ew
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91
slurry pump factor (parameter #10), function of the average particle size and of
the solids specific gravity, obtained thanks to a slurry pump factor chart (after
volume fraction of solids in slurry (calculated by the hydrocyclone model)
Hw =
H
1 K sp
where:
total head of slurry: sum of head of slurry (m) calculated by the hydrocyclone
model and head (m) lost in piping (parameter #11)
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Model 127 - Air cyclone (1)
Air cyclone
19 parameters
Two output streams
Parameters
Default value
1 Number of cyclones in parallel
3 Overall cyclone height/D
1.3
4 Cylindrical body height/D
1.3
5 Outlet duct diameter for dust/D
0.3
6 Gas outlet duct diameter/D
0.5
7 Gas outlet duct length/D
0.8
8 Inlet height/D
0.5
9 Inlet width/D (or 0 if unknown)
0.2
10 Specific gravity of gas (kg/m3)
1
2.1.10-5
11 Dynamic viscosity of gas (kg/m/s)

12 Absolute temperature of gas (Kelvin)
298
13 Volumetric flowrate of gas (m3/s)
14 Pressure drop coefficient
16
15 Adjustment of the cut size
16 Bypass of fines to the coarse stream (%)
20
17 Calculated pressure drop of Shepherd and Lapple (kPa)
18 Calculated pressure drop of Stairmand (kPa)
19 Calculated pressure drop of Barth (kPa)
This model calculates a partition efficiency with the Leith and Licht equation (Leith D.
and Licht W., 1972, "Collection efficiency of cyclone type particle collectors, a new
theoretical approach", AI.Ch.E. Symposium series: air - 1971):
Yc ( X ) = 1 e
2 ( C ) 2 n + 2
where C is a function of the cyclone dimensions, a function of the gas/particle

system and n a function of the cyclone diameter and the absolute temperature.
Dimensions of the hydrocyclone are:
D
internal cyclone diameter (parameter #2)
overall body height (h/D = parameter #4)
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De
gas outlet diameter (De/D = parameter #6)
gas outlet length (S/D = parameter #7)
inlet height (a/D = parameter #8)
inlet width (b/D = parameter #9)
H:
overall cyclone height (H/D = parameter #3)
B:
outlet duct diameter (B/D = parameter #5)

D
b
De
S
a
h
Inlet
Vortex
Dust exit
B
The vortex length is given by:

1
3
l 2.3 De D
D D ab
2
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and the diameter of the conical section at the vortex bottom is:
d = D (D B )
(S+I h )
(H h )
The dimension parameter C is given by:
C=
4V1 + 8V2
abD
where V1 is the volume of the selection region under the vortex finder:
V1 =
2
2
2
D 2
(h S ) + D + Dd + d S + l h De l
4
4
3
4
and V2 is the volume of the feed region:

2
a D 2 D e
V2 = S
2 4
4
If
l > H h , the volume V1 is given by:
D 2
D 2 + DB + B 2 H h De2
(h S ) +
(H S )
V1 =
4
4
3
4
The gas/particle system parameter is given by:
= p X 2vg
n +1
18 g D
where:
particle specific gravity
particle diameter
gas velocity through cyclone inlet
dynamic viscosity of gas
The temperature parameter is given by:
(39.4 D )0.14 T 0.3
n = 1 1
283
.
2
5
with T is the absolute temperature of gas (K).

The pressure drop between the inlet and the gas outlet is determined from the
following equation:
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P =
vg2 g H
2
H is calculated according to three theories:

1. Shepherd and Lapple (1939, 1940)
H =
Kab
De2
where K = 16 for a cyclone with standard tangential inlet, and K = 7.5 for a cyclone with
an inlet vane, i.e. with a feed flowrate that is much more tangential and which causes
less disturbance to the vortex.
2. Stairmand (1949)
D b 4ab
1 + 2 2
H = 1 + 2 2
D
e
De
2
where:
De
4 AG
De ab
=
+
ab
2(D b ) 2GA
2(D b )
G is a friction factor equal to 0.005 and A is the inside surface of the cyclone exposed
to the spinning gas:
(D + B )
A = D 2 De2 + Dh + De S +
4
2
(H h ) + D B
2
3. Barth (1956)
u
H = i
vi
4ab
2 (e + i )
De
where:
De
1
e =
1
2
D
1 (H S ) ui 2
vi De
i =
4.4
2
3
+1
ui

vi
and
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De
(D b )
ui
2
=
vi 2ab + (H S )(D b )
with
1 1.2
b
D
and the friction factor = 0.02.

The fines short circuit is directly adjusted, because it is not defined by the model but
simply added to the calculated efficiency. The d50 adjustment parameter produces a
move of the size classes from which the efficiency is determined.
The pressure drop results are written in the Operating Parameters Display.
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Model 126 - Attrition cell (1)
Attrition cell
7 parameters
One output stream
Parameters
Default value
1 Number of cells in parallel
2 Slurry volume in one cell (m3)
10
3 Critical size (mm)
0.1
4 Attrition rate kinetic constant (1/min)
5 Exponent for the size dependence of the attrition rate
6 Proportion of each component being attrited
7 Fines production only in the lower size class (Yes or No)
Yes
This model is based on the representation of attrition of each mineral of the ore as a
first-order kinetic phenomenon. The attrition cell is represented as a perfect mixer
characterized by a mean residence time of the pulp.
Only a fraction of each mineral is worn. Only particles above the critical size
(parameter #3) are worn.
Hence, if Xi > Xc, the fraction of mineral k in size class i in the attrition mill discharge is:
Pk
msik = meik 1 Pk +
1 + kik
where:
Xc
critical size
meik fraction of mineral k in size class i in the feed

Pk
fraction of mineral k being worn (parameter #6)
mean residence time of the pulp:
Volume of pulp in the cell

Feed flowrate
kik
attrition rate of mineral k in size class i:
X
kik = K k i
X1
where:
Kk
kinetic constant (parameter #4)
Xi
geometric mean of size class i
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exponent given as parameter #5.
If the attrition is governed by the specific surface, the value of n is about -1. But this
parameter can have a non-integer value, which can be obtained by calibration.
All the attrition products of size classes above Xc fall into classes under Xc.
If parameter #7 is "Yes", all the products fall into the lower size class.
If parameter #7 is "No", the products fall into size classes under Xc in the following way:
the size class which contains Xc receives a proportion of the products according to
the position of Xc between the limits of that class,
the size classes under this one receive all the same proportion.

The proportion of each mineral that can be worn can be adjusted. The exponent of the
kinetics, and the critical size can be also adjusted.
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Model 135 - Crusher (2)
Crusher
4 parameters
One output stream
Parameters
Default value
1 Size under which no breakage occurs (mm)
2 Reduction factor for the breakage function
3 Slope of the breakage function
4 Proportion of breakage in the large size classes (%)
100
This model is based on an extremely simplified kinetic representation of breakage. It

describes the breakage of a particle by the following breakage function:
x
Bij = i
x
redj
Bij = 1
if xi < xredj
if xi xredj
where:
Bij
fraction of products from breakage of size class j falling in size class i,
xi
particle size,
slope of the breakage function (parameter #3),
xredj
defined by
xredj =
where
xj
R
is the reduction factor (parameter #2)
Ln(x)
Shape of the breakage function.
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Only the proportion given in parameter #4 is broken in the size classes above the size
Use of the model
This model is well adapted to represent hammer crushers.
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Model 106 - Cone crusher (2)
Cone crusher
8 parameters
One output stream
Parameters
Default value
1 Closed side setting: CSS (m)
0.025
2 Proportion of "tensile fracture" breakage
0.05
3 CSS multiplier giving the size under which no breakage occurs
0.6
4 CSS multiplier giving the size above which all is broken
1.2
5 Correction of size above which all is broken (m)
6 "Slope" of Whiten's probability function
7 Breakage function slope of the "tensile fracture" part
4.5
8 Breakage function slope of the "compressive fracture" part
0.5
This model uses the representation of crushing by means of the grinding and
classification functions proposed by W.J. Whiten et al. in "A breakage function suitable
for crusher models". Fourth Tewksbury, Symposium, Melbourne, February, 1979.
Whiten's classification function describes the probability of particles to enter the
breakage stage, as a function of particle size by:
0
for particles smaller than a given size k1
for particles larger than a given size
C(x) for particles of intermediate size k1
k2
< x < k2
x k2
C(X ) = 1
k1 k2
k3
with:
k1 = Css
k2 = Css +
, , : parameters #3, #4 and #5 respectively
k3 : parameter #6
Css : closed side setting (parameter #1)

Whiten's grinding function is expressed by the following equation:
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P( x, y ) = 1 + Ky
mq
x
x
+ Ky m q
y
y
with:
P ( x, y )
fraction of material smaller than size x produced from a particle of size y
constant part of the expression for the amount of fine breakage - fraction
(parameter #2)
exponent determining the slope of the portion of the size distribution produced
by compressive failure (parameter #7)
exponent determining the slope of the position of the size distribution produced
by tensile fracture (parameter #8)
exponent determining the size dependence of the amount of fine breakage (q =

m for this model).
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Ball mill
14 parameters
One output stream
Parameters
Default value
3 Length / diameter ratio
40
0.7
7.8
7 Mill discharge: 0 = overflow, 1 = grate discharge
8 Number of perfect mixers equivalent to the mill
9 Specific rate of breakage per component (K1E)
10 Exponent 1 per component for the size dependence of K
0.7
12 Size of the largest balls (mm)
14 Calculated load of the mill (t)
This model is based on the work of Austin (Austin, L.G.,Klimpel, R.R., and Luckie, P.T.,
Process Engineering of size reduction: ball milling. AIME, New York, 1984, Chap. 4.8.)
and of Herbst & Bascur (Herbst, J.A. and Bascur, O.A., A program for the simulation of
steady state circuit behavior, using a small computer. Report of Department of
Metallurgical Engineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, 1979). It combines a
simplified kinetic approach with an energetic approach. The energy consumed by the
mill is first computed as a function of its characteristics, using the same formula as in
the Ball mill 1 model, this being the empirical formula used in the Allis Chalmers
methods for dimensioning mills:
0.1
Wst = 4.879 D 0.3 (3.2 3Tc )Vr 1 9 10V

r
2
where:
Wst
power (kW) consumed per short ton of material milled
mill diameter (m)
Tc
fraction of mill volume occupied by the balls
Vr
fraction of critical speed.
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Then, this energy is used in a formula, which results from a simplification of the kinetic
approach:
the transport of the ore is characterized by a number of perfect mixers in series

(parameter #8). The method for determining this parameter is exposed below.
the grinding and selection functions are represented together in application of the
hypothesis of compensation using the relationship:
1
Bij S j = K i = K1d i
d i
di
= K1. exp 1 ln + 2 ln
d1
d1
where:
di
mean particle size in particle size class i
d1
reference particle size = 1 mm
Furthermore, it is considered that K1 depends on the energy consumed during grinding

according to the relationship given by Herbst:
K1 = K1E
P
H
where:
P
energy available for grinding
total hold up of material in the mill.
The numerical values of 1, 1 and K1E for each mineral are obtained by calibration
employing experimental data on at least one point of operation of a continuously
running mill, called the calibration point.
The particle size distribution of the mill discharge is then computed:
K P
Pi = Fi 1 + i
NQ
where:
proportion (in mass) of particles coarser than particle size class i in the mill
Pi
product
Fi
proportion (in mass) of particles coarser than particle size class i in the mill feed
power consumed by the mill (kW)
solids flowrate
number of perfect mixers in series.
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Basically, the model uses a kinetic approach to describe the comminution process. The
kinetic parameters are calibrated to fit a set of experimental data.
The main interest of the model is that it is able to take into account the dimensions and
working conditions of the mill by the use of energy.
The model reproduces the selectivity of grinding when several minerals of different
grindabilities describe the ore.
It does not take into account the influence of the solids concentration of the slurry or
the ball size during grinding.
Residence time distribution should be determined by a specific test (see below), but
most of the time, the default value of 3 perfect mixers in series makes it possible to
obtain satisfactory results.
The model necessitates the adjustment of two or three parameters per mineral.
Method for determining the resident time distribution in a mill
The residence time distribution for the solids characterizes the transport of the material
through the mill. In practice, it is generally valid to approximate the residence time
distribution in a ball or rod mill to that obtained with m perfect and identical mixers
having a mean residence time of .
The determination of the residence time distribution therefore consists in obtaining, by
means of an experimental procedure, the values of m and which best characterize
the transport of the material through the mill.
Experimental procedure
Measuring the residence time distribution of solids is often extremely complicated,
giving rise to tedious and expensive manipulations (the use of fluorescence to label the
liquid phase, the neutron activation of the solids with the following-up of the
radioactivity, etc.). Since the behavior of the fines is, furthermore, similar to that of the
water, measurements are generally made on the residence time distribution of the
water in the pulp. This latter procedure is used at BRGM and is detailed below. The
results are then used to represent the residence time distribution of the solids in the
model.
The assumption that the residence time distribution of the solid phase is similar to that
of the liquid phase is fairly usual and has been used to model large mills. It is
nevertheless an approximation, detailed research work having demonstrated that in
reality different initial particle size classes give rise to significantly different residence
time distributions.
Measuring the residence time distribution in a mill (industrial or pilot-scale) involves the
following stages:
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establishment of steady-state operation of the circuit: the tracer must not be

introduced until steady state has been reached,
injection of a water-soluble tracer into the inlet of the mill in the form of a nearly
saturated solution, generally of lithium chloride LiCl. Injection must be carried out
as rapidly as possible,
removal of pulp samples from the mill outlet at regular time intervals (30 seconds to
1 minute),
treatment of each of the samples which have been taken by filtration then analysis
of the concentration of lithium in the filtrate.
The plot of lithium concentration against time gives the residence time distribution in
the mill if the circuit is open. For a closed circuit, a mathematical correction must be
applied because of the effect of the return of the tracer into the mill. This then
necessitates taking samples from the returned stream as well as the primary samples,
and of measuring or calculating the circulating load: this procedure is not detailed here.
Processing the experimental data
It is necessary, first of all, to correct the concentrations of the tracer because of the
finite duration of its injection (it should theoretically be instantaneous, but this is not
possible in practice). Such a correction involves the following relationships:
if t < To and F(o) = 0
then F(t) = t.C'(t)
if t > To
then F(t) = To.C'(t) + F(t - To)
where:
t
time. The start time is fixed as the end of the injection of the tracer
C'(t) tracer concentration measured at time t

To
duration of the injection of the tracer
F(t): cumulative residence time distribution (integral of the non-cumulative distribution

function E(t)).
One can then (although this operation is optional) calculate mo, the mass of tracer
injected, from the concentrations C'(t) and Q, the volumetric flowrate of the pulp,
assuming no retention of tracer in the unit.
Comparing mo, the calculated mass, and Mo, the mass of tracer measured by
weighing before injection, makes it possibly to verify the reliability of the experiment.
The following stage consists of normalizing F(t) so that F(t) becomes equal to 1 for a
high value of t, corresponding to a tracer concentration at the mill outlet, which is very
close to 0.
Then the adjustment of the values of F(t) to a model of m perfect mixers in series is
carried out, using regression software. The model tested is:
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m 1
mt
1 mt
F (t ) = 1 e
i = 0 i!
where:
m
number of perfect mixers
mean residence time in the mill
The parameter m characterizes the residence time distribution in level 2 and level 3
grinding simulation models. For the industrial mills with which BRGM has worked, the
value of m is typically of the order of 2 or 3.
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Rod mill
12 parameters
One output stream
Parameters
Default value
2.4
1.6
35
0.7
7.8
8 Specific rate of breakage per component (K1E)
0.7
This model is based on the same theoretical basis and has the same structure as the
ball mill (2) model.
The only difference resides in the computation of the power consumed using the Allis
Chalmers methodology:
Wst
1
= 1.752.D 3
(6.3 5.4Tc )Vr
where:
Wst
power consumed per ton of rods (kW)
mill diameter (m)
Vr
rotation speed expressed as a fraction of the critical speed
Tc
loading fraction: fraction of mill volume occupied by the rod charge.
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Model 121 - Hydrocyclone (2)
Hydrocyclone
17 parameters
Two output streams
Parameters
Default value
1 Number of cyclones in parallel
0.3
3 Distance between the underflow and overflow nozzles/D
4 Diameter of the feed nozzle/D
0.25
5 Diameter of the overflow nozzle/D
0.3
6 Diameter of the underflow nozzle/D
0.18
7 Adjustment of the corrected d50
8 Adjustment of the partition curve imperfection
9 Adjustment of the short circuiting fraction
10 Adjustment of the rope discharge limit
11 Calculated pressure drop (kPa)
12 Calculated underflow nozzle diameter (cm) to prevent roping
60
This model is based on the empirical equations established as a result of experimental

work by L.R. Plitt (L.R. Plitt, "A mathematical model of the hydrocyclone classifier", CIM
Bull., Dec. 1976). Plitt considered that the corrected partition curve of a hydrocyclone
corresponds to a Rosin-Rammler formula:
Yc (d ) = 1 e
d
0.693
d 50 c
where:
d
particle size
Yc
proportion of the particle population of size d which reports to the cyclone

overflow, without accounting for the short circuiting fraction
d50c corrected d50

m
parameter characterizing the sharpness of the classification commonly termed

the "slope". It is related to imperfection as follows:
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1
1
0.77
m
m
I = 0.5 x 2 0.415
Four basic empirical equations characterize, directly or indirectly, the parameters of the
corrected partition curve and the short-circuiting fraction as a function of the
geometrical parameters of a cyclone and the characteristics of its feed:
d50i
P=
52.5 D 0.46 DA0.6 DO1.21 e0.063

= 0.71 0.38 0.45
0.5
DU H QV ( mi )
1.88QV1.78 e0.0055
D 0.37 DA0.94 H 0.28 DU2 + DO2

2
-1.58R V D H
m = 1.93 e
Q
v
D
1.9 u
D
S = o
3.31
H 0.54 Du2 + Do2
0.87
0.15
0.36 0.0054
Pm0.24 D1.11
where:
D
internal diameter of the cyclone (cm)
DA diameter of the feed nozzle (cm)

DO diameter of the overflow nozzle (cm)
DU diameter of the underflow nozzle (cm)
H
free vortex height or distance between the overflow and underflow nozzles (cm)
percent solids by volume in the feed pulp to the cyclone
QV volumetric flowrate of the feed pulp (l/min)
mi specific gravity of particle type i
specific gravity of liquid (equal to 1 in the model)
RV fraction of the volumetric feedrate passing to the underflow

P
pressure drop in the cyclone (kPa)
Pm P expressed in pulp height (m)

S
ratio between the volumetric flowrates in the underflow and the overflow.
Notes
For each particle type class i the model computes a corrected d50 (d50i), taking into
account the specific gravity of this particle type mi. This accounts for the difference in
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the cut-size between minerals which one observes when the ore is composed of
minerals of different specific gravity.
A computation of the pressure drop is done in the model. The value obtained is written
to the Operating Parameters Display when the simulation converges.
Other values written in the Operating Parameters Display are:
Average corrected d50
Imperfection
Rf (short circuiting fraction)
Rope limit in % solids by volume to the underflow
Mean specific gravity of the feed solids
This model simulates the operation of hydrocyclones in mineral slurries. Even when the
model is used without calibration, that is using default values of 1 for the four
adjustment parameters, the results are usually within a reasonable level of precision.
The three adjustment parameters multiply the values of the corrected d50, the
imperfection and the fines short circuit parameter respectively. Parameter #10 is for
adjustment of the point at which rope discharge occurs and is only used for calibration
of a roping cyclone. This parameter also has a default value of 1 and adjusts the %
solids by volume of the cyclone underflow during roping. All the adjustment parameters
have a default value of 1.
Power calculation
The power consumed by the pump associated with the hydrocyclone is proportional to
the head inside the hydrocyclone according to the formula (Kelly, E.G., Spottiswood,
D.J., Introduction to mineral processing, Ed. John Wiley and sons, 1982):
PW =
KH wQ
E
where:
Pw
its value 977.1 N/m2 has been empirically established by Hicks and Edwards
(Hicks, T.G. and Edwards, T.W., Pump Application Engineering, Mc Graw-Hill,
1971)
Hw
E = Ew (1 K sp )
where:
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Ew
K sp
slurry pump factor (parameter #13), function of the average particle size and of
the solids specific gravity, obtained thanks to a slurry pump factor chart (after
volume fraction of solids in slurry (calculated by the hydrocyclone model)
Hw =
H
1 K sp
where:
total head of slurry: sum of head of slurry (m) calculated by the hydrocyclone
model and head (m) lost in piping (parameter #14)
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Model 129 - SAG/AG mill (2)
SAG/AG mill
29 parameters
One output stream
Parameters
Default value
0.5
4 Filling with balls (%)
0.7
7.8
7 Size of the discharge grate openings (mm)
25
8 Imperfection of the classification of the discharge grate
0.4
9 Maximum diameter of extracted pebbles (mm)

10 Imperfection of the grate for pebble extraction
0
0.4
11 Adjustment of pebble extraction efficiency
12 Minimum diameter of extracted pebbles (mm)
13 Percentage of mean residence time in the first mixer (%)
80
14 Wear coefficient (0=surface, 1=volume)
0.6
15 Wear rate per component
16 PHIG (distribution of attrition products)
0.7
17 BETAG (distribution of attrition products)
0.5
18 GAMMAG (distribution of attrition products)
19 Reference size for the distribution of attrition products (mm)
20 ALPHA1 (grinding function for particles)
0.5
22 K1 (grinding function for particles)
23 Reference size for the grinding function (mm)
24 Percent solids in the mill, if known (%)
25 Effective porosity of the load (fraction)
0.3
27 Target volumetric loading (%)
29 Calculated load of grinding media
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This model combines a first order kinetic approach for particles below the size of the
discharge grate, a wear function for the rocks, and a classification function for pebbles
extraction.
The terms employed to characterize the different fragments of the feed are represented
in the following figure:
Maximum diameter
of extracted pebbles
Extracted
pebbles
Feed
Minimum diameter
of extracted pebbles
Particles
Size of the discharge
grate openings :
- below = particles
- above = rocks
1 - Wear of the rocks

The wear of rocks is considered analogous to that of balls studied by Austin (Austin
L.G., Menacho J.M., Pearcy F., A general model for semi-autogenous and autogenous
milling, Proceeding, APCOM 87, SAIMM, Johannesburg, Vol. 2, Metallurgy, pp 107126, 1987).
1.1 - Main assumption
The mass produced by abrasion per unit of time is expressed as:
dm
= 4r 2+ V
dt
(1)
where:
r
radius of the bloc being worn (unit of length),
can range from 0 if the wear is proportional to the surface to 0.999 if the wear is
proportional to the volume (parameter #14),
abrasion rate constant, whose unit depends on (m/s if = 0),
specific gravity of the material.
This expression means that the mass produced by abrasion per unit of time is
proportional to the mass of the rock if is almost 1, and proportional to its surface area
if = 0. The coefficient is generally around 0.6.
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The abrasion of a rock generates fines (below the discharge grate opening) and other
rocks which fall into the size class just below.
1.2 - Mass balance of rocks
The mass balance over one size class of rocks when the mill is operated steadily can
be expressed as:
Variation of mass per unit of time = feed flowrate + flowrate of production
from the size class just above - flowrate of disappearance by abrasion flowrate extracted.
This equation is:
3
m ri
i 1 ri 1
m
0 = Q fi + (1 )V 1 1 1 i 1 Qei
ri ri +1
ri 1 ri
for 1
where:
Qfi
feed flowrate (kg/s),
Qei
extracted flowrate (kg/s),
abrasion rate (unit of r1-/s),
mi
mass of rocks (kg),
ri
radius of a rock (whatever unit of length),
index of the size class.
1.3 - Influence of mill diameter on abrasion rate

The value of V is determined by:
V = V0 D 0.66
where:
V0
D
abrasion rate per component (parameter # 15),

mill diameter (parameter #2).
1.4 - Pebble extraction

The rocks with diameters between maximum (parameter #9) and minimum
(parameter #12) diameters of extracted pebbles are considered to be "critical". If these
parameters are specified ( 0), the extraction occurs.
The grate for pebble extraction is represented by the classification function expressed
by:
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C max i =
C max i
d p max
1 +
x
i
=1
if xi < d p max
if xi d p max
where:
Cmax i
proportion of rocks retained in the mill,
xi
geometric mean diameter of rocks in size class i.
d p max
maximum diameter of extracted pebbles (parameter #9),
slope of the classification:
=
I p max
log 3
log I p max + 1 + I p2 max
imperfection (parameter #10),
The grate for the return of fines to the mill is considered as perfect, that is to say:
C min i = 0 if xi < d p min

C min i = 1 if xi < d p min
C min i
proportion of pebbles retained by the grate,
d p min
minimum diameter of extracted pebbles (parameter #12),
The flowrate of extracted pebbles is assumed to be proportional to their mass in the

mill. The global expression is:
Qei = mi. (1 Cmax i )Cmin i E

where:
E
extraction efficiency which depends on the length of the mill according to:
E = aE
d p max
L
where:
aE
adjustment parameter #11,
mill length (parameter #3).
1.5 - Algorithm
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Starting with size class 1 (top size), the mass of rocks in each size class is calculated.
This calculation allows the total holdup to be determined, as well as the holdup of rocks
in the critical size and the flowrate of production of fines by abrasion.
2. Power calculation.
The power calculation is the following (Ref. "A mill power equation for SAG mills", L.G.
Austin, Minerals & Metallurgical Processing, Vol 7, n1, pp 57-62, Feb.1990) :

0.1
PW = 10.6 D 2.5 L(1 1.03Tl ) (1 ) s Tl + 0.6Tb b s Vr 1 9 10V
r
cs
cs 2
(2)
where:
PW
calculated power (kW - output parameter #28),
porosity of the load, typically 0.3,
b
s
specific gravity of balls (ton/m3 - parameter #6),

mean specific gravity of rocks (ton/m3),
cs
weight fraction of rocks in rocks + water,
Tl
fractional volume filled with the load,
Tb
fractional volume filled with balls (parameter #4),
Vr
fraction of critical speed (parameter #5).
3. Grinding of the ore

The fines are then distributed according to:
j
d
d
Bij = j i + (1 j ) i
da
da
(3)
where:
Bij
fraction of fines produced by abrasion of rocks of component j which report to

size class i
di
upper bound of the size class i
parameter #16
parameter #17
parameter #18
da
reference size (parameter #19)
Bij = 1
if
di > d a
The parameters j and j depend on the mill filling according to the relations:
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118
j = j (1 + 5(Tl 0.3))
j = j (1 + 5(Tl 0.3))
if the mill filling Tl is between 0.1 and 0.5.

The ore is ground according to the kinetic description of grinding, assuming the
compensation hypothesis. The coefficients of the selection function are determined by
adjustment on the basis of grinding data from continuous pilot or industrial scale
grinding.
The selection function K is modeled by the following form:
K i = K1
Pu
e
Hp
1 ln
x
xi
+ 2 ln i
dg
dg
(4)
where:
xi
mean diameter of the particles in the particle size class i,
Hp
holdup of particles in the mill,
K1, 1, 2
selection function parameters #22, #20, #21 respectively,
dg
reference size for grinding (parameter #23),
Pu
useful power calculated from the following formula:
Pu = PW
H Hc + Hb
H + Hb
holdup of rocks,
Hc
holdup of pebbles with critical size,
Hb
holdup of balls.
Caution
The selection function must be an increasing monoton function of the particle size.
Verify this constraint in the Operating parameter display option.
The transport of material in the mill is characterized by a series of two perfect mixers
whose respective volumes are determined by parameter #13. The discharge grate
creates an internal circulating load in the second mixer with a partition curve similar to
the one of the pebble extraction grate, characterized by the opening (parameter #7)
and the imperfection (parameter #8).
Use of the model
Basically, the parameters that determine the capabilities of the model for sizing
purposes are those of wear rate equation (1) and power calculation equation (2). When
trying to calibrate the model, these parameters have to be determined first. The most
important is V0 (parameter #15). A guess has to be made and the power or/and the
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percent filling calculated by the model (read in the Operating Parameters Display) have
to be compared to the measured ones.
Once the relations between power, percent filling and wear rate have been adjusted,
the second step of the calibration of the model is to fit the parameters of the breakage
and selection functions. The fit should normally be very good, at least graphically.
If the shape of the output size distribution is not correct, the most sensitive parameters
will be first the reference sizes for breakage and selection functions, and then the
exponents in equation (3) and the 's of equation (4).
If the shape is correct, but a gap remains, the most sensitive parameters will be again
the reference sizes and the specific rate of breakage (parameter #22).
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Model 138 - SAG/AG mill + Trommel (2)
SAG/AG mill with trommel
31 parameters
Two output streams
Parameters
Default value
0.5
0.7
7.8
25
8 Imperfection of the classification of the discharge grate
0.4
9 Maximum diameter of extracted pebbles (mm)

10 Imperfection of the grate for pebble extraction
0
0.4
11 Adjustment of pebble extraction efficiency
12 Minimum diameter of extracted pebbles (mm)
13 Percentage of mean residence time in the first mixer (%)
80
14 Wear coefficient (0=surface, 1=volume)
0.6
15 Wear rate per component
16 PHIG (distribution of attrition products)
0.7
17 BETAG (distribution of attrition products)
0.5
18 GAMMAG (distribution of attrition products)
19 Reference size for the distribution of attrition products (mm)
0.5
22 K1 (grinding function for particles)
24 Percent solids in the mill, if known (%)
25 Effective porosity of the load (fraction)
0.3
28 Size of the trommel openings (mm)
20
90
31 Calculated load of grinding media
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This model works as the SAG/AG mill (2) model. The only difference concerns the
trommel classification.
Trommel classification
The classification is perfect. The flowrate of the size class containing the trommel
opening (parameter #28) is split by linear interpolation.
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Model 128 - Screen (2)
Screen
9 parameters
Two output streams
Parameters
Default value
2 Screen width (m)
3 length/width ratio
5 Percent solids in the coarse stream
85
6 Adjustment of the kinetic constant
7 Adjustment of the probability constant
8 Kinetic constant K50 (t/h.cm2)
9 Probability parameter
The model uses the Ferrara, Preti and Schena work ("Modelling of screening
operations", International Journal of Mineral Processing, 22, 1988, pp. 193-222). It
calculates the partition efficiency per size class i and component p:
ip
Eip = e
with
ip
solution of:
Y j ip ji
di L
F ( ip ) =
=0
1 + Y j ip + K 50 p 2 1
e
d
W
j =4
ji
j =1
n +1
24
3 1444244430
14
442444
3 1
n
( )
Ai ip
( )
Bi ip
C ip
where:
m
n
number of size classes
Yi
weight fraction of the feed in the size class j
number of the size class including the screen opening
probability parameter, function of mesh type and operating conditions (parameter

#9)
screen opening (parameter #4)
di
average particle diameter in size class i
d dj
ji =
d
d
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W0
feed flowrate per unit of screen width (g.s-1.cm-1)
K 50 p
123
kinetic constant in the overloaded zone of p type particles with d/2 diameter
(parameter #8)
Ai ( ip )
Bi ( ip )
effect of particles smaller than the screen mesh on the particles of class i
effect of particles larger than the screen mesh on the particles of class i
The equation
F ( ip ) = 0
is solved with a Newton algorithm.
The model does not calculate water partition. The percent solids in the coarse stream
must then be specified (parameter #5).
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Model 137 - SALA Agitated Mill (2)
SALA agitated mill
16 parameters
Parameters
One output stream
Default value
1
2 Filling of the mill (%)
100
3 Stirrer rotational speed (rpm)
75
4 Inside mill diameter (mm)
690
5 Inside mill height (calculated if zero) (mm)
1200
6 Grinding media diameter (mm)

7 Reference size for the selection function (m)
8 Specific rate of breakage (S1E)
9 Exponent (ALPHA)
10 Correction related to the limit of grinding (m)
8
10000
100
1
0.5
11 Number of perfect mixers in series (calculated if zero)
12 Optimum pulp density (mass % of solids)
60
13 Grinding media specific gravity (g/cm3)
7.5
14 Grinding media porosity
0.6
15 Calculated media load (kg)
This model of the Sala Agitated Mill (SAM) uses a simplified solution to the population
balance approach. The rate of breakage is modified by the mill power, providing
predictions of the resulting product size distribution for different grinding conditions and
mill sizes. The power of the mill is estimated by a physically derived function, using an
assumption that the mill power consumption mainly arises from the ball to ball friction
within the mill. The grinding efficiency is approximated in the model depending on the
media ball size and pulp density.
Mill description
The Sala Agitated Mill consists in a grinding chamber filled with grinding media. A rotor
equipped with stirring pins agitates the media. The rotor is driven by an electric motor
located on the top of the mill with the power of 7.5 kW for the pilot scale mills up to 75
kW for the industrial mills.
A number of parts, specially designed to reduce wear, are found in the mill. The mill
design is shown in figure 1. Despite the wear protection, the pressure at the mill bottom
prevents the design of large mills without considerable redesign efforts. This is why
there are no SAM mills larger than 75 kW (Holmberg, 1993). For the pilot scale SAM
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7.5, the internal diameter is 275 mm and the grinding chamber height 780mm, while in
the biggest SAM, the SAM 75, the mill diameter is 690 mm and the grinding chamber
height 1200mm.
In wet grinding, the pulp is fed at the bottom of the mill and overflows at the top, while
for dry grinding the mill is fed at the top and is discharged at the bottom (See figure 1).
The diameter of the grinding media is very important for the grinding results. It has
been considered that the ratio between grinding media and the largest particle to be
ground should be 20 - 40 in the SAM.
Drive motor
Speed reducer
Wear resistant rotor

Discharge
Baffles
Solid tungsten carbide pins
Lifter
Feed
Figure 1 The Sala Agitated Mill (wet grinding)

Theory
1. Population balance
This model is based on a population balance approach, represented in the batch case
by the following equation:
i 1
dwi
= Si wi (t ) + bij S j w j (t )
dt
j =1
(1)
i >1
where:
Si
breakage rate of particles in size class i,
wi
the mass hold-up,
bij
breakage distribution function.
When integrating the batch grinding equation to simulate continuous equation, the
Residence Time Distribution (RTD) gives a description of the mass transport through
the mill:
m
h(t ) =

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t m 1 mt
e
(m 1)!
(2)
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126
where:
total mean residence time,
number of identical perfect mixers in series.
A simplified solution to the batch grinding equation (1), completed with the residence
time distribution of m equal mixers in series gives:
P( xi ) = 1
1 F ( xi )
1 + Si 1
m
(3)
where F(xi) is the feed size distribution.

2. Power calculation
The Sala Agitated Mill has, according to Bogen J. (1994), a 1/1 scale-up performance.
The grinding product from a 7.5 kW SAM with flowrate q is the same as the product
from a 75 kW mill with flowrate 10.q, if the grinding conditions (ball size, pulp density,
feed, etc.) are the same. The 1/1 ratio indicates strongly that the energy approach used
in ball milling simulation (Herbst, 1979) is also valid for the SAM, and states that the B
(breakage matrix) values are constant and S proportional to the power divided by the
solid flowrate. This conclusion is very important as it can be used for scaling up using
pilot scale mill.
A power function for the SAM was built, taking into account the following hypothesis:
The energy consumed by grinding is mainly due to the friction between the balls in the
mill, and the friction between two balls is determined by the pressure from the load
over the balls. Friction multiplied with length is energy, thus giving that the ball speed
will be related to the power of the mill. This assumption does not consider the
resistance force from the mill shell, but only the friction between the balls originated
from the pressure lying on it.
The formula obtained is a function of (see figure 2):
mill parameters (i.e., h the total height, rm the mill radius, rr the rotor radius, rs the
stirrers radius, n the rotational speed of the rotor);
media parameters (i.e., hf the height of the media load, a friction coefficient, the
unit area per unit volume (1/m), 2 the density of the media phase, p0 the porosity of
the media);
pulp parameter (i.e., 1 the pulp density).
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rr
r1
h
r2
hf
rs
rm
Figure 2. Characteristics of the mill
3. Grinding efficiency
It is known (Persson, 1994), that the grinding performance in the SAM does not
depend on the energy input only, but is strongly depending on a factor that can be
called the grinding efficiency. The model uses the assumption that the attrition-based
grinding is efficient on the whole media surface area, and that the breakage rate is
directly proportional to this area. If a batch of fixed volume containing n spherical balls,
all with the same diameter d is considered, the total area in the batch will be
proportional to d-1. A decreasing media diameter will thus give a higher grinding
efficiency.
The effect on the grinding efficiency of changes in pulp density is more difficult to
simulate as it is related probably more to the pulp viscosity than to the pulp density. It is
known that the mill grinds more efficiently with high pulp density, but that the grinding
deteriorates if the density grows too high due to transport problems (Persson, 1994). A
simple formula shows a pattern similar to the description of the influence of pulp
density:
(cs co ) + co2
E=
co2
2
(4)
where cs is the actual concentration of solids in the feed and co the "optimal pulp
density" for the most efficient grinding. For the cases studied, a default value of co = 60
% was good enough to describe the grinding performance. Nevertheless co is kept as
one parameter of the model and may be changed for some minerals and feed size
distributions. It must be pointed out that this function does not have any theoretical
basis at all except being a function that seems to be flexible enough to describe the
effect of a change in pulp density. Figure 3 shows how the function of equation (4) will
change with different values of co.
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Grinding efficiency (Eff)
0.75
0.5
0.25
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Concentration of solids (Csol in %)
Copt=20%
Copt=40%
Copt=70%
Copt=100 %
Figure 3. Grinding efficiency versus pulp density for different optimal pulp densities
In the SAM model, the grinding efficiency function is multiplied by the calculated power
and the result will be multiplied with the ore specific kinetic constant, Ke.
4. Selection function and limit of grinding
The selection function dependency on particle size was expressed as:
Si = K ( xi d )
for
xi d > 0
where K and are constants, and d is a correction factor for the finest particle sizes.
Determination of d is only needed when very small product particle sizes are expected.
The value of d does not correspond to the actual limit of grinding, but only reduces the
errors generated by the slower rate of disappearance in these regions.
References
Holmberg, K, 1993. Comparison of fine grinding equipment: VertiMill, SAM Mill,
Vibrating Mill and Ball Mill. Soc. Royale Belge des Ingnieurs Study day
Guillaneau, J-C, Villeneuve, J, Blot, P, 1992. Advances in the Design and Optimization
of Mineral Processing Plants, Proceedings of the APCOM 92, 23rd International
Symposium on the Application of Computers and Operations Research in the Mineral
Industry, April 7-11, Tucson, Arizona, U.S.A., Chapter 54, pp. 549-566.
Bogen, J, 1994. Private communication, Sala International AB
Austin, L G, Klimpel, R R and Luckie, P T, 1984. Process Engineering of Size
Reduction: Ball Milling. AIME New York, Chap. 4, 8.
Herbst, J A and Bascur, O A, 1979. A program for the simulation of steady-state
grinding circuit behaviour, using a small computer, Report of Department of
Metallurgical Engineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City.
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Persson, H, 1994. Private communication, Lule University of Technology, Div. of

Mineral Processing, Lule, Sweden.
Kser O, 1993. Untersuchungen zu Zerkleinerungsverhalten und Materialtransport in
einer langsamlaufenden, vertikalen Rhrwerkmhle vom Typ SAM 7.5, Lule
University of Technology, Div. of Mineral Processing, Lule, Sweden.
Bendel, S and Mellberg, F, 1993. Ommalning och finmalning med agiterad kvarn,
Internal report Union Minire Sverige AB.
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Ball mill
18 parameters
Parameters
One output stream
Default value
40
0.7
6 Balls specific gravity
7.8
7 Mill discharge: 0=overflow; 1=Grate discharge
9 Breakage function: PHI per component
0.5
10 Breakage function: BETA per component
0.5
11 Breakage function: GAMMA per component
12 Breakage function: DELTA per component
13 Specific rate of breakage per component (S1E in t/kWh)
14 Exponent 1 per component for the size dependence of S
0.7
16 Size of the largest balls (mm)
This model combines a complete kinetic approach, based on the works of Austin and
Herbst, with an energetic approach to grinding. This model differs from the level 2
model in that it takes separate account of the grinding matrix B and the selection matrix
S. The grinding matrix is modeled on the basis of at least one laboratory test. The
selection matrix is represented by a function, the coefficients of which are determined
by linear adjustment on the basis of grinding data from continuous pilot or industrial
scale grinding.
The energetic approach to grinding is introduced to make it possible to compute the
energy consumed by the mill as a function of its characteristics, using the empirical
formula used in the Allis Chalmers methods for dimensioning mills, exactly as in the
Ball mill (1) and Ball mill (2) models. This energy is then integrated into a formula
resulting from the kinetic approach:
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the transport of material in the mill is characterized by N, the number of perfect

mixers in series (parameter #8). The method for determining the value of this
parameter is given in detail in the description of the Ball mill (2) model.
the breakage function is modeled by a function of the following form:
x
x
Bij = j i 1 + (1 j ) i 1
x
x
j
j
where:
Bij
cumulative breakage function
xi
upper limit of size class i
breakage parameter, function of the size of the particles to be milled and defined
by:
x
i = 1 i
x1
, , and 1 are parameters of the model: , and 1 are determined from the
modeling of the breakage function obtained during a laboratory test, whilst is
obtained by adjustment when several laboratory tests are available. The method for
determining the values of , and 1 is detailed below.
the selection function S is modeled by a single-parameter function of the following

form:
1 ln
Si = S1e
d
di
+ 2 ln i
d1
d1
where:
di
geometric mean size of the particles in the particle size class i.
d1
reference particle size = 1 mm.
the link between the kinetic approach and the energy available for grinding is done
with the following relationship:
S1 = S1E
P
H
where:
P
H
S1E
the energy available for grinding

the total mass contained in the mill (hold up of material in the mill)
the 'normalized' parameter of the selection function.
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Residence time distribution must be determined by a specific test (see model 119), but
most of the time, the default value of 3 perfect mixers in series makes it possible to
obtain satisfactory results.
Three parameters per mineral are necessary for modeling the breakage matrix. They
are determined from laboratory tests (see below). The values of these parameters have
to be introduced into the model before any calibration. Furthermore, the model requires
the adjustment of two or three other parameters for each mineral.
Notes
The model predicts the selectivity of grinding when several minerals of different
grindabilities describe the ore.
It does not take directly into account the influence of the slurry percent solids or the ball
size on grinding.
Method for determining the breakage matrix
This methodology is derived from the work of AUSTIN and GUPTA. It involves using a
laboratory mill to grind a batch of ore particles all belonging to the same particle size
class. The particle size distribution of the product after grinding makes it possible to
calculate the grinding matrix by applying simple hypotheses.
Laboratory equipment
The laboratory batch mill should preferably be of the cylindrical jar type. The level of
filling with the charge and the rotation speed of the laboratory mill should be similar to
these of the industrial or pilot-scale mill to model. The charge should consist of balls of
at least three different sizes, and the number of balls of each size should be the same
or nearly the same so as to constitute a "worn-in" charge which has a distribution
similar to the average distribution of charges in industrial mills.
Preparation of the sample
The feed is a single particle size class, the particle size distribution of which is verified
by careful sieving of a sample produced by successive quartering.
If, after sieving, the sample is found to contain less than 5% of out-of-class particles, it
is considered that the feed is suitable for the test. The proportion of out-of-class
particles in the feed constitutes a corrective factor that is involved in calculating the
matrix. If the level of out-of-class particles exceeds 5%, the feed must be sieved again.
The feed mass is calculated to occupy between 45% and 60% of the space between
the balls, and the feed percent solids should be similar to that of the industrial or
pilot-scale mill to model.
Carrying out the test
Several "feed" batches are produced. In practice, the grinding time is obtained by
successive grinding tests, the object being to determine the time at the end of which
between 70% and 80% of the initial batch remains within the initial particle size class.
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Once this time t has been determined, a "feed" batch is milled: sieving the milled
product then gives the cumulative rejects Ri(t) for each sieve i after a time t.
The cumulative breakage matrix is calculated using the formula:
Ri (0 )
Ri (t )
Bij =
R (0 )
log 1
R1 (t )
log
In the above equation, sieve 1 is the one that corresponds to the finer limit of the
particle size class of the feed. The value 0 relates to the initial time, where R1(0) =
100% - percentage of out-of-class particles in the feed,
Note
On the basis of the chemical analysis of the various particle size distribution classes, it
is possible, if a mineralogical model and the chemistry-mineralogical transformation
formula have been defined, to deduce a matrix B for each of the constituents of the
phase model.
This methodology, developed at BRGM, allows the selectivity of grinding to be taken
into account, unlike the case of a single breakage matrix, which characterizes the
totality of the ore.
Modelling the breakage matrix
For the level 3 grinding models in USIM PAC, the cumulative breakage matrix is
modeled by means of a cumulative grinding function of the following form:
x
x
Bij = j i 1 + (1 j ) i 1
x
x
j
j
where j is a function of the size of the particles to be milled.

Modeling the grinding matrix corresponding to the products of particles of a given size
class involves determining the coefficients , and by regression of a function:
y
y
B( y,x ) = ( x ) + (1 ( x ))
x
x
where:
size of the children particles
size of the parent particles
B( y, x )
percentage of particles of size x which, having been milled, produce

particles of a size smaller than y where y < x
(x )
USIM PAC
coefficient calculated for the size class corresponding to size x.
BRGM Software
134
Rod mill
16 parameters
Parameters
One output stream
Default value
1
2.4
1.6
35
0.7
7.8
8 Breakage function: PHI per component
0.5
9 Breakage function: BETA per component
0.5
10 Breakage function: GAMMA per component
11 Breakage function: DELTA per component
12 Specific rate of breakage per component (S1E in t/kWh)
0.7
This model differs only from the ball mill (3) model in regard to the formula used to
compute the power available for grinding. These differences have already been
described for the level 1 and level 2 models.
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Model 133 - SAG/AG mill (3)
SAG/AG mill
27 parameters
Parameters
One output stream
Default value
0.5
6
0.7
25
7 S1E (grinding function for particles)
0.5
10 PHIG (breakage function for rocks)
0.5
11 BETAG (breakage function for rocks)
12 GAMMAG (breakage function for rocks)
20
14 Reference size for rocks (mm)
50
15 Discharge rate constant (t/kWh)
16 Rock breakage rate (t/kWh)
17 Water transport constant (1/h)
0.5
18 Power equation constant
19 KA1: angle of repose
7.8
23 Adjustment of the density coefficient for solids
24 Holdup of particles (t)
26 Typical grade per size in output (%)
The SAG mill achieves particle breakage through the action of a reduced ball charge
(5-10%) and through material self-breakage. In the latter case, large rock breaks other
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rock and smaller particles. Autogenous milling relies solely on material self-breakage
and has no ball charge.
Population balance.
The material in the mill is divided into rock, which is considered to be the grinding
media, and particles. By convention, the material coarser than the grate size is called
rock; the material finer than the grate size is called particles.
The rock is lumped into a single size fraction and leaves the mill only by being broken
into particles. At steady state, the rate at which rock enters the mill is equal to its
breakage rate. This is represented by the following equation:
M r Kr H r = 0
where:
Mr
rock feedrate (t/h)
Kr
overall rock breakage rate constant (1/h)
Hr
weight of rock in the mill (holdup) (t).
The particles (material smaller than the grate) are divided into N size fractions. The
rate of accumulation of material in each size is due to rock and particle breakage, and
to the transport of particles through the mill as expressed by:
dH p mi
dt
i 1
= M f m fi K d H p mi + K r H r bi Si H p mi + bij S j H p m j
j =1
where:
Mf
feedrate of particle (t/h)
m fi
fraction of particles in size fraction i in the feed
Kd
mill discharge rate constant (1/h)
Hp
weight of particles in the mill (holdup) (t)
mi
fraction of particles in size fraction i in the mill
bi
rock breakage distribution
Si
fractional breakage rate of particles in size fraction i (1/h)
bij
particle breakage distribution
This equation is simplified by assuming that breakage of particles to smaller sizes is

occurring at rates such that:
Bij S j = Si 1 or bij S j = Si 1 Si
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where:
Bij
cumulative breakage distribution.
The dependency of the rate constants on mill conditions is represented as follows:
K r = K rE
P
Hr
K d = K dE
P
Hp
P
Hp
Si = SiE
where:
mill power (kW)
K rE
specific rock breakage rate (t/kWh)
K dE
specific discharge rate constant (t/kWh)
SiE
normalized breakage rate of particles in size fraction i (t/kWh)
Assuming no accumulation of material in any size fraction, one obtains:
M f m fi + M r bi K dE Pmi + P SiE1 SiE
) m
i 1
j =1
=0
The sum of these equations on i gives:
P=
M f + Mr
K dE
Md
K dE
Once P is known, each of the mi can be calculated.

Operation of the mill
The model then calculates the holdup of solids inside the mill by using the following
power - dimensions relation:
0.1
P = K p sin D 0.3 (H t + H w + H b ) 3.2 3V * Vr 1 9 10V

r
2
where:
Kp
power constant
Ht = H p + H r
Hw
weight of water in the mill (t)
Hb
weight of balls in the mill (t)
inside mill diameter (m)
V*
volume fraction filling (solids + balls) (%)
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Vr
relative mill speed (fraction)
angle of repose of the load (rd), which can be calculated with:
= K A1e K A 2Vr + K A3cs

where:
K A1 , K A2 , K A3
adjustment parameters
cs
mass fraction of solids (particles) in the mill. If it is not known, it can be assumed
as the solid mass fraction of the feed, which is calculated by the model as follows:
cs =
Mr + M f
Mr + M f + Wf
The water hold-up is given by:
Hw =
Wf
Kw
where:
Wf
water feed rate (t/h)
Kw
water transport constant that is inverse of water mean residence time
The holdup of balls is deduced from the parameter #4
Vb*
and the mill volume
Vm :
H b = b*Vb*Vm
b*
is the bulk density of balls:

should be given accordingly.
0. 6
where
is the density of iron.
Vb*
parameter
The percentage of mill volume occupied by balls and solids is calculated by:
V* =
Ht
+ 0.6Vb*
sVm
where s is the bulk density of solids, calculated by s = 0.6 Ad , being the

density of the solids in the feed, given as a physical property in the ore-model; the
coefficient 0.6 is generally used to describe the volume of solids in pulp. It can be
modified by the adjustment parameter #23, Ad , to take into account the effect of size
distribution.
USIM PAC
1 Ad 1.5
BRGM Software
139
Note
The structure of the model does not permit immediate dimensioning. The Power-to-size
equation can give, for each value of D, two (or zero) values of Ht. Conversely, if V* is
known, Ht is also known as a function of D and then, D can be calculated. The
parameter #25 (Target volumetric loading) permits this use of the equation.
Discharge grades
The above population balance model calculates the global size distribution of the
discharge. The grades of the particle types in each size class are calculated as follows:
The parameters give the grades of each particle type in each size class in a typical
discharge; the total grades of the feed are known. The model calculates a
proportionality coefficient p so that:
n
T j = xi ptij
i =1
where:
xi
calculated ore fraction in size class i
tij
given typical grade of particle type j in size class i (parameter #26)
Tj
grade of particle type j in the feed
The grades in output stream are then
USIM PAC
ptij
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Model 132 - SAG/AG mill + Trommel (3)
SAG/AG mill with trommel
29 parameters
Parameters
Two output streams
Default value
0.5
6
0.7
25
7 S1E (grinding function for particles)
0.5
10 PHIG (breakage function for rocks)
0.5
11 BETAG (breakage function for rocks)
12 GAMMAG (breakage function for rocks)
20
14 Reference size for rocks (mm)
50
15 Discharge rate constant (t/kWh)
16 Rock breakage rate (t/kWh)
17 Water transport constant (1/h)
0.5
18 Power equation constant
7.8
23 Adjustment of the density coefficient for solids
24 Holdup of particles (t)
25
27 Percent solids in the coarse stream
90
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This model works as the SAG/AG mill (3) model. The only difference concerns the
The classification is perfect. The flowrate of the size class containing the size of the
trommel openings (parameter #26) is split by linear interpolation.
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Model 134 - Pebble mill (3)
Pebble mill
22 parameters
One output stream
Parameters
Default value

5 Mill discharge (Overflow or Grate discharge)
0.7
Overflow
40
7 Reference size for the wear function (mm)
50
8 Wear coefficient (from 0=surface to 1=volume)
9 Wear rate of pebbles (1/s)
10 Angle of repose (degree)
30
11 Reference size class for the selection function
12 SE1 (selection function for particles)
13 ALPHA1 (selection function for particles)
0.5
15 PHIG (breakage function for particles)
0.5
16 BETAG (breakage function for particles)
17 GAMMAG (breakage function for particles)
18 Number of perfect mixers in series
19 Number of the pebble addition stream
20 Fraction of pebble wear going to size class i
This model combines a kinetic approach identical to Level 3 ball mill with a wear
function for the pebbles.
The feed to the mill has to be made of two streams: one of pebbles only
(parameter #19) and one of ore.
1. Grinding of the ore
The ore is ground according to the kinetic description of grinding.
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The grinding matrix is modeled on the basis of at least one laboratory test. The
selection matrix is represented by a function, the coefficients of which are determined
by linear adjustment on the basis of grinding data from continuous pilot or industrial
scale grinding.
the breakage function is modeled by a function of the following form :
x
x
Bij = i 1 + (1 ) i 1
x
x
j
j
where:
Bij
cumulative breakage function
xi
upper limit of size class i
, ,
breakage parameters #17, #16 and #15 respectively.
the selection function S is modeled by the following form:
Si = S1E e
1. ln
di
d iref
d
+ 2 ln i
d iref
where:
di
geometric mean size of the particles in the particle size class i.
S1E ,1 , 2
iref
selection function parameters #12, #13 and #14 respectively
reference size class (parameter #11)
the transport of material in the mill is characterized by a series of perfect mixers

(parameter #18). The method for determining the value of this parameter is given in
detail in the description of the Ball mill (2) model.
2. Wear of the pebbles

The wear of pebbles is considered analogous to that of balls studied by Austin (Austin
L.G., Menacho J.M., Pearcy F., A general model for semi-autogenous and autogenous
milling, Proceeding, APCOM 87, SAIMM, Johannesburg, Vol. 2, Metallurgy, pp 107126, 1987).
The mass produced by abrasion per unit time is expressed as:
dm
= 4r 2 + K p
dt
where:
radius of the bloc being worn (m)

can range from 0 if the wear is proportional to the surface to 1 if the wear is
proportional to the volume (parameter #8)
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Kp
wear rate constant (parameter #9), whose unit depends on

1/s if
(m/s if
= 0 to
= 1)
specific gravity of the material.
This assumption leads to the expression of the mass lost in a size class of pebbles:
d
= 3H pi K p i
dt
dr
dH pi
where:
H pi
mass of pebbles in size class i in the mill
dr
reference size for the wear function (parameter #7)
The material balance of the size class i of pebbles can be expressed as:
0 = Q fi Q pi
dH pi
dt
where:
Q fi
flowrate of pebbles entering the mill in size class i
Q pi
flowrate of pebbles leaving the mill in size class i
Assuming the pebbles are perfectly mixed in the mill, the size distribution of pebbles
inside the mill is taken identical to that of the output stream:
Q pi
Qp
H pi
Hp
where:
Hp
holdup of pebbles in the mill, calculated from the mill filling according to:
Hp =
D 2
4
Qp
flowrate of pebbles leaving the mill
D
L
mill diameter (parameter #2)
Tc
parameter #6 (mill filling)
mean specific gravity of pebbles
L 0.6Tc p
length of the mill deduced from parameter #3
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One obtains:
1
Hp
di
Q fi = Q pi 1+3
K p
Qp
d r
This equation is solved by an iterative method, assuming as starting point that

equals
Qf .
At each step,
Q pi
are calculated and
Qp
replaced by
Q pi
Qp
until
Q p Q pi 10 4
kg.
This calculation allows the flowrate of pebbles leaving the mill and the flowrate of fines
created to be known. The fines are then distributed according to their distribution
function (parameter #20).
3. Power calculation
The power calculation is the following:
0.1
PW = 10 sin ( ) A D 2.3 LcTc (3.2 3Tc )Vr 1 9 10V

r
4
2
where:
angle of repose of the mill load (parameter #10)
1 for overflow discharge, 1.1 for grate discharge (parameter #5)
bulk density of the total charge, calculated as follows:
c = 0.6 pebb + 0.4 pulp

Vr
relative mill speed (parameter #4)
There is no link between the kinetic of grinding and the calculated power (parameter
#22).
4. Output reconstruction
Parameter #21 gives the typical mineral contents per size class in the output stream tij.
The above calculations give the total size distribution si. The flowrate per component
and per size pij are calculated as follows:
pij = si tij
Qj
sitij
i
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Model 130 - Pebble mill + Trommel (3)
Pebble mill with trommel
24 parameters
Parameters
Two output streams
Default value
0.7
5 Mill discharge: 0 = overflow, 1 = grate discharge
40
7 Reference size for the wear function (mm)
50
8 Wear coefficient (from 0=surface to 1=volume)
9 Wear rate of pebbles (1/s)
10 Angle of repose (degree)
30
11 Reference size class for the selection function
12 SE1 (selection function for particles)
0.5
15 PHIG (breakage function for particles)
0.5
16 BETAG (breakage function for particles)
17 GAMMAG (breakage function for particles)
18 Number of perfect mixers in series
25
90
22 Number of the pebble addition stream
23 Fraction of pebble wear going to size class i
This model works as the Pebble mill (3) model. The only difference concerns the
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The classification is perfect. The flowrate of the size class containing the size of the
trommel openings (parameter #19) is split by linear interpolation.
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3 - SEPARATION MODELS
Separation models allow the user to describe and simulate physical separation circuit
such as flotation, gravity and magnetic separation..
The separation models that already exist in your version of the USIM PAC software
are:
all gravity separators model:
Separator (0)
dense medium cyclone model:
Gravity Separation (0)
spiral model:
Spiral Concentrator (1)
jig model:
Jig (1)
shaking table model:
Shaking Table (1)
agitated sump model:
Conditioner (2)
flotation bank model:
Separator (0)
Flotation (0)
Flotation (1)
Flotation (2A)
Flotation (2B)
Flotation (2C)
flotation column model:
Separator (0)
Flotation (0)
Column Flotation (3A)
Column Flotation (3B)
magnetic separator model:
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Separator (0)
BRGM Software
149

Model 201 - Gravity Separation (0)
Dense medium cyclone
5 parameters
Two output streams
Parameters
Default value
1 Cut point specific gravity
2.85
2 Density standard deviation (dens75c - dens25c)/2
0.05
3 Percent solids in the heavy stream (%)
50
4 Minimum value of the partition coefficient (fraction)
0.02
5 Maximum value of the partition coefficient (fraction)
0.98
This model is derived from the modelling of the gravity concentration of ores by means
of the washability curves of Fournol (H. Fournol: "Mthodes de calcul des possibilits
d'puration - prvision et garantie des rsultats industriels.", Rev. Ind. Minrale, June
1974, pp. 5-19): the partition curve is the integral of the Normal law:
Y ( ) = C1 + (C2 C1 )
where:
cut point specific gravity (parameter #1)
E
0.6744
density standard deviation (parameter #2)
E=
75c 25c
2
75c
particle specific gravity at which the value of the corrected partition is 75%
25c
particle specific gravity at which the value of the corrected partition is 25%
C1
minimum value of the density partition curve (parameter #4)
C2
maximum value of the density partition curve (parameter #5)
The liquid split is calculated to achieve the desired percent solids in the heavy stream
(parameter #3). If there is not enough water, all feed water reports to this stream.
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Model 202 - Separator (0)
Flotation column, Flotation

bank, dense medium
cyclone, spirals, jig, shaking
tables and magnetic
separators
2 parameters
Parameters
Two output streams
Default value
1 Number of the stream for which the recovery is defined
2 Recovery (%)
This model allows the user to define the recovery (parameter #2) of each particle type
and each size class in the stream specified in parameter #1. The number of this stream
has to be read from the flowsheet.
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Model 203 - Flotation (0)
Flotation bank and flotation

column
2 parameters
Two output streams
Parameters
Default value
1 Recovery in the froth per component (%)
50
2 Percentage of water in the froth
50
This model describes the concentration of minerals in the froth through the following
equation:
Qci = Q fi
Ri
100
with:
Qci
flowrate of the mineral i in the froth
Q fi
flowrate of the mineral i in the feed
Ri
recovery of the mineral i in the froth (% - parameter #1).
The liquid split is calculated to achieve the desired percentage of water in the froth
(parameter #2). If there is not enough water, all feed water reports to the froth.
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Model 204 - Spiral Concentrator (1)
Spiral
30 parameters
Two output streams
Parameters
Default value
1 Number of units in parallel
2 Nominal solid flowrate per unit (t/h)
3 Nominal volumetric flowrate per unit (m3/h)
4 Specific gravity of water + slimes
5 Minimum specific gravity for corrected cutpoint
3.5
70
7 Maximum particle size tolerated by the unit (mm)
2.5
8 Lower size of the optimum separation range (mm)
0.06
9 Upper size of the optimum separation range (mm)
10 Minimum recovery of light particles in the heavy stream
0.05
11 Minimum recovery of heavy fines
0.1
12 Minimum recovery of heavy coarses
0.3
13 Maximum recovery of heavy particles in the optimum range
0.98
14 Corrected cutpoint specific gravity for coarse particles
15 Particle size at minimum cutpoint specific gravity (mm)
0.1
16 Power of cutpoint specific gravity according to fine size
17 Adjustment of cutpoint specific gravity according to fine size
18 Power of cutpoint specific gravity according to coarse size
19 Adjust. of cutpoint specific gravity according to coarse size
20 Minimum corrected imperfection

21 Corrected imperfection for the coarse fraction
0.3
0
22 Particle size at minimum corrected imperfection (mm)
0.5
23 Power of corrected imperfection according to fine size
24 Adjustment of corrected imperfection according to fine size
25 Power of corrected imperfection according to coarse size
26 Adjustment of corrected imperfection according to coarse size
27 Power of corrected imperfection according to solids flowrate
28 Adjust. of corrected imperfection according to solids flowrate
29 Power of corrected imperfection according to vol. flowrate
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30 Adjustment of corrected imperfection according to vol. flowrate
This model is derived from the description of the gravity concentration of ores by
means of Fournol's density partition curves (H. Fournol: "Mthodes de calcul des
possibilits d'puration - prvision et garantie des rsultats industriels", Rev. Ind.
Minrale, June 1974, pp. 5-19). This curve uses a log-normal law to represent the
corrected density partition curves in units such as shaking tables, spirals and jigs; that
is to say units which do not use a dense medium as the means of concentration.
The curve of gravity partition takes the following form:
F ( ) = C1 + (C2 C1 )F' ( )
where:
F ( )
probability of a particle of specific gravity

stream
reporting to the heavy
C1
minimum probability of reporting to the heavy stream (parameter #10)
C2
maximum probability of reporting to the heavy stream
F ( )
value of the corrected density partition curve for a particle of specific

gravity ,
1
F' ( ) =
2
O( )
u2
2 du
with:
O( ) =
log
2
log I + I + 1
p s
0.6744
where:
cutpoint specific gravity
pulp specific gravity (parameter #4)
imperfection
The parameters ( I , p ,
C1
and
C2 ) of the density partition curve are determined for
each particle size class by using a model, derived by BRGM, which takes into account
the size of the particles, the volumetric and solid flowrates for each unit and type of unit
(jig, shaking table, spiral concentrator).
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Computation of the maximum probability that a particle will report to the heavy
products stream as a function of its size: C2 d
( )
C2 (d ) = (C2 max C2 min f )
d
+ C2 min f
dinf
if d < dinf
C2 (d ) = C2 max
if d inf d < dsup
C2 (d ) = (C2 max C2 min c )
d max d
+ C2 min c
d max dsup
if d sup d < d max
C2 (d ) = C2 min c
if d d max
where:
C2 min f
minimum recovery of heavy fine particles in the heavy product stream

(parameter #11)
C2 min c
minimum recovery of heavy coarse particles (parameter #12)
C2 max
maximum recovery of heavy particles (parameter #13)
dinf
lower limit of the optimal particle size range (parameter #8)
dsup
upper limit of the optimal particle size range (parameter #9)
d max
maximum particle size tolerated by the unit (parameter #7)
Computation of the corrected cutpoint specific gravity as a function of particle

size: p d
( )
p (d ) = p min
d
+ f ln 1
d
p (d ) = p min + ( pc
if d < d1
c
d
c
d1
p min )
c
d
1 + c
d1
if d d1
where:
p min minimal corrected cutpoint specific gravity (parameter #5)

pc
USIM PAC
corrected cutpoint specific gravity for coarse particles (parameter #14)
BRGM Software
d1
155
particle size corresponding to the minimal corrected cutpoint specific

gravity (parameter #15)
adjustment parameter #16
If account is not to be taken of the variation in

then the following values are entered:
f = 0
and
as a function of the particle size
c = 0 .
Computation of the corrected imperfection as a function of particle size:

If
I (d ) = I min
d
+ If ln 0
d
I (d ) = I min
d
Ic
d0
+ (I c I min )
Ic
d
1 + Ic
d0
I (d )
if d < d 0
Ic
if d d 0
where:
I min
minimal corrected imperfection (parameter #20)
Ic
corrected imperfection for coarse particle (parameter #21)
d0
particle size corresponding to the minimal corrected imperfection

(parameter #22)
If
If
Ic
Ic
If account is not to be taken of the variation in I as a function of particle size then the
following values are entered: If = 0 and Ic = 0
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Computation of the corrected imperfection as a function of the volumetric and

solids flowrates
I = I (d )[1 + X (Qs , Qv )]
with:
Q s
X (Qs , Qv ) = s s * 1
NQs
Q s
Q v
X (Qs , Qv ) = s s * 1 + v v * 1
NQs
NQv
if Qv NQv*
if Qv > NQv*
where:
Qs*
nominal solids mass flowrate (parameter #2)
Qv*
nominal volumetric flowrate (parameter #3)
number of units in parallel (parameter #1)
If account is not to be taken of the variations of I as a function of the flowrates, then

the following values are entered: s = 0 and v = 0
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General shape of the partition surface in the density - size space

1.0
Recovery
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
Pa
rti
cle
500
1000
siz 1500
es 2000
(
m
)
6
5
4
3
2500
3000
Sp
ic g
ecif
ty
r avi
Specific gravity = 7.1

1.0
0.9
0.8
Recovery
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
Particle sizes (m)

The model allows three levels of use:
1. Defining the gravity partition curve as a function of particle size distribution by
defining parameters #1 through #13 in order to define the partition curve. At this
level, the corrected specific gravity cutpoint and the imperfection are considered
constant.
2. Taking into account the variation of the corrected specific gravity cutpoint as a
function of the particle size by defining parameters #14 through #19, taking into
USIM PAC
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158
account the variation of the imperfection as a function of the particle size by

defining parameters #20 through #26.
3. Taking into account the variation of the imperfection as a function of the flowrates
by defining parameters #27 through #30.
The levels 2 and 3 are independent but you always have to define the parameters
requested for the 1st level of use.
Notes
Parameters #8 through #13 are determined using an experimental partition curve.
The imperfection is calculated applying the following formula to the gravity partition
curves (Tromp's curve):
I=
75c 25c
2( 50c s )
where:
USIM PAC
pulp specific gravity (parameter #4)
BRGM Software
159
Model 209 - Jig (1)
Jig
30 parameters
Two output streams
Parameters
Default value
1
100
100
3.5
50
20
12
0.02
0.1
0.3
0.98
0.15
0.15
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This model is identical to the Spiral model.
USIM PAC
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161
Model 210 - Shaking Table (1)
Shaking table
30 parameters
Two output streams
Parameters
Default value

0.1
1
3.5
60
2.5
0.02
0.05
0.5
0.3
0.98
0.2

0.3
0
0.5
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This model is identical to the Spiral model.
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Model 205 - Flotation (1)
Flotation bank
6 parameters
Two output streams
Parameters
Default value
1 Number of banks in parallel
2 Number of cells per bank
10
3 Pulp volume in one cell (m3)
16
50
5 Half flotation time (min)
6 Effective volume percentage
90
This model is based on the representation of the flotation of each particle type of the
ore using a first order kinetic phenomenon.
Each cell is represented as a perfect mixer, characterized by a mean residence time
for the pulp. For each particle type of the ore, one therefore has:
1
Qci = Q fi 1
1 + ki
where:
Q fi
solids flowrate of the particle type i in the cell feed,
Qci
solids flowrate of the particle type i in the cell froth,
ki
kinetic constant of flotation for the particle type i.
pulp mean residence time
The constant ki characterizes the flotation kinetics of particle type i. Since it is not
always easy to evaluate its value a priori the model uses the concept of the half
flotation time which is more illustrative: the half flotation time (parameter #5) is the
mean residence time for which 50% of the particle type class has reported to the froth.
Note
Typical values for half-flotation times:
sulfide roughing 2 minutes
sulfide scavenging
barite 3 minutes
gangue roughing 20 minutes
USIM PAC
10 minutes
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164

Model 207 - Conditioner (2)
Agitated tank
2 parameters
Parameters
One output stream
Default value
1 Limit recovery per component (%)
100
2 Slow floating particles / total floating particles (%)
50
This model is intended to accompany the Flotation (2A) (or the Flotation (2B)) bank
of flotation cells model.
Use of the model
This model should only be used when flotation is represented with the aid of the kinetic
model that handles three sub-populations and two kinetic constants for each particle
type. It therefore accompanies the Flotation (2A) and the Flotation (2B) models for a
bank of flotation cells by preceding it in the simulation flowsheet.
Its function is to enable the user to indicate, for the stream leaving the conditioner, the
percentage of floating particles after an infinite time ( R ) and the proportion of slow
floating particles ( s ) in the floating sub-population.
Note
The use of the conditioner model is not necessarily linked to the physical presence of
one or more of these units in the real simulated circuit. The model can, in effect, serve
to characterize the pulp after a change in the flotation property linked, for example, to
the direct addition of a reagent into the circuit or into a flotation cell.
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Model 206 - Flotation (2A)
Flotation bank
7 parameters
Two output streams
Parameters
Default value
10
16
50
5 Fast floating kinetic constant (1/min)
6 Slow floating kinetic constant (1/min)
90
As in the Flotation (1) model, this model is based on the representation of flotation by
a first order kinetic phenomenon. However, in this model, three sub-populations for
each particle type are considered, differentiated by their flotation behavior:
a fast floating sub-population, according to a kinetic characterized by a so-called
fast constant k f (parameter #5),
a slow floating sub-population, with a slow kinetic constant
ks
(parameter #6),
a non-floating sub-population.
Since each cell is represented as a perfect mixer, one has, for each cell:
1
1
+ (1 si )1
Qci = Q fi Ri si 1
1 + k
(
)
1
k
+
si
fi

where:
Qci
flowrate of particle type i in the froth
Q fi
flowrate of particle type i in the feed
Ri
maximum possible recovery of particle type i in the froth
si
USIM PAC
proportion of particle type i capable of floating and which show slow floating
behavior
mean residence time in the cell, computed from the ratio of the effective cell
volume (parameter #3) to the cell feedrate.
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166

Since this model uses descriptions of sub-populations of particles, it is imperative to
indicate that they have been taken into account, and this is done in the phase model.
Then each stream is described.
corresponds to the percentage of floating particles for each particle type after
an infinite time,
corresponds to the percentage of slow floating particles for each floating

particle type.
The meaning of
and
as given above is a convention specific to the Flotation
(2A) and the Flotation (2B) (using only

model.
R ) models and also to the Conditioner (2)
The Flotation (2A) model for a bank of flotation cells is often preceded, in the
simulated flowsheet, by a Conditioner (2) model (this model can be used through the
icon representing an agitated vessel). The conditioner allows the user to specify, for
the stream leaving the unit, the populations of fast and slow floating corresponding to
each particle type.
Method for determining parameters
The object of this paragraph is to set out the methodologies employed by BRGM, and
integrated into USIM PAC when using the Flotation (2A) model.
The methodologies differ according to the types of available data. Two cases are
described hereafter, depending on whether the data have been obtained from
continuous (pilot or industrial plant) or batch (laboratory) operation.
Data from continuous operation
The necessary data

When using a level-2 flotation model, to simulate an existing pilot scale or industrial
circuit, operating continuously at equilibrium, the available data must make it possible
to reconstitute the kinetics for each of the particle types defined on the basis of the
phase mineralogical model, which characterizes the ore being processed.
These data, which must be as complete as possible, relates to the measurements of
flowrates, concentrations and percent solids.
The streams characterized in this manner relate to the feed and the rejects from the
banks, the concentrates for each cell of the same bank and, if possible, the overall
concentrate of a bank so as to have redundant data.
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Conditions for collecting the data

Defining a simulation dedicated to one type of ore necessitates two data sets: one to
calibrate the retained model, the other to validate it. These two data sets correspond to
different sampling conditions.
The data used to calibrate the model must, if possible, be collected during open
operation of the circuit so as to make it possible to collect kinetic information related to
the principal feed stream to the bank.
The data for validation must be collected from a configuration of the circuit which
includes any recycling likely to take place.
In order to calibrate the Flotation (2A) model, it is mathematically necessary to have at
least four kinetic calibration points per particle type for the same flotation bank in a
roughing circuit. That is to say information on the flow and recovery rates in the
concentrates for at least four cells or groups of consecutive cells. For a cleaning bank,
three kinetic points per particle type are mathematically necessary, always provided
that consideration has been given that the particles which have already floated during
previous roughing or cleaning stage are all capable of floating another time. The infinite
recovery in this case is therefore 100%.
Level of confidence in the

collected data
One of the main problems encountered during a sampling campaign is the instability of
the circuits. It is therefore imperative to specify the conditions under which sampling
was carried out (duration of sampling, etc.) and to evaluate, at the same time, the level
of confidence which it is reasonable to allocate to each of the measurements made. It
is desirable, where this is possible, to establish a variogram for different points of the
circuit.
A coherent mass balance

All raw experimental data are flawed with measuring errors. It is therefore desirable,
and in practice frequently necessary, to make these data as coherent as possible
before calibrating the models, by employing an algorithm for balancing the data.
Processing of the raw data is carried out by using the material balance option of USIM
PAC. In this way, estimates can be computed for the flowrates, concentrations and
contents of the solids.
These estimations are coherent, that is to say they satisfy all the equations of
conservation of materials, and they are also as close as possible to the experimental
data with a weighting factor which uses the accuracy of each of the measurements.
USIM PAC
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168
Establishing the kinetic curves for

recoveries
Using the coherent data provided by USIM PAC, it is possible to establish recovery
kinetic curves for each of the retained particle types. The flotation time in each cell, in
the same bank is taken as being equal to the ratio of the effective volume of the
particular cell to the volumetric flowrate of the cell feed. The kinetic data defined in this
way will be used as the basis for calibrating the model.
The basic equation of the model

The flowrate of particle type i in the froth is given by the following expression:
k
k
Qci = Q fi R i si si + (1 si ) fi
1 + k fi
1 + k si

Calibration of the model involves determining, from the kinetic data defined above and
for each particle type, the parameters Ri , k fi , k si and si . Calibration is obtained
by using a non-linear regression algorithm, with optimization without constraint.
Using the model

The fast and slow kinetic constants
k fi
and
k si
are introduced for each particle type
defined in the "phase model": they are expressed as min-1. The proportions
si
Ri
and
are introduced as percentages in the Stream Description option.
Data from batch test
Basic formula for flotation in the

laboratory
The formula for the model set out above takes the following form in the case of flotation
in the laboratory (batch):
Qci = Q fi Ri 1 si e k si (1 si )e
USIM PAC
k fi
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169
Collecting the laboratory data

The data to be collected must make it possible to reconstitute the kinetic flotation
curves for each retained particle type.
In order to calibrate the model, these curves must possess at least four experimental
points for roughing and three for cleaning, always provided that, in this latter case, the
maximum recovery is 100% (the same hypothesis as in the case of continuous
flotation).
The difficulties in using such laboratory data are linked, in particular, to the conditions
for preparing the pulp and to the reproducibility of tests on this scale. In order to limit
these difficulties, it is strongly advised that an instrumented and automated laboratory
flotation cell be used.
Calibrating the model

Calibration involves determining from the laboratory kinetic data, and for each particle
type, the four parameters Ri , k fi , k si and si . Calibration is carried out, as in the
case of continuous flotation, by using a non-linear regression algorithm with
optimization without constraint.
Scaling-up the calibrated kinetic

parameters
The kinetic parameters, which have been calibrated on the basis of the laboratory
tests, cannot be used as is in USIM PAC to simulate a continuously operating and
steady state industrial installation. Whilst the maximum recoveries may be regarded as
similar at laboratory and industrial or pilot scale, a scale factor should be introduced for
the kinetic constants.
Work has been carried out at BRGM on this subject, in cooperation with Universit
Laval in Qubec, PQ, Canada.
Using the model

Once the kinetic parameters have been scaled up, the use procedure is the same as
the previous case. The methodology for using level-2 flotation models becomes much
more difficult when one has only laboratory data. This is principally due to the difficulty
of carrying out reproducible tests in the laboratory and of knowing the scale factors to
be used as a function of the ore being processed and the conditions being used,
especially the hydrodynamic conditions.
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Model 208 - Flotation (2B)
Flotation bank
8 parameters
Two output streams
Parameters
Default value
10
16
50
5 Largest floatable particle size per component (m)
400
6 Easiest floatable particle size per component (m)
35
7 Adjustment parameter per component
100
90
As in the Flotation (1) model, this model is based on the representation of flotation by
a first order kinetic phenomenon. However, in this model, it is considered that there are
two sub-populations for each particle type, which correspond to different flotation
behaviors:
a floating type,
a non-floating type.
This is expressed by a maximum possible recovery Ri for each particle type i. The
model considers that the maximum possible recovery is independent of the size
distribution.
A kinetic constant is calculated for each particle type i and size class j according to
King's formula:
i d j
1
d j d max i
1.5
kij =
d opti
2d j
where:
adjustment parameter for particle type i (parameter #7)
dj
average size in size class j
d max i
largest floating particle size for particle type i (parameter #5)
d opti
easiest floating particle size for particle type i (parameter #6)
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Since each cell in a bank is represented by a perfect mixer, one has, for each cell:
1
Qcij = Q fij Ri 1
1 + kij
where:
Qcij
flowrate of particle type i and size class j in the froth
Q fij
flowrate of particle type i and size class j in the feed
Ri
maximum possible recovery of particle type i in the froth
volume (parameter #3) to the cell feedrate.

Since this model uses descriptions of sub-populations of particles, it is imperative to
indicate that they have been taken into account in the phase model by stating that one
flotation parameter ( Ri ) is being used.
Then the acquisition of the description of each stream is carried out.
Notes
The percentage of non-floating particles for each type of particle is calculated by
subtracting the maximum possible recovery from 100.
The Flotation (2B) model for a bank of flotation cells is very often accompanied, in the
simulated flowsheet, by the Conditioner (2) model. The object of the latter is to allow
the user to specify, for the stream leaving the unit, the maximum possible recovery
corresponding to each particle type.
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Model 211 - Flotation (2C)
Flotation bank
13 parameters
Two output streams
Parameters
Default value
10
16
4 Surface area of one cell (m ) or 0 if cubic cell
50
6 Viscosity of the liquid (mPa.s)
7 Influence of the volumetric fraction of solids on viscosity
8 Largest floatable particle size per component (m)
400
9 Easiest floatable particle size per component (m)
35
10 Adjustment parameter of kinetic function per component
100
11 Adjustment of the effect of size on entrainment
100
12 Adjustment of the probability of entrainment
90
This model represents flotation as a first order kinetic phenomenon and takes into
account the entrainment of particles by water.
a. Flotation
As in the Flotation (2B) model, there are two sub-populations of particles for each
component of the ore, which correspond to different flotation behavior:
a floating type,
a non-floating type.
This is expressed by a maximum possible recovery Ri for each particle type i. The
model considers that the maximum possible recovery is independent of the size
distribution.
A kinetic constant is calculated for each particle type i and size class j according to
King's formula:
i d j
1
d j d max i
1.5
kij =
USIM PAC
d opti
2d j
BRGM Software
173
where:
adjustment parameter for particle type i (parameter #10)
dj
average size in size class j
d max i
largest floating particle size for particle type i (parameter #8)
d opti
easiest floating particle size for particle type i (parameter #9)
Since each cell in a bank is represented by a perfect mixer, the recovery
Rij
of
component i in size class j can be calculated as follows:
1
Rij = Ri 1
1+ k
ij
where:
volume (parameter #3) to the cell feed.
b. Entrainment
The equation allowing the calculation of entrainment can be found in V.M. Kirjavainen,
"Mathematical model for the entrainment of hydrophilic particles in froth flotation",
International Journal of Mineral Processing, n1/2, 35, pp 1,11, 1992.
In the model, the relations between particle mass, water recovery rate and slurry
viscosity are described as follows:
Rij = Pij Rw
where:
Rij
recovery by entrainment of component i in size class j in one cell
Rw
recovery of water in the cell froth (calculated using parameter #5)
Pij
probability factor:
Pij =
w0.7
w0.7 + ai
mij
where:
Rw
recovery rate of water (kg/s.m2) calculated using
ai
mij
mean mass of a particle of type i in the size class j
USIM PAC
and parameter #4
BRGM Software
174
viscosity of the medium:
= 0 +
Cv
(1 Cv )4.8
where:
viscosity of the liquid (parameter #6 = 1 mPa.s for water)
Cv
volume fraction of solids
constant depending on the material (parameter #7 = 1.83 for quartz, = 3.8

for phlogopite).
3. Total recovery in one cell

The above equations are used to describe the macroscopic phenomenon of flotation in
a single formula:
1
+ Ai Pij Rw
Qcij = Q fij Ri 1
1 + kij
where:
Qcij
flowrate of particle type i and size class j in the froth
Q fij
flowrate of particle type i and size class j in the feed
Ai
adjustment parameter #12 permitting to disconnect the calculation of

entrainment
The resolution of this equation is the following.
In a first step, only the flowrate of floating particles is calculated, allowing a first
calculation of the recovery and the recovery rate of water.
The entrainment is then calculated, and the flowrate of water is calculated again to
match parameter #5.
The resolution is not iterative to avoid the risk of divergence, producing a kind of selfentrainment, which could lead the flowrate of entrained particles to be greater than the
flowrate of floating particles.
This model can be used to describe the different behavior of each component. If
Ai is null, only flotation will occur; if the parameter Ri is null, only entrainment
will occur; if both are different than zero, both mechanisms will occur.
USIM PAC
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Model 214 - Column Flotation (3A)
Flotation column
20 parameters
Two output streams
Parameters
Default value
1 Number of columns in parallel
2 Column diameter (m)
3 Column height Hc (between air addition and froth lip) (m)
10
4 Height of the feed point / Hc (from the bottom)
0.7
5 Thickness of the froth (m)
6 Gas superficial velocity (cm/s)
7 Bias superficial velocity (cm/s) (>0 is down)
0.15
8 Percent water in the concentrate (%)
50
9 Gas holdup in the collection zone (%)
20
10 Liquid viscosity (kg/m.s) (water=0.001)
0.001
11 Bubble size in the collection zone (mm)
12 Coefficient m for the calculation of bubble size
13 Kinetic parameter per mineral for the fast floating particles
0.1
14 Kinetic parameter per mineral for the slow floating particles
0.01
15 Adjustment of the dispersion number
16 Recovery at the interface (%)
100
17 Recovery in the froth (%)
100
18 Kinetic constant for detachment in the froth (1/s)
19 Gas holdup at the interface (%)
60
20 Adjustment of the effect of particle size on the collection rate
The column is considered to be made of three zones: the collection zone between the
bottom and the feed point, the cleaning zone between the feed point and the interface,
and the froth zone between the interface and the top (Figure 1).
In each zone, a recovery per mineral and per size class is calculated. The total
recovery per mineral is computed for the three reactors in series according to:
Rt =
USIM PAC
R1R2 R3
1 R1 (1 R2 ) R1R2 (1 R3 )
BRGM Software
176
where:
R1
recovery in the collection zone
R2
recovery in the intermediate zone
R3
recovery in the froth
water
concentrate
R3
First order kinetics of detachment

Plug flow
froth
interface
R2
Recovery at interface
feed
First order kinetics of flotation
Axial dispersion
collection
Maximum carrying capacity
R1
air
tailings
Figure 1. The three zones of the column and the corresponding phenomena.
a. Collection zone
In the collection zone, the flotation is a first order kinetic phenomenon with limitation of
the recovery per component.
Each mineralogical component is divided into fast-floating, slow-floating and nonfloating sub-populations. The fast-floating sub-population represents the proportion of
each mineral that may be recovered with a kinetic k f . The slow-floating subpopulation represents the proportion of each mineral that may be recovered with a
kinetic k s .
The transport is represented by the axial dispersion model, which gives, for each
floating sub-population, after integration, combined with a first order transfer
phenomenon:
R1n =
4ae
a
2 2N p
(1 + a ) e
1
2N p
(1 a ) e
2
a
2N p
with:
USIM PAC
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a = 1 + 4knTp N p
where:
kn
kinetic constant per mineral and size class (1/s), with n = f or s (fast or
slow)
Tp
residence time per mineral and size class (s)
Np
vessel dispersion number
The total recovery in the collection zone is then:
R1 = R s R1s + (1 s )R1 f
where:
proportion of slow floating particles in the floating ones,
proportion of floating particles,
The particle residence time is calculated according to:
T p = Tl
ul
ul + usp
where:
Tl
liquid residence time in the collection zone (s)
ul
liquid superficial velocity in the collection zone (m/s)
usp
particle terminal settling velocity relative to the liquid (m/s)
Tl =
H c (1 g )
ul
where:
Hc
height of the collection zone (m) (parameters #3 and #4)
gas fractional holdup in the collection zone (parameter #9)
ul = u fl + ubias
where:
u fl
USIM PAC
superficial velocity of feed liquid (m/s)
BRGM Software
178
ubias
bias superficial velocity (m/s) (parameter #7)
The calculation of the terminal particle settling velocity in the liquid is iterative:
gd p2 ( s l )(1 s )
2 .7
u sp =
18 l 1 +
0 .687
0 .15 .R ep
R ep =
d p u sp s (1 s )
l
where:
acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
liquid viscosity (kg/m.s) (parameter #10)
liquid density (kg/m3)
solid density (kg/m3)
volume fraction of solids in the slurry
dp
particle diameter (m)
Rep
particle Reynolds number
The kinetic constant of the fast- (n = f) or slow- (n = s) floating particles of type i of the
size class j is defined according to:
knij
3 ug
=
Pnij
2 db
d
Pnij = ni pj
db
2ak
where:
Pnij
probability of flotation
ug
gas superficial velocity (m/s) (parameter #6)
db
diameter of bubbles (m)
d pj
ni
adjustment constant (parameter #13 or #14)
ak
adjustment of the effect of particle size on the collection rate (parameter
#20)
The diameter of bubbles may be specified in parameter #11. If this parameter is set to
0, the following equations relating the gas holdup and the gas flowrate are used:
USIM PAC
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179
0 .687
dbusb l (1 g )
18 l usb 1 + 0.15Reb
db =
R
=
eb
m 1
l
g (l g )(1 g )
u sb =
ug
g
ul
1 g
where:
gas density (g/cm3)
parameter #12
usb
slip velocity between liquid and bubbles (cm/s)
ug
superficial gas velocity (cm/s)
The vessel dispersion number is:
a D
N p = Np c
0.6 H c
0 .63
u g (1 g )
ul
where:
a Np
Dc
column diameter (m) (parameter #2)
b. Intermediate zone
A recovery R2 per component may be specified to account for the effect of the
interface (parameter #17).
c. Froth zone
In the froth zone, a first order kinetics of detachment combined with a plug flow
behavior of bubbles gives the recovery:
R 3 = e k d Tz
where:
kd
detachment rate constant (1/s) (parameter #18)
Tz
residence time of bubbles in the froth (s):
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180
zf
Tz =
g (z )dz
0
ug
where:
g (z )
fractional gas holdup at level z
The value of the fractional holdup at the interface (level 0) is given in parameter #19. A
normal value of 55 to 60 % corresponds to a packed bed of spheres. The fractional
holdup is supposed to vary according to a parabolic profile until it reaches the value at
the concentrate lip (level z f ).
The fractional gas holdup is calculated knowing the superficial velocity of water in the
concentrate and its water content (parameter #8):
g (z f ) =
ug
ug +
ulc
pw
where:
pw
percent water in the concentrate
ulc
superficial velocity of water in the concentrate (m/s):
ulc = uw ubias
where:
uw
superficial velocity of wash water (m/s)
Use of the model

This level 3 model needs more than industrial data obtained at steady state to be used.
Particularly, the kinetic constants of flotation and detachment must be obtained from
lab or pilot test data.
Three sub-populations must be defined in the phase model to characterize the
floatability of minerals. They must be initialized in the stream description.
References
Finch, J.A. and Dobby, G.S., 1989, Column flotation, Pergamon press
Yoon, R.H., Mankosa, M.J., Luttrel, G.H. and Adel, G.T., 1990, "Modelling of flotation
with a view towards scale-up and control", Control' 90, SME annual meeting in Salt
Lake City, USA, Edited by Rajamani, R.K. and Herbst, J.A., Chap. 5, 35
Yianatos, J.B., Finch, J.A. and Laplante, A.R., 1988, "Selectivity in column flotation
froths", Int. J. Miner. Process., 23, pp 279-292
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Model 213 - Column Flotation (3B)
Flotation column
20 parameters
Two output streams
Parameters
Default value
1 Number of columns in parallel
2 Column diameter (m)
3 Column height Hc (between air addition and froth lip) (m)
10
4 Height of the feed point / Hc (from the bottom)
0.7
5 Thickness of the froth (m)
6 Gas superficial velocity (cm/s)
7 Bias superficial velocity (cm/s) (>0 is down)
0.15
8 Percent water in the concentrate (%)
50
9 Gas holdup in the collection zone (%)
20
10 Liquid viscosity (kg/m.s) (water=0.001)
0.001
11 Bubble size in the collection zone (mm)
12 Coefficient m for the calculation of bubble size
13 Kinetic parameter per mineral
14 Maximum size of floating particles (m)

15 Adjustment of the dispersion number
400
1
16 Recovery at the interface (%)
100
17 Recovery in the froth (%)
100
18 Kinetic constant for detachment in the froth (1/s)
19 Gas holdup at the interface (%)
60
20 Adjustment of the effect of particle size on the collection rate
The model is similar to the Column Flotation (3A) model. The only difference
concerns the kinetics in the collection zone.
Collection zone.
Each mineralogical component is divided into floating and non-floating sub-populations.
The floating sub-population represents the maximum proportion of each mineral that
may be recovered. There is no difference between fast- and slow floating.
The transport is represented by the axial dispersion model, which gives, after
integration combined with a first order transfer phenomenon:
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4ae
R1 =
a
2 2N p
(1 + a ) e
1
2N p
(1 a ) e
2
a
2N p
with:
a = 1 + 4kTp N p
where:
kinetic constant per mineral and size class (1/s)
Tp
residence time per mineral and size class (s) calculated as in the level 3A
model
Np
vessel dispersion number calculated as in the level 3A model
The kinetic constant of the particles of type i of the size class j is defined according
to:
3 ug
kij =
Pij
2 db
d
Pij = i pj
db
2ak
d pj 1.5
1

d max i
where:
Pij
probability of flotation
ug
gas superficial velocity (m/s) (parameter #6)
db
diameter of bubbles (m)
d pj
d max i
maximum size of floating particles (m) (parameter #14)
adjustment constant (parameter #13)
ak
adjustment of the effect of particle size on the collection rate (parameter

#20)
The diameter of bubbles may be specified in parameter #11. If this parameter is set to
0, it is calculated as explained in the level 3A model.
Note
Two sub-populations must be defined in the phase model to characterize the floatability
of minerals. They must be initialized in the stream description.
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4 - HYDROMETALLURGICAL MODELS
Hydrometallurgical models allow the user to describe and simulate hydrometallurgical
operation circuit such as leaching, adsorption, precipitation, solvent extraction or
electrolysis..
The hydrometallurgical models that already exist in your version of the USIM PAC
software are:
Leaching tank model:
Leaching (0)
Leaching (1A)
Leaching (1B)
Leaching and evaporation model: Leaching with Evaporation (0)

Carbon-in-leach tank model:
CIL - Carbon-In-Leach (0A)

CIL - Carbon-In-Leach (0B)
CIL - Carbon-In-Leach (1A)
CIL - Carbon-In-Leach (1B)
Carbon-in-pulp tank model:
CIP - Carbon-In-Pulp (0A)

CIP - Carbon-In-Pulp (0B)
Adsorption column model:
CIC - Carbon-In-Column (0)
Elution column model:
Elution (0)
Evaporation model:
Evaporation (0)
Solvent extraction model:
Solvent extraction (0)

Solvent extraction (1)
Precipitation tank model:
Precipitation (0A)
Precipitation (0B)
Cementation model:
Cementation (0)
Filter washer model:
Filter-washer (0)
Filter-washer (1)
Electrolysis model:
Electrolysis (0A)
Electrolysis (0B)
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Material transfer from one phase

to another
The following models for simulation of hydrometallurgy processing use the same "mass
transfer function" from one phase to another.
Model
Transfer: From To
Leaching (0 - 1A - 1B).
Ore and SolidLiquid
Leaching and evaporation (0)
Solidliquid
Evaporation (0)
LiquidSolid
CIL (0 - 1).
OreLiquidSolid
CIP (0 - 1 - 2A - 2B).
LiquidSolid
Elution (0).
SolidLiquid
CIC (0).
LiquidSolid
Solvent extraction (0 - 1).
LiquidLiquid
Precipitation (0A - 0B).
LiquidSolid
Cementation
Solid-LiquidLiquid-Solid
Electrolysis (0A - 0B)
LiquidSolid
The mass transfer function in these models is called the "mass conversion from ... to
...". It appears as a duplicated parameter from one phase (origin in column) to another
(destination in line).
To phase
Component 1
Component 2
Component 1
x11
x12
Component 2
x21
x22
Component 3
x31
x32
From phase
This array means that for 1 kg lost in component 1 of the original phase, x11 kg of
component 1 appears in the phase destination, and x12 kg of component 2.
The values of xij may be whatever the user needs, 1 or 0 in most cases, but also less
or more than 1, to account for chemical transformation of the components.
There is no constraint on the sum of the lines. If the sum x11 + x12 is greater than 1, it
means that some mass is "created" in the unit operation. As an example, the
dissolution of 1 kg of pyrite (FeS2) from the ore may produce 0.467 kg of dissolved Fe
and 1.6 kg of SO4 ions.
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Model 303 - Leaching (0)
Leaching tank
2 parameters
One output stream
Parameters
Default value
1 Leached percentage per component of ore and solid phases (%)
2 Mass conversion from ore and solid to liquid
For each component of the ore phase, from the leached fraction indicated by the user
(parameter #1), the model calculates the fraction of the component moving from the
ore and solid phases to the different components of the solution according to
parameter #2.
The performance of leaching (leached percentage per component) may be estimated
from laboratory tests or back calculated from plant data.
The mass conversion depends on the chemical reactions occurring in the process and
on the definition of the components of each phase. It represents mass stoechiometry
and is intrinsic to the phase definition.
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Model 320 - Leaching with Evaporation (0)
Two output streams:

Leaching tank with
evaporation
3 parameters
output 1 = pulp
output 2 = evaporated liquid
Parameters
Default value
3 Evaporation percentage (% of input liquid)
For each component of the ore phase, depending on the fraction leached defined by
the user (parameter #1), the model calculates the fraction of the component moving
from the ore and solid phases to the different components of the solution according to
parameter #2.
The performance of leaching (leached percentage per component) may be estimated
from laboratory tests or back calculated from plant data.
The mass conversion depends on the chemical reactions occurring in the process and
on the definition of the components of each phase. It represents mass stoechiometry
and is intrinsic to the phase definition.
The evaporation percentage (parameter #3) is related to the flowrate of the liquid
phases fed to the reactor.
Notes
The evaporation is made on the last component of each liquid phase. If the flowrate to
be evaporated, calculated from the total flowrate of a liquid phase, is above the partial
flowrate of the last component of that phase, the evaporation is limited to that partial
flowrate.
The evaporated liquid remains in the liquid phase in output #2. There is no phase
transfer from liquid to gas involved in the evaporation.
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Model 301 - CIL - Carbon-In-Leach (0A)
Two output streams:

Carbon-in-leach tank
4 parameters
output 1 = pulp
output 2 = carbon
Parameters
Default value
3 Adsorbed percentage per component of the liquid phase (%)
4 Mass conversion from liquid to solid
For each component of the ore phase, depending on the fraction leached specified by
from the ore phase to the different components of the solution according to parameter
#2.
From the fraction adsorbed (parameter #3), it then calculates the fraction of the
component moving from the solution to the different solid components according to
parameter #4.
The performances (parameters #1 and #3) may be estimated from laboratory tests or
back calculated from plant data.
The mass conversions (parameters #2 and #4) depend on the chemical reactions
occurring in the process and on the definition of the components of each phase. They
represent mass stoechiometry and are intrinsic to the phase definition.
The model gives the composition of the leached ore phase of the barren solution
(stream #2) and of the loaded solid phase (activated carbon, stream #1).
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Model 329 - CIL - Carbon-In-Leach (0B)
Two output streams:

7 parameters
output 1 = pulp
output 2 = carbon
Parameters
Default value
1 Leached percentage per component of ore (%)
2 Mass conversion from ore to liquid
3 Adsorbed percentage per component of liquids (%)
5 Desorbed percentage per component of solids (%)
6 Mass conversion from solid to liquid
7 Percentage of each phase transferred to carbon stream (%)
For each component of the ore phase, depending on the fraction leached specified by
from the ore phase to the different components of the solution according to parameter
#2.
From the fraction adsorbed (parameter #3), it then calculates the fraction of the
component moving from the solution to the different solid components according to
parameter #4.
Conversely, from the fraction desorbed (parameter #5), it then calculates the fraction of
the component moving from the solid to the different solution components according to
parameter #6.
A little pulp can be carried during the carbon transfer and fines of carbon can be
carried with pulp. To simulate that, parameter #7 gives the percentage of each phase
transferred to the carbon stream. The value is 0% or few % for the liquid and ore
phases and 100% or few % below for the carbon phase.
The performances (parameters #1, #3 and #5) may be estimated from laboratory tests
or back calculated from plant data.
The mass conversions (parameters #2, #4 and #6) depend on the chemical reactions
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Model 302 - CIP - Carbon-In-Pulp (0A)
Two output streams:

Carbon-in-pulp tank
2 parameters
output 1 = pulp
output 2 = carbon
Parameters
Default value
For each component of the liquid phase, depending on the fraction adsorbed specified
by the user (parameter #1), the model calculates the fraction of the component moving
from the solution to the different solid components according to parameter #2.
The performance (parameter #1) may be estimated from laboratory tests or back
calculated from plant data.
The mass conversion (parameter #2) depends on the chemical reactions occurring in
the process and on the definition of the components of each phase. It represents mass
stoechiometry and is intrinsic to the phase definition.
The model gives the composition of the barren solution (stream #2) and of the loaded
solid phase (activated carbon, stream #1).
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Model 328 - CIP - Carbon-In-Pulp (0B)
Two output streams:

Carbon-in-pulp tank
5 parameters
output 1 = pulp
output 2 = carbon
Parameters
Default value
1 Adsorbed percentage per component of liquids (%)
3 Desorbed percentage per component of solids (%)
5 Percentage of each phase transferred to carbon stream (%)
Conversely, from the fraction desorbed (parameter #3), it then calculates the fraction of
the component moving from the solid to the different solution components according to
parameter #4.
A little pulp can be carried during the carbon transfer and fines of carbon can be
carried with pulp. To simulate that, parameter #5 gives the percentage of each phase
transferred to the carbon stream. The value is 0% or few % for the liquid and ore
phases and 100% or few % below for the carbon phase.
The performances (parameters #1 and #3) may be estimated from laboratory tests or
back calculated from plant data.
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Model 307 - CIC - Carbon-In-Column (0)
Two output streams:

Adsorption column
2 parameters
output 1 = barren solution

output 2 = loaded solids
Parameters
Default value
The model gives the composition of the barren solution (stream #1) and of the loaded
solid (stream #2).
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Model 304 - Elution (0)
Two output streams:

Elution column
2 parameters
output 1 = loaded solution

output 2 = solids
Parameters
Default value
1 Eluted percentage per component of the solid phase (%)
For each component of the solid phase, depending on the fraction eluted specified by
from the solid (activated carbon) to the solution components according to parameter
#2.
The model gives the composition of the eluted solid phase (stream #2) and of the
pregnant solution (stream #1).
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Model 321 - Evaporation (0)

Evaporator
6 parameters
output 1 = solution
output 2 = sludge
output 3 = vapor
Parameters
Default value
1 Percent of feed evaporated (%)
2 Concentration set point (g/l)
3 Solubility at set point (g/l)
5 Percent solids in the sludge (%)
80
6 Liquid specific gravity after evaporation
The aim of the process is to increase the concentration of one component in the output
stream by evaporating a part of the water (or more generally the solvent) and
eventually precipitating salts.
Output stream
Vapor
Solution in which the concentration

is to be controlled
Sludge
Feed stream
Only a part of the feed stream (parameter #1) is subject to evaporation.

The concentration set point, solubility and specific gravity (parameters #2, #3, and #6)
are given for the intermediate solution. If the value of the specific gravity is zero, the
specific gravity defined in the phase model is taken into account. The concentration set
point must be specified for only one component. If several are specified, only the last
one is taken into account. If none is specified, the last solubility different from zero is
taken into account. If the concentration set point is above the solubility of one
component, only the solubility is taken into account.
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Model 308 - Solvent Extraction (0)
Two output streams

Mixer-settler
3 parameters
output 1 = organic
output 2 = aqueous
Parameters
Default value
1 Extracted percentage per component of the liquid phase (%)
2 Mass conversion between liquid phases
3 Organic/Aqueous ratio if regulation of organic phase
The percentage extracted specified by the user (parameter #1) defines for each
component of the liquids the quantity which is transferred to another liquid phase
according to parameter #2.
This model allows description of an exchange between phases: the extraction of a
metal from aqueous to organic phase may be accompanied by the transfer of acid from
organic to aqueous phase by specifying a percentage extracted in both phases.
The phases must have different specific gravities as the organic phase is recognized
as the lighter.
If parameter #3 is specified (value different from 0) the flowrate of organic phase is
calculated. This parameter MUST be used to initialize the flowrate of organic phase in
a closed-loop circuit. However, to ensure the material conservation in all the streams of
the closed-loop, ONLY ONE mixer-settler has to regulate in the loop.
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Model 309 - Precipitation (0A)
Precipitation tank
2 parameters
One output stream
Parameters
Default value
1 Precipitated percentage per component of the liquid phase (%)
For each component of the liquid phase, depending on the fraction precipitated
specified by the user (parameter #1), the model calculates the fraction of the
component moving from the solution to the different precipitate components according
to parameter #2.
The model gives the composition of the residual solution and the precipitate.
This model does not calculate the size distribution of the precipitate. If the precipitate is
defined in the phase model with size classes, the precipitated solids appear in the
smallest size class.
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Model 314 - Precipitation (0B)
Precipitation tank
3 parameters
One output stream
Parameters
Default value
1 Precipitated percentage per component of the liquid phase (%)
3 Molar mass per component of the liquid phase (g/mol)
The fraction precipitated specified by the user defines for each component of the
liquids the maximum quantity which may move from the solution to the different
precipitate components.
The real precipitated fraction is calculated by minimizing the quantity of components
remaining in solution after precipitation. This method allows taking into account i) a
consumption limitation due to one reagent in the precipitation reaction or ii) an eventual
competition between precipitates consuming the same liquid component.
The quantity of the liquid component i consumed during precipitation may be written
as:
np
mci =
j =1
Pj
ij
where:
Pj
created quantity of precipitate j
np
number of components in the precipitate phase
ij
mass conversion from liquid component i to precipitate component j
(parameter #2)
The remaining quantity after precipitation is:
mi = m0i mci = (1 pmax i )m0i + ( pmax i m0i mci )

where:
m0i
initial quantity of liquid component i
pmax i
maximum fraction of component i which may precipitate (parameter
#1)
The mathematical problem is the minimization of:
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nl
mi
i =1 M i
J =
subject to linear constraints:
pmax i m0i mci 0

Pj 0
i = 1, nl
j = 1, n p
where:
nl
number of components in the liquid phase
Mi
molar mass of liquid component i (parameter #3)
The minimization is done with a simplex method.

If parameter #3 is specified (value different from 0) and if it represents the molar mass
per component, the minimization is done on the number of moles remaining in solution.
This parameter may represent any value in relation with the process (free energy of
formation for example). If it is set to zero (default value), it is not taken into account
( M i = 1 for any i).
This model allows a "predictive" calculation of the composition of precipitate according

to the composition of the liquid phases. It has a practical value, even if the calculation
is not based on chemical equilibrium calculation, but must be used with care.
This model does not calculate the size distribution of the precipitate. If the precipitate is
defined in the phase model with size classes, the precipitated solids appear in the
smallest size class.
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Model 325 - Cementation (0)
Cementation tank
4 parameters
One output stream
Parameters
Default value
1 Cemented percentage per component of the liquid phase (%)
2 Metal consumption (kg/kg of cement product)
The percentage cemented specified by the user (parameter #1) defines for each
component of the liquid the quantity which is transferred to the cement.
The quantity of metal consumed for cementation (parameter #2) is then compared to
the quantity introduced in the feed.
If the consumption is higher than the quantity available, the cemented percentages are
modified so that all the metal available is consumed. The model indicates in the
Operating Parameters Display the decrease of the specified percentages, which may
be used to increase the flowrate of metal fed in the same proportion if the percentages
specified are to be valid.
occurring in the process and on the definition of the components of each phase. It
represents mass stoechiometry and is intrinsic to the phase definition.
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Model 310 - Filter - Washer (0)

Belt, cartridge and press
filter-washer
3 parameters
output 1 = filtrate
output 2 = cake
output 3 = washing filtrate
Parameters
Default value
1 Percent solids of the cake at the output (%)
80
2 Washing efficiency per component of the liquid (%)
3 Number of the washing stream, if needed
The split of water is made according to parameter #1 in the filtration zone.

The liquid remaining in the cake is washed. Washing entrains components of this
remaining liquid according to the efficiency defined by parameter #2. The percent
solids of the cake remains unchanged after washing. All the entrained components are
replaced by "water", which must be the last component of the liquid phase.
If several streams containing only liquid are fed to the filter, the model cannot select
which is the washing stream. In that case, the number of the washing stream must be
The model can be used without washing.
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Model 327 - Electrolysis (0A)
Two output streams:

Electrolysis cell
6 parameters
output 1 = solution
output 2 = sludge
Parameters
Default value
1 Electrolyzed percentage per component of the liquid phase (%)
3 Number of electrons exchanged (+ for reduction, - for oxidation)
5 Mass conversion from liquid to liquid
6 Flowrate of drained solution and extracted metals (t/h)
The percentage electrolyzed specified by the user (parameter #1) defines for each
component of the liquid the quantity which is transferred to the metal deposited at the
cathode (parameter #2).
The metal produced at the cathode is extracted at the bottom of the cell (output #2).
The quantity of liquid drained with the metal is calculated according to parameter #6.
The other parameters should be used if the oxidation is to be taken into account
(generally, the oxidation of water). The number of electrons consumed for the reduction
of metals must be equal to the number of electrons produced by the oxidation of water.
The number of electrons consumed for the reduction of metals is calculated taking into
account the total number of moles of metals produced (using parameter #4), and the
number of electrons consumed per mole of metal (parameter #3, if positive). This total
number of electrons exchanged is used to calculate the number of moles of liquid
components oxidized (parameter #3, if negative), and the resulting mass is calculated
using mass transfer parameter #5.
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Model 326 - Electrolysis (0B) with Cathodes

Electrolysis cell
7 parameters
output 1 = solution
output 2 = sludge
output 3 = cathodes
Parameters
Default value
1 Electrolyzed percentage per component of the liquid phase (%)
3 Number of electrons exchanged (+ for reduction, - for oxidation)
5 Mass conversion from liquid to liquid
6 Flowrate of drained solution and extracted metals (t/h)
7 Solid sludge in % of cathodes produced
The metals are deposited at the cathodes, and the cathodes extracted in output stream
#3.
The percentage electrolyzed specified by the user (parameter #1) defines for each
component of the liquid the quantity which is transferred to the metal deposited at the
cathode (parameter #2). A part of this metal is not recovered as cathodes and
produces sludge (parameter #7).
The sludge produced is extracted at the bottom of the cell (output stream #2). The
quantity of liquid drained with the sludge is calculated according to parameter #6.
The other parameters should be used if the oxidation is to be taken into account
(generally, the oxidation of water). The number of electrons consumed for the reduction
of metals must be equal to the number of electrons produced by the oxidation of water.
The number of electrons consumed for the reduction of metals is calculated taking into
account the total number of moles of metals produced (using parameter #4), and the
number of electrons consumed per mole of metal (parameter #3, if positive). This total
number of electrons exchanged is used to calculate the number of moles of liquid
components oxidized (parameter #3, if negative), and the resulting mass is calculated
using mass transfer parameter #5.
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Model 313 - Leaching (1A)
Leaching tank
5 parameters
One output stream
Parameters
3
1 Tank volume (m )
Default value
500
2 Number of tanks in series
3 Maximum recovery per component of ore and solid phases (%)
4 Rate constant per component (1/h)
For each component of the ore phase, the model calculates the fraction of component
moving from the ore phase to the solution according to parameter #5 and using a first
order kinetic rate equation, the maximum recovery specified and a rate constant. This
equation is derived from Mc Laughlin and Agar publication (Mc Laughlin, J., Agar, G.
E., 1991, Development and application of a first order rate equation for modelling the
dissolution of gold in cyanide solution. Minerals Engineering, Vol. 4, N 12, pp 13051314).
The basis equation of Mc Laughlin and Agar is:
dC
= k (C (t ) Cr )
dt
where:
C (t ) metal concentration (g/t) of the solid at time t (h)

Cr
metal concentration (g/t) of the leach residue at theoretically infinite time
rate constant (1/h - parameter #4)
The model considers that all tanks are identical and are perfectly mixed. In that case,
the rate at which each component is recovered can be calculated as a function of the
mean residence time:
R = R 1
1 + k
where:
maximal recovery in one tank per component of phase ore (% - parameter
#3)
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mean residence time calculated using the tank volume (parameter #1) and
the volumetric feedrate
Recovery
(%)
Maximal recovery
for each mean residence time

the model calculates the
extraction
Mean residence time (h)
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Model 305 - Leaching (1B)
Leaching tank
7 parameters
One output stream
Parameters
Default value
1 Tank volume (m )
500
3 Maximum recovery per component of ore and solid phases (%)
4 Coefficient A of the kinetic equation (third degree)
3.0.10-5
5 Coefficient B of the kinetic equation (second degree)
0.0029
6 Coefficient C of the kinetic equation (first degree)
0.01
For each component of the ore phase, the model calculates the fraction of the
component moving from the ore phase to the solution phase according to parameter #7
and using an empirical kinetic equation and the maximum recovery specified.
The rate at which each component is recovered is a polynomial function of the
recovery:
dR
3
2
= A(R R(t )) + B(R R(t )) + C (R R(t ))
dt
where:
R(t ) metal recovery (%) of the solid at time t (h)
#3)
A, B, C
parameters #4, #5 and #6 respectively
The calculation of the recovery assumes that all tanks are identical and perfectly
mixed, and uses the residence time of the ore per tank. An iterative method is used to
minimize:
dR R
dt
where is the residence time of the ore in one tank calculated using parameter #1
and the volumetric feedrate.
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Model 318 - CIL - Carbon-In-Leach (1A)
Two output streams:

9 parameters
output 1 = pulp
output 2 = carbon
Parameters
1 Tank volume (m3)
Default value
500
3 Maximum recovery in one tank per component of ore phase (%)
4 Leaching rate constant per component (1/h)
5 Mass conversion from ore to liquid
6 Adsorption rate constant per component of the liquid (<0 if

desorbed)
7 Adsorption time constant per component of the liquid
0.9
9 Mean residence time of carbon in one tank (h)
24
The model is a combination of the Leaching (1A) model and of the CIP (1A) model.
and using a first order rate equation, the maximum recovery specified and a rate
constant. The leaching part of the model is derived from Mc Laughlin and Agar
publication (Mc Laughlin, J., Agar, G. E., 1991, Development and application of a first
order rate equation for modelling the dissolution of gold in cyanide solution. Minerals
Engineering, Vol. 4, N 12, pp 1305-1314).
Then, for each component of the liquid phase, the model calculates the fraction of the
component moving from the solution to the different solid component according to
parameter #8. The model used is derived from the "kn" model (Fleming, C.A., Nicol,
M.J., Nicol, D.I., 1980, The optimization of a carbon in pulp adsorption circuit based on
the kinetics of extraction of aurocyanide by activated carbon. Ion Exchange and
Solvent Extraction in Mineral Processing Meeting, Mintek Randburg, South Africa,
February.).
a. Leaching
The basic equation of Mc Laughlin and Agar is:
dC
= k (C (t ) Cr )
dt
where:
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Cr
leaching rate constant (1/h - parameter #4)
R = R 1
1 + k
where:
#3)
mean residence time calculated using the tank volume (parameter #1)
b. Adsorption
The basic equation of Nicol and Fleming model is:
Cc (t ) Cc (0) = KCs (t )t n
where:
Cc (t )
concentration on carbon at time t (mg/kg)
Cs (t )
concentration in solution at time t (mg/kg)
K
n
adsorption rate constant (1/h - parameter #6)

adsorption time constant (parameter #7)
()
Knowing the concentration of feed liquid Cs 0 in the first tank, the calculation of the
concentration of gold in the solution in tank i is done as follows:
Cci Cci +1 = KCsi n

where
is the mean residence time of the carbon in one tank (parameter #9).
The material balance equation is then:
Qs (Csi 1 Csi ) = Qc (Cci Cci +1 )

where:
Qs
flowrate of liquid (kg/h)
Qc
flowrate of carbon (kg/h)
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The model considers that all tanks are identical and are perfectly mixed.
The main limitation of this model is the hypothesis of steady-state operation; the nonequilibrium phases observed industrially cannot be taken into account.
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Model 332 - CIL - Carbon-In-Leach (1B)
Two output streams:

9 parameters
output 1 = pulp
output 2 = carbon
Parameters

2 Tank volume (m3)
Default value
1
500
3 Maximum leaching of ore and solid phases (%)
4 Leaching rate constant (1/h)
6 Carbon mean residence time per tank (h)
24
7 Carbon concentration in the tank (g/l)
25
8 Adsorption rate constant (k)
9 Adsorption time constant (n)
0.5
11 Carbon lost by abrasion (g/kg) in the pulp
12 Carbon transfer (Pumping or Only carbon)
Pumping
13 Tank diameter (m)
14 Agitator diameter (m)
15 Selection of agitation (No, Suspension or Dispersion)
No
16 Liquid viscosity (kg/m.s)
This model is a combination of the Leaching (1A) model and of the CIP (1B) model.
and using a first order rate equation, the maximum recovery specified and a rate
constant. The leaching part of the model is derived from Mc Laughlin and Agar
publication (Mc Laughlin, J., Agar, G. E., 1991, Development and application of a first
order rate equation for modelling the dissolution of gold in cyanide solution. Minerals
Engineering, Vol. 4, N 12, pp 1305-1314).
Then, for each component of the liquid phase, the model calculates the fraction of the
parameter #10. The model used is derived from the "kn" model (Fleming, C.A., Nicol,
M.J., Nicol, D.I., 1980, The optimization of a carbon in pulp adsorption circuit based on
the kinetics of extraction of aurocyanide by activated carbon. Ion Exchange and
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Solvent Extraction in Mineral Processing Meeting, Mintek Randburg, South Africa,

February.).
It has been adapted to describe also desorption and transfer of components from
carbon to solution.
It allows the calculation of the losses of carbon in the pulp stream due to abrasion and
the pumping of the pulp during carbon transfer from one tank to another.
a. Leaching
The basic equation of Mc Laughlin and Agar is:
dC
= k (C (t ) Cr )
dt
where:

Cr
leaching rate constant (1/h - parameter #4)
R = R 1
1
k
m
where:
#3)
mean residence time of pulp:
m =
V Vc
Qvp
with:
volume of the tank (parameter #2)
Vc
volume of carbon in the tank (m3)
Qvp
volumetric flowrate of the pulp except carbon (m3/h)
In the model,
Qvp
is supposed to be constant in all the tanks. It is then possible to
calculate the recovery of the leached components in each tank.
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Using the mass conversion (parameter #5), the quantity of liquid components produced
in each tank is known. This quantity, named Qsi , will enter in the balance equation of
adsorption.
b. Adsorption
Cc (t ) Cc (0 ) = KCs (t )t n
where:
Cc (t )
Cs (t )
K
n

In a continuous operation of a series of tanks, the calculation is as follows:
FL
Csi-1
Csi
Tank i-1
Tank i
Tank i+1
Cci
Cci+1
FC
The calculation of the concentration of gold in the solution in tank i is done as follows:
Cci Cci +1 = KCsi n

where is the mean residence time of the carbon in one tank (parameter #6). If the
carbon concentration (parameter #7) is different from 0, the residence time is
calculated as:
VX c
Qc
where:
Xc
carbon concentration (parameter #4)
Qc
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Qsi + Qs (Csi 1 Csi ) = Qc (Cci Cci +1 )

where:
Qs
flowrate of solution (kg/h)
The final solution is then:
Csi =
Csi 1 +
1+
Knowing the concentration of fed solution

then knowing the concentration
known.
CcN +1
Qsi
Qs
Qc
K n
Qs
Cs 0
in the first tank, the
Csi
are known, and
of the carbon fed to the last tank, the
Cci
are
c. Desorption
Even if there is no fundamental evidence that the equation of Nicol and Fleming may
be used for desorption, it has been found practical to consider that the reverse of
adsorption can be written:
Csi Csi +1 = KCci n

The resolution is identical to the case of adsorption just changing
specify that one component is desorbed, the parameter
negative.
Csi
in
Cci .
To
for this component must be
Carbon loss
The losses of carbon are evaluated with:
Qcl = Qc
where
Lc
Lc
1000
is the fraction of carbon lost by abrasion (parameter #8).
The flowrate Qcl is directed to the pulp stream. The rest

carbon stream.
Qc Qcl
reports to the
Pulp entrainment
If parameter #9 is set to Only carbon, all the other phases (ore and liquid) report to the
pulp stream. If it is set to Pumping, the transfer of carbon is made by pumping directly
into the tank, and then, pulp is entrained with carbon.
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All phases are pumped in proportion of their respective masses in the tank. These
masses are calculated knowing the mean residence time m of all phases except
carbon:
M p = Q p m
where
Qp
is the mass flowrate of phase p (kg/h).
The recovery per tank of each liquid component transferred is written in the Operating
Parameter Display. This recovery is calculated as:
R=
Csi 1 Csi
Csi 1
In the case of desorption, it may be negative.

Power calculation
Uses parameters #13 through #17
Use of the model
One limit of this model is the hypothesis of steady-state operation particularly in carbon
transfer. The batch counter current transfer practiced industrially cannot be taken into
account.
Another limit is that adsorption is not dependant on carbon loading. The proportion of
the components transferred is the same in each tank. This can be observed on
operating plants if there are no pollutants in the pulp, if there is no extra dissolution
taking place, and if the adsorption is not near equilibrium.
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Two output streams:

Adsorption tank
6 parameters
output 1 = pulp
output 2 = carbon
Parameters
Default value
500
2 Tank volume (m )
4 Rate constant per component of the liquid (0 if not adsorbed)
0.9
5 Time constant per component of the liquid
6 Mean residence time of the carbon in one tank (h)
24
For each component of the liquid phase, the model calculates the fraction of the
parameter #3.
The model used is derived from the "kn" model (Fleming, C.A., Nicol, M.J., Nicol, D.I.,
1980, The optimization of a carbon in pulp adsorption circuit based on the kinetics of
extraction of aurocyanide by activated carbon. Ion Exchange and Solvent Extraction in
Mineral Processing Meeting, Mintek Randburg, South Africa, February.).
Cc (t ) Cc (0) = KCs (t )t n
where:
Cc (t )
Cs (t )
K
n

()
Knowing the concentration of feed liquid Cs 0 in the first tank, the calculation of the
concentration of gold in solution in tank i is done as follows:
Cci Cci +1 = KCsi n

where
is the mean residence time of the carbon in one tank (parameter #6).
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where:
Qs
flowrate of liquid (kg/h)
Qc
The main limitation of this model is the hypothesis of steady-state operation; the nonequilibrium phases observed industrially cannot be taken into account.
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Two output streams:

Adsorption tank
14 parameters
output 1 = pulp
output 2 = carbon
Parameters
Default value
1
2 Tank volume (m3)
500
3 Carbon mean residence time per tank (h)
24
25
5 Exchange rate constant per component
6 Time constant per component
0.5
Pumping
No
For each component of the liquid phase, the model calculates the fraction of the
parameter #3.
The model used is derived from the "kn" model (Fleming, C.A., Nicol, M.J., Nicol, D.I.,
1980, The optimization of a carbon in pulp adsorption circuit based on the kinetics of
extraction of aurocyanide by activated carbon. Ion Exchange and Solvent Extraction in
Mineral Processing Meeting, Mintek Randburg, South Africa, February.).
It has been adapted to describe also desorption and transfer of components from
carbon to solution.
It allows the calculation of the losses of carbon in the pulp stream due to abrasion and
the pumping of the pulp during carbon transfer from one tank to another.
Adsorption
Cc (t ) Cc (0) = KCs (t )t n
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where:
Cc (t )
Cs (t )
K
n

In a continuous operation of a series of tanks, the calculation is as follows:
FL
Csi-1
Csi
Tank i-1
Tank i
Tank i+1
Cci
Cci+1
FC
The calculation of the concentration of gold in the solution in tank i is done as follows:
Cci Cci +1 = KCsi n

where is the mean residence time of the carbon in one tank (parameter #3). If the
carbon concentration (parameter #4) is different from 0, the residence time is
calculated as:
VX c
Qc
where:
Xc
carbon concentration (parameter #4)
Qc

where:
Qs
The final solution is then:
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Csi =
Csi 1
Q
1 + c K n
Qs
Knowing the concentration of fed solution

then knowing the concentration
known.
CcN +1
Cs 0
in the first tank, the
Csi
are known, and
of the carbon fed to the last tank, the
Cci
are
Desorption
Even if there is no fundamental evidence that the equation of Nicol and Fleming may
be used for desorption, it has been found practical to consider that the reverse of
adsorption can be written:
Csi Csi +1 = KCci n

The resolution is identical to the case of adsorption just changing
specify that one component is desorbed, the parameter
negative.
Csi
in
Cci .
To
for this component must be
Carbon loss
The losses of carbon are evaluated with:
Qcl = Qc
where
Lc
Lc
1000
is the fraction of carbon lost by abrasion (parameter #8).
The flowrate Qcl is directed to the pulp stream. The rest

carbon stream.
Qc Qcl
reports to the
Pulp entrainment
If parameter #9 is set to Only carbon, all the other phases (ore and liquid) report to the
pulp stream. If it is set to Pumping, the transfer of carbon is made by pumping directly
in the tank, and then, pulp is entrained with carbon.
All phases are pumped in proportion of their respective masses in the tank. These
masses are calculated knowing the mean residence time of all phases except carbon:
m =
V Vc
Qvp
where:
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221
Vc
volume of carbon in the tank (m3)
Qvp
volumetric flowrate of the pulp except carbon (m3/h)
The mass of the phase p is calculated by:
M p = Q p m
where
Qp
is the mass flowrate of phase p (kg/h).
The recovery per tank of each liquid component transferred is written in the Operating
Parameter Display. This recovery is calculated as:
R=
Csi 1 Csi
Csi 1
In the case of desorption, it may be negative.

Power calculation
Uses parameters #10 through #14.
Use of the model
One limit of this model is the hypothesis of steady-state operation particularly in carbon
transfer. The batch counter current transfer practiced industrially cannot be taken into
account.
Another limit is that adsorption is not dependant on carbon loading. The proportion of
the components transferred is the same in each tank. This can be observed on
operating plants if there are no pollutants in the pulp, if there is no extra dissolution
taking place, and if the adsorption is not near equilibrium.
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Model 312 - Belt Filter - Washer (1)
Three output streams

Belt filter washer
12 parameters
output 1 = filtrate
output 2 = cake
output 3 = washing filtrate
Parameters
Default value
1 Number of filters in parallel
2 Length of the filter (m)
10
3 Length of the filtration zone / length of the filter ratio
0.5
4 Length / width ratio
20
5 Linear speed of the belt (m/s)
0.2
6 Pressure drop (Pa)
50000
7 Viscosity of the liquid (Pa.s)
0.001
8 Cake residual minimum moisture content (%)
9 Specific resistance of filter cake (m/kg)
1E+009
10 Resistance of the filter medium (m-1)
11 Number of counter-current washings
12 Type of flow (Plug flow, Laminar or Perfect mixing)
Plug flow
The filter is divided into two zones. The filtration zone is the one from which the filtrate
flows, and the washing zone is the remaining part (see Figure). Parameters #2, #3 and
#4 define these zones.
Pulp
Washing solution
Cake
n washings
Filtrate
Dilute solution
a. Filtration zone
The cake is assumed to be incompressible and homogeneous. The relations of
Kozeny-Carman and Darcy-Carman describe the flow of filtrate through the cake:
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dV SP
=
dt
R
where:
V
P
S
filtration area (m2)
dynamic viscosity of the liquid (Pa.s - parameter #7)
resistance of the cake and the medium (1/m)
volume of filtrate collected at time t (m3)

pressure drop across the cake and the medium (Pa - parameter #6)
The resistance of the cake is defined by:
R=
rcV
S
where:
r
c
specific resistance of the cake (m/kg - parameter #9)

solids concentration (kg of solids/m3 of liquid)
Rearranging these equations, considering that P is constant with time and taking
into account that the medium is equivalent to a layer of cake that would be obtained
after the production of a volume V f of filtrate during a time t f , the integration of the
filtration "law" gives:
(V + V f )
2PS 2
(t + t f )
=
rc
or:
2PS 2
V + 2VV f =
t
rc
where:
Vf
volume of filtrate that would produce a cake of the same resistance as the
filter medium (m3) expressed using the resistance
(1/m - parameter #10):
Vf =
t
of the filter media
SR0
rc
filtration time (s) depending on the length L of the filtration zone (m) and
the linear speed vb of the belt (m/s - parameter #5):
t=
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vb
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b. Washing zone
Washing entrains components of the remaining liquid according to the last two
parameters (number of counter-current washings and type of flow).
The type of flow is used to calculate the concentrations for each step of washing in a
matrix form, according to the wash-ratio. (The wash-ratio is the flowrate of washing
water divided by the flowrate of liquid remaining in the cake after filtration).
Consider the following figure representing one step of washing:
Washing in (Wi)
Filtrate in (Fi)
Filtrate out (Fo)
Cake piece
Washing out (Wo)
The matrix formulation of the transfer of the components is:
Wo WW
=
Fo WF
Let the wash ratio
R=
Wi
Fi
FW Wi

FF Fi
In the plug flow case, we have:

if
R > 1:
WW = 1
FW = 1
1
WF =
R
FF = 0
if
1
R
R 1:
WW
FW
WF
FF
=0
=R
=1
=1 R
In the laminar flow case, we have:
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if
R > 0.5 :
if
2
WW
FW
WF
FF
225
= 1
2R
1
=1
4R
2
1
= 1 1
2R
1
=
4R
R 0.5 :
WW
FW
WF
FF
=0
=R
=1
=1 R
In the case of perfect mixing, we have:
R
1+ R
R
FW =
1+ R
1
WF =
1+ R
1
FF =
1+ R
WW =
The above matrices are rearranged to directly give the results for several steps of
washing.
Notes
The specific resistance of the filter cake may be determined by laboratory tests (Ruth,
B. F., 1935, "Studies in filtration", Ind. Eng. Chem. 27, 708, 806). It may also be back
calculated by the model from pilot plant or industrial data: the necessary experimental
data are the length of the filtration zone and the residual moisture content of the cake.
The model calculates the specific resistance that should provide a residual humidity
specified in parameter #8 and displays it in the Operating Parameters Display.
The percent solid of the cake remains unchanged after washing. All the components
entrained are replaced by "water", which must be the last component of the liquid
phase.
If several streams fed to the filter contain only liquid, the model considers all of them as
washing streams.
The model can be used without washing.
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Model 337 - Solvent Extraction (1)
Two output streams

Mixer-settler
20 parameters
output 1 = organic
output 2 = aqueous
Parameters
Default value
1 Number of steps
2 Organic/Aqueous flowrate volumetric ratio if regulated
3 Entrainment of Organic in Aqueous (g of O per kg of A)
4 Entrainment of Aqueous in Organic (g of A per kg of O)
5 Number of reactions
6 Reactions numbers
7 Ratio: specie for isotherm definition/component
8 For X<=XJ, production type (No, Hyperbolic, Log, Polynomial or

%)
No
9 Parameter A of the isotherm
10 Parameter B of the isotherm
11 Parameter C of the isotherm
12 Parameter D of the isotherm
13 XJ
14 For X>XJ, production type (Hyperbolic, Log or Polynomial)
15 Parameter A of the isotherm
16 Parameter B of the isotherm
17 Parameter C of the isotherm
18 Parameter D of the isotherm
19 Data type (Concent. (g/l), Grade (g/kg) or Molal (g/kg solvent))
20 Correspondence for isotherm definition
This Solvent Extraction model is able to simulate a set of N mixer/settler stages in

series:
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A1
O2
227
A3
Mixer
O4
ON
Mixer
Settler
2
Settler
1
Settler
N
Settler
3
Mixer
O1
ON+1
Mixer
A2
O3
A4
AN
AN+1
The Aqueous (A) stream feeds the first mixer/settler and exit from the last one. Organic
(O) stream flows in counter current and then feeds the last mixer/settler and exits from
the first one.
This set of mixer/settlers is represented by one icon in the flowsheet drawing:
SOLVENT EXTRACTION (1)
Organic feed
Loaded organic
Aqueous feed
3
1
Mixe-settler
4
Barren aqueous
The "Aqueous feed", "Organic feed", "Loaded organic" and "Barren aqueous" streams
correspond respectively to the streams A1, ON+1, O1 and AN+1.
The liquid phases must have different specific gravity as the organic phase is
recognized as the lighter.
The extraction rate between aqueous and organic phases is calculated according to
the isotherm:
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Isotherm
6
Cu in Organic phase (g/l)
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
Cu in Aqueous phase (g/l)
Isotherms are obtained from laboratory tests and can be modeled by a fit of the
experimental points. The general expression of the fit allowed by the model is:
f ( X ) if X X 0
Y = 1
f 2 ( X ) if X > X 0
where
X
Y
concentration of the extracted component in the organic phase
X0
parameter #13
concentration of the extracted component in the aqueous phase
Depending on the parameters #8 and #14,

form:
fi ( X ) =
f1 ( X )
and
f 2 ( X ) may have a hyperbolic
Ai X
+ Ci
Bi + X
a logarithmic form:
f i ( X ) = Ai ln(1 + Bi X ) + Ci
or a polynomial forms:
fi ( X ) = Ai X 3 + Bi X 2 + Ci X + Di
where A1 , B1 , C1 , D1 , A2 , B2 , C2 and D2 are respectively given by the
parameters #9, #10, #11, #12, #15, #16, #17 and #18.
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All the isotherm parameters (#8 through #18) are given for the extracted component in
its starting liquid phase. If there are many extracted components, their corresponding
isotherms can be described independently.
The extracted component in its starting liquid phase is associated to the component in
the arrival liquid phase by the aid of the parameter #20. The following figure shows the
parameter interface in the case of a Cu extraction from ion Cu++ in Aqueous to ion Cu++
in Organic:
The units used for X and Y are given by the parameter #19 and can be a
concentration in g/l, a grade in g/kg or a molal grade in g/kg of solvent.
To complete the description of the extraction, it is necessary to give its associated
chemical reaction (parameters #5 and #6). This reaction will give more information
about the ion exchange as in the following example where an acid counter transfer
accompanies the metal transfer:
2RH + Cu + + R 2Cu + 2H +
In this example, the component used in the organic phase is not simply the copper ion
but the complex R2Cu. If the isotherm uses the Cu concentration in g of Cu/l, it is
necessary to give the molecular mass ratio between the specie used in the isotherm
definition and the one used for material balance (parameter #7).
If parameter #2 is specified (value different from 0) the flowrate of organic phase is
calculated. This parameter MUST be used to initialize the flowrate of organic phase in
a closed-loop circuit. However, to ensure the material conservation in all the streams of
the closed-loop, ONLY ONE mixer-settler has to regulate in the loop.
To achieve the material balance in such an SX circuit, it is necessary to take into
account the entrainment of organic phase in the aqueous stream and conversely, due
to the unavoidable imperfect settling. The parameters #3 and #4 give this entrainment
in terms of the quantity (g) of organic or aqueous phase entrained by kg of aqueous or
organic phase.
Use of the model for unit sizing
The main function of this model is to calculate the number of mixer/settlers in series
(steps) to achieve an extraction objective using the McCabe & Thiele method.
The unit sizing is made in two stages:
A simulation using the level 0 model to calculate the output streams fixing the
expected extraction rate and the Organic/Aqueous (O/A) ratio.
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A unit sizing calculation using the level 1 model. In that case, the isotherm(s) and
associated chemical reaction(s) are described by the parameters #5 through #20
obtained from laboratory test results. The number of steps and the O/A ratio can
then be back calculated to obtain output streams as close as possible to the ones
calculated by the level 0 model.
During simulation, the model writes information in the "Operating Parameters Display"
file. They are divided in three sections:
A description of the internal iterative calculation useful to verify its convergence.

This section can be long.
A detailed description of the feed, of the organic and aqueous outputs and of the
equilibrium state for each step (reactor). Are displayed for each liquid phase: mass
and volumetric flowrate, specific gravity, and concentration of all the components in
g/l, g/kg and g/kg of solvent.
A set of (X, Y) points to be able to plot the each isotherm and the corresponding
McCabe & Thiele diagram.
6
5
4
3
Isotherm
McCabe & Thiele diagram

1
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
Use of the model for simulation of an existing plant

In that case, the SX circuit can be represented by one icon for the mixer/settler series
or as is using one icon by step. This second solution is better if the chemical conditions
are different in the different reactors and then with different isotherms.
The isotherm(s) and associated chemical reaction(s) are described by the parameters
#5 through #20 obtained from laboratory test results.
The parameter #2 is initialized to 0, as the organic flowrate is known. If this flowrate is
in a loop and is not regulated by another mean, one of the reactor has to regulate it
using the parameter #2.
The entrainment parameters #3 and #4 can be adjusted from the operating plant data.
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Two output streams:

Carbon-in-pulp tank
15 parameters
output 1 = pulp
output 2 = carbon
Parameters
Default value
1
2 Tank volume (m3)
500
3 Mean carbon residence time per tank (h)
24
25
5 Forward rate constant (1/h)
0.01
6 Reverse rate constant (1/h)
0.001
7 Maximum loading capacity (mg/kg)
15000
Pumping
No
This model was proposed by Dixon et al. (Dixon, S., Cho, E.H., and Pitt, C.H., 1978,
The interaction between gold cyanide, silver cyanide and high surface area charcoal.
Fundamental aspects of hydrometallurgical processes. AIChe symp. Series, vol 74, no
173, pp 75-83.),(Cho, E.H., Dixon, S. and Pitt, C.H., 1979, The kinetics of gold cyanide
adsorption onto activated charcoal. Metall. Trans. B., vol 10B, pp 185-189.).
A critical evaluation of this model has been made by Johns (Johns M. W., 1985, Model
application. Presented at the School on the Use of Activated Carbon For Gold
Recovery. Johannesburg, South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Lecture 5).
It is based on the reversibility of the reaction and includes a term for the loading
capacity of the carbon. It takes into account a rate expression and the equilibrium is
represented by the maximum loading capacity.
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The basic reaction rate (mg/h/m3) expression is:
r=
[ (
mc
k f Cc+ Cc Cs kr Cc
Vs
where:
mc
mass of carbon (kg)
Vs
volume of solution (m3)
kf
forward rate constant (1/h - parameter #4)
kr
reverse rate constant (1/h - parameter #5)
Cc
concentration on the activated carbon (mg/kg)
Cc+
maximum loading on the carbon (mg/kg)
Cs
solution concentration (mg/kg)
The rate at which a component is transferred is
r=
where
mc dCc
dC
= s s
Vs dt
dt
is the solution density.
As for the CIP (1B) model, the contacting takes place in tanks and the flow of carbon is
batch counter-current (see figure).
FL
Csi-1
Csi
Tank i-1
Tank i
Tank i+1
Cci
Cci+1
FC
Series of CIP tanks

To describe this situation mathematically, a rate expression and a mass balance are
required. Each contacting vessel is assumed to be perfectly mixed: the gold
concentration in solution leaving the vessel is the same as the concentration in the
vessel.
In steady state situation, a mass balance around the tank i on the components in
solution can be written:
ACCUMULATED = IN - OUT - REACTED
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233
dCsi
= QsCsi 1 QsCsi Vs r
dt
For the batch counter-current system, the mass balance of the components on the
carbon is:
ACCUMULATED = REACTED
mc
dCc
= Vs r
dt
where:
Qs
ms
mass of solution in the tank (kg)
For each tank, the two previous differential equations are solved by the four point
Runge-Kutta method, knowing the concentrations in the input streams. The integration
is done using the residence time of carbon. The transfer time of carbon is supposed to
be negligible.
The integration provides Cs and Cc . To begin the calculations, the initial
concentration in tank i (just after the transfer of carbon) is taken as the final
concentration in tank i - 1. A certain number of cycles have to be simulated before the
initial concentration in tank i can be equal to the final one, which represents the cyclic
behavior of the system.
Once this is reached, the concentration of the exit solution is calculated as a mean of
Cs over the residence time of carbon, and the final concentration of carbon is taken as
the initial one for the tank i - 1.
The following figure shows the evolution of the concentrations during a cycle in a tank.
At the beginning, carbon concentration is low and adsorption is fast, thus solution
concentration decreases rapidly. When adsorption becomes slower because of carbon
loading, and as the solution is continuously fed to the tank, the solution concentration
increases. To describe the "steady-state" of the system, the mean of Cs is reported to
the output stream.
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Concentrations
Carbon
Solution
Time
Carbon residence time
Evolution of the concentration during a cycle
To calculate the concentrations for a series of tanks, an iterative procedure is used in
which, for each tank, the above procedure is applied. In case of no convergence of this
procedure, a message is written in the operating parameter file.
To accelerate the convergence, an initialization of the concentrations in all streams is
made supposing that the recovery is the same in each tank.
Adsorption and desorption
The adsorption occurs if the concentration of a component on carbon is lower than the
equilibrium value of the Langmuir isotherm, and desorption occurs if it is higher. These
phenomena are taken into account in the equations where the rate can be positive or
negative.
The calculation of the output streams and the messages written in the Operating
Parameter Display are then equivalent to the CIP (1B) model.
Use of the model
a) Calibration using laboratory data.
If lab tests have provided the adsorption isotherm, then a simple fit with the Langmuir
expression can be done with many commercial packages (spreadsheet, statistic or
graphic tools, etc.). The values obtained for
k f , kr
and
Cc+
just need to be entered
as model parameters (respectively parameters #5, #6 and #7).

b) Calibration using industrial data.
In this case, to be efficiently calibrated, this model requires the knowledge or at least a
good estimation of the maximum carbon loading capacity. Once this parameter is
known, the forward ( k f ) and reverse ( k r ) constants can be easily calibrated with the
Model Parameter Adjustment option of USIM PAC. The most efficient way is to
calibrate one model, when the series of tanks is resumed in only one tank icon with:
Number of tanks in series (parameter #1) = n.
USIM PAC
BRGM Software
235
Carbon concentration (parameter #4) = average value of the concentration in each

tank.
Carbon lost by abrasion in the pulp (parameter #9) = average value of the loss for
each tank.
Then the calculated
kf
and
kr
values can be used for each model in the extended
flowsheet (one icon and then one model per tank). In this case, each model can use
the existing values of carbon concentration and carbon lost.
USIM PAC
BRGM Software
236
Two output streams:

Carbon-in-pulp tank
16 parameters
output 1 = pulp
output 2 = carbon
Parameters
Default value
1
2 Tank volume (m3)
500
3 Mean carbon residence time per tank (h)
24
25
5 Film diffusion coefficient (m/h)
0.1
6 Film area per unit mass of carbon (m2/kg)
1000
7 Freundlich constant (mg/kg)
15000
8 Freundlich power
0.3
Pumping
14 Percentage of the mass of carbon transferred (%)
100
This model was proposed by Johns (Johns M. W., 1985, Model application. Presented
at the School on the Use of Activated Carbon For Gold Recovery. Johannesburg,
South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Lecture 5).
It is based on the reversibility of the reaction. It takes into account a rate expression
and the equilibrium is represented by the Freundlich isotherm.
The basic reaction rate (mg/h/m3) expression is:
1
b
mc Ac
C

r=
s k Cs c
Vs
a
where:
Ac
USIM PAC
film area per unit mass of carbon (m2/kg - parameter #5)
BRGM Software
237
Vs
volume of solution (m3)
solution density (kg/m3)
film diffusion coefficient (m/h - parameter #4)
Cc
concentration on the activated carbon (mg/kg)
Cs
solution concentration (mg/kg)
Freundlich coefficient (kg(b-1).mg(b-1) - parameter #6)
Freundlich power (parameter #7)
The rate at which a component is transferred is
r=
mc dCc
dC
= s s
Vs dt
dt
The contacting takes place in tanks and the flow of carbon is batch counter-current as
for the previous model (see figure).
FL
Csi-1
Csi
Tank i-1
Tank i
Tank i+1
Cci
Cci+1
FC
Series of CIP tanks

Mathematically the expression of the model is the same as the CIP (2A) one. Two
differential equations are solved with the Runge-Kutta method and provide the same
type of results.
Adsorption and desorption
The adsorption occurs if the concentration of a component on carbon is lower than the
equilibrium value of the Freundlich isotherm, and desorption occurs if it is higher.
These phenomena are taken into account in the equations where the rate can be
positive or negative.
Calculation of output streams
The output streams are calculated exactly in the same way as in the CIP (2A) model
and the messages written in the Operating Parameter Display are of the same type.
USIM PAC
BRGM Software
238
Use of the model

a) Calibration using laboratory data.
If lab tests have provided the adsorption isotherm then a simple fit with the Freundlich
expression can be done with many commercial packages (spreadsheet, statistic or
graphic tools, etc.). The values obtained then for the a and b parameters just need to
be entered as model parameters #7 and #8. Then with the Model Parameter
Adjustment option of USIM PAC, parameter #5 (film diffusion coefficient) and, if
unknown, parameter #6 (film area per unit mass of carbon) can as well be easily
calibrated.
b) Calibration using only industrial data.
In this case, a plot of an "industrial isotherm" can be made: for each tank, the
measurement of the solution and of the carbon assays allows to plot ln Cc versus
ln(Cs ) .
( )
Then, as above, a fit with the Freundlich expression can be done and
"industrial" a and b are determined. If the operation was at the equilibrium, it would
mean that these values are the real isotherm ones and then the kinetic constant (film
diffusion coefficient) would be very low. It is generally not the case when real circuits
operate far from the equilibrium with high kinetics. However, we can assume that the
slope of the real isotherm is probably not far from the slope of the industrial one and b
can be kept as a model parameter (#8).
Then knowledge or a good estimation of the film area per unit mass of carbon
(parameter #6) is required. Using the Model Parameter Adjustment option, parameters
#5 and #7 can be calibrated.
If parameter #6 is totally unknown, then assume that the kinetic is maximum (around
0.3) and calibrate at the same time parameters #6 and #7. This will probably provide
less accurate results, but would allow to use the model in these far from the equilibrium
operating conditions.
In some cases, it may be possible to calibrate four of the parameters, #5, #6, #7 and
#8. In this case, the following hypothesis must be made: operation is far from the
equilibrium, thus kinetic is high.
USIM PAC
BRGM Software

Unit Operation Model Guide

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USIM PAC 3.

Unit Operation Model Guide

UNIT OPERATION MODEL GUIDE

UNIT OPERATION MODEL GUIDE

USIM PAC 3.0

BRGM is the author of USIM PAC

Copyright BRGM 1986 2004, Caspeo 2004

UNIT OPERATION MODEL GUIDE

UNIT OPERATION MODEL GUIDE

USIM PAC 3.0

UNIT OPERATION MODEL GUIDE

Model 23 - Chemical Reactions___________________________________ 43

UNIT OPERATION MODEL GUIDE

Model 137 - SALA Agitated Mill (2) _______________________________ 124

UNIT OPERATION MODEL GUIDE

Model 308 - Solvent Extraction (0) _______________________________ 196

UNIT OPERATION MODEL GUIDE

either on the basis of experimental data obtained from the continuous

or from such data supplemented by information obtained from specific

estimating the parameters of the models on the basis of unreliable experimental

Each model description sheet shows:

the name of the icon;

the name of the model;

the names and default values of the visible parameters;

a brief theory of the model with relevant literature references;

the model calibration capabilities.

UNIT OPERATION MODEL GUIDE

thickener and filter model:

Solid/Liquid Separator (0)

Flow Split - % (0)

Density Regulator (0)

chemical reactor model:

UNIT OPERATION MODEL GUIDE

1.1 - Level 0 models

One output stream

UNIT OPERATION MODEL GUIDE

Model 2 - Solid/Liquid Separator (0)

Two output streams:

Output1: Pulp stream

1 Percent solids of the slurry stream (mass %)

UNIT OPERATION MODEL GUIDE

Model 3 - Flow Split - % (0)

1 Split of feed stream to output #1 (%)

Two output streams

UNIT OPERATION MODEL GUIDE

Model 4 - Flow Split - Flowrate (0)

1 Split of feed stream to the specified output (t/h)

Two output streams

UNIT OPERATION MODEL GUIDE

Model 11 - Liquid Split (0)

Two output streams

1 Maximum flowrate of liquid to the specified output (t/h)

2 Specified output number (1 or 2)

UNIT OPERATION MODEL GUIDE

Model 24 - Splitter with a known output

1 Number of the stream in which the data are given

Two output streams

UNIT OPERATION MODEL GUIDE

Model 25 - Flow Split - global

Two output streams

1 Number of the stream in which the data are given

2 Type of data (%, t/h or m3/h)

3 Phases concerned (All phases, Solids, Liquids or Gases)

UNIT OPERATION MODEL GUIDE