SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS OF AIME

PAPER
NUMBER

6200 North Central Expressway

Dallas, Texas 75206

SPE 4779

THIS IS A PREPRINT --- SUBJECT TO CORRECTION

'TOri I I

ng Fluid Fi Itration Under Simulated

Downho Ie Cond i ti ons TT
By

Ja.y P. Simpson, Member AI:ME, BAROID Division, N L Industries, Inc.

Copyright 1974
American Institute of Mining., Metallurgical., and Petroleum Engineers., Inc.

This paper was prepared for the Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME Symposium on Formation
Damage Control, to be held in New Orleans, La.. , Feb. 7-8, 1974. Permission to copy is restricted
to an abstract of not more than 300 words. Illustrations may not .be copied. The abstract should
contain conspicuous acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper is presented. Publication elsewhere after publication in the JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY or the SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM
ENGINEERS JOURNAL is usually granted upon request to the Editor of the appropriate journal provided agreement to give proper credit is made.
Discussion of this paper is invited. Three copies of any discussion should be sent to the
Society of Petroleum Engineers office. Such discussion may be presented at the above meeting and,
with the paper, may be considered for publication in one of the two SPE magazines.

ABSTRACT
Drilling fluid filtration has long been rec0gnized as a factor affecting well productivity.
The filtrate can interact with the formations
in a number of ways to cause damage. Knowledge of filtration rate (as an indication of depth
of filtrate invasion) is important, therefore,
in controlling a drilling fluid to minimize productivity damage.
This paper presents data for filtration of
drilling fluids under simulated downhole conditions, with confining pressures as high as
10,000 psi and temperatures up to 400 F. Depth
of filtrate invasion for a particular porosity is
calculated from filtration rates of various muds
tested at 5000 psi and 300 F.
The API high-temperature filtration test is
consider ed as to adequacy for field control in
limiting productivity damage. Data are presented comparing paper, steel mesh, and a
porous disc as filter media in the API test.

References and illustrations at end of paper.

INTRODUCTION
Drilling of a potentially productive formation can be expected to cause some skin damage. The seriousness of that damage depends
upon the nature of the formation, the composition and properties of the drilling fluid, and
the drilling conditions. Usually the drilling
fluid pressure is greater than the formation
pore pressure. As a result there may be invasion by whole drilling fluid and solids from
the drilling fluid, as well as invasion by drilling fluid filtrate. Various investigations have
considered the problem of drilling fluid particle invasion. 1, 2 Attention has also been given
to interaction of drilling fluid filtrate with
formation solids and liquids. 3,4 Generally,
these studies have shown that severe damage
can be caus ed by particle and filtrate invasion.
Most of the factors known to affect particle
and filtrate invasion are not readily subject
to control. For example, high differential
pressure often must be tolerated. Scrapping
action of bit and drill string cannot be eliminated. There are limits to adjustments that

104
can be made in drilling fluid circulating rates.
hydration and clay swelling. The effect of poOn the other h.and, the filtration characteristics tassium ion on clay is attributed to the following
of the drilling fluid can be controlled to prevent combination of properties:
invasion. Further protection against formation
damage can be exercised by selecting a type of
The hydrated potas sium ion is small
drilling fluid to limit or avoid undesirable
enough (diameter 7.6 angstroms) to enter
interaction of filtrate with the formation.
between platelets of an expanded clay containing as much as four layers of water.
DAMAGE FROM DRILLING FLUID FILTRATE
The hydrational energy' of the potassium
There are a number of ways that drilling
ion is low enough (77 kcal/mol) that the
fluid filtrate might interact with the formation
ion will give up its water upon slight
to caus e permeability damage. Some of thes e
heating.
have been investigated in laboratories and
described in published papers. Others are
The dehydrated potassium ion is the optisuggested by various observations and studies,
mum size (diameter 2.66 angstroms) to
but are not documented by actual damage tests.
fit into the opening left when interlayer
All of the following possible causes of blockage
water is removed and adjacent clay
should be considered when selecting a drilling
platelets collapse together.
fluid to combat formation damage.
With this combination of properties, potasIncreased Hydration of Formation Clay Particles sium can prevent further hydration of smectite
and mixed-layer clays. With illites the potasMany producing formations contain clay min- sium can replace cation impurities and give less
erals such as illite, montmorillonite, and mixed reactive structure.
layer clays. The hydrated volume of the clay is
dependent not o;nly upon its crystalline structure,
Other cations that offer a favorable combinabut also upon the ionic environment. Invasion
tion of size and hydrational energy are cesium,
by aqueous filtrate changes the ionic environrhubidium, and ammonium. For use in drilling
mente If the filtrate is of lower salinity than
fluids, however, cesium and rhubidium would be
the connate water, 'the clay will usually take on prohibitively expensive. Ammonium has the unadditional water. The greater hydrated volume desirable characteristic of evolving ammonia
can cause blockage of pore channels.
gas in an alkaline system.
Clays of the smectite group (such as montDispersion and Migration of Formation Clay
morillonite) have an expandible lattice and can
Particles
take on water between platelets as well as between particles. This clay swelling results in
For ease of control of flow properties, drillworse blockage. Sodium clays undergo the
ing fluid systems are usually maintained with
greatest swelling. Drilling fluid filtrate having high concentrations of strong dispersants. The
a relatively low salinity and containing predom- filtrate from such a drilling fluid will tend to
inantly sodium cations, therefore, could be ex- cause dispersion and migration of formation
pected to cause the most damage from clay
clay particles. Once dislodged, the clay partiswelling.
cles will move back into the formation, plugging
pores and reducing permeability. Particle disCertain multivalent cations, such as calcium, persion may cause serious damage when only
in the filtrate can repress clay swelling even if small amounts of clay are present in the
the formation contains swellable sodium clays.
ormation. 8
If the sodium clay in the formation is already in
the expanded form, however, calcium will not
Chemical Alteration of Formation
shrink the hydrated clay. 5
Sand and clay have been shown to be reactive
Potas sium has long been recognized as unith highly alkaline drilling fluids, forming hyusual in that it can be fixed or held by soils.
drated alumino silicates and silicates. 9 High
Recent studies 6 , 7 have clarified how potassium
emperature accelerates the reaction. The
reaction products resemble those involved in the
can be particularly effective in limiting clay

........-IS~P~EIf..---,:4:...:7:.....:7...J,9:...--

J .A.Y2

S .MJ?SO~

~_1_O 5--,

The dispersants commonly used in drilling fluids (lignosulfonates, tannins, and lignites) are solubilized with alkali such as
caustic soda. During drilling, the alkalinity
of the system is maintained to keep the dispersants in solution and effective as thinners.
Three soluble organic salts enter the formation as part of the filtrate. Reactions take
place within the formation resulting in loss
of alkalinity, precipitation of the dispersants,
and plugging. 10 Extent of the damage would
depend upon the amount of disper sant that
was solubilized enough to enter the formation.

but 3 to 50/0 by weight of the aqueous phase of

the drilling fluid is commonly used. If a
sodium chloride brine is used, concentrations
in the range of 10 to 260/0 are needed. In this
type of fluid ther e is no lignosulfonate or other
strong disversant present to cause dispersion
and migration of formation clay particles. The
polymer system can be prepared and maintained with little or no hydroxyl alkalin~ty, lessening the chance of chemical alteration of the
formation matrix and eliminating the problem
of precipitation of alkaline-soluble dispersants.
For both drilling performance and formation
protection, the system should be based on a
combination of polymers of medium and high
molecular weight. These, acting with fine
drilled solids that will necessarily be pickedup during drilling, will let the filter cake be
formed at the surface of the formation. If a
new fluid is prepared for completion, a few
pounds per barrel of 200 -mesh limestone will
usually provide the bridging solids needed to
prevent the polymers from entering and
adsorbing within the formation.

Needless to say, there are other types

of formation damage that could be listed, particularly when specific drilling fluids and
specific formation conditions are considered.
Those discussed, however, are forms of
damage that probably are occurring in most
wells being drilled at this time. Much of
this damage could be avoided by proper
s election of the drilling fluid.

The salt/polymer fluid is most effective as

a low-solids system that can provide fast drilling in hard formations. The high-molecularweight polymers have a flocculating tendency
and are not well suited for the high-solids
systems resulting from fast drilling of soft
shales or where high-density drilling fluids are
required. Thermal degradation of the polymer
can be expected at temperatures above 300 F.

setting of cement. Free hydroxyl in the filtrate from a high-pH drilling fluid, therefore,
can be expected to react with sand and clay
in a high-temperature formation. With
cementitious materials as products, the alteration of the formation should result in
reduced permeability.
Precipitation of Drilling Fluid A.dditives
Within the Formation

DRILLING FLUIDS TO LIMIT DAM_AGE

If formation damage were the only criteria,
selection of a drilling fluid would be quite
simple. A properly formulated oil mud would
minimize damage in most instances. Performance of the fluid in the drilling operation
must be considered, however, with attention
to economics and to the effect of the drilling
fluid on the ecolog.y. One of the following
three systems should provide a reasonable
compromise between drilling performance
and protection against formation damage.
Salt/Polymer System
Potassium chloride can be used with polymers to combat hydration and swelling of
formation clay. The optimum concentration
of potassium chloride would depend upon the
composition of the formation matrix and fluid,

Potassium Lignite/Surfactant System

Potassium chloride is used in this systerrl
for the same purposes as in the salt/polymer
system. Since the potassium lignite provides
some potassium ion, somewhat less potassium
chloride is requir~d to combat clay hydration.
Thinning in this system is provided by a nonionic surfactant, 11 eliminating the need for
strong dispersants. Rather than contributing
to formation particle mobility, the nonionic
surfactant serves to combat dispersion. This
is an alkaline system. Most of the hydroxyl,
however, is preacted with lignite rather than
added to the system as free alkali. There
would be little alkaline alteration of the formation matrix. The lignite is in the system as
an adsorptive colloid rather than solubilized
to provide thinning and dispersion. The filtrate
should contain enough alkaline - soluble lignit e
to create a problem of precipitation within the
formation.

106
The potassium lignite/surfactant system is
designed for shale drilling and for use as a
high-density mud. Temperature stability is
suitable for use up to the 450 F range. It is
still a water-base system, however, and does
not completely eliminate all the aqueous -phase
reactions that could cause drilling problems
or formation damage.
Oil Mud
This system has q. clean, low-viscosity oil
as the continuous phase and a dispersed water
phase containing sufficient calcium chloride 12
to assure no hydration of the formation. Damage from increased hydration of formation
clay is eliminated. The oil filtrate does not
cause dispersion and migration of formation
clay particles. With no aqueous-phase hydroxyl reactions, there is no damage from formation of cementing materials or precipitation of
water-soluble dispersants. Care should be
taken to avoid the use of oil-soluble asphaltic
and parafinic materials that could precipitate
within the formation and cause blockage.
Oil muds used for drilling and completing
invariably pick-up some water. This water is
dispersed and emulsified to prevent detrimental
effects on the mud or the formation. In this
particular sense, all oil muds are invert
(water-in-oil) emulsions. If an oil-base or
invert emulsion mud is properly formulated
and maintained, none of this water enters the
formation as filtrate. Formation invaded by
filtrate from a good oil mud, however, will be
rendered oil-wet. If oil-wetting is undesirable,
emphasis can be given to maintaining low filtration rates so that perforations can penetrate
beyond the invaded zone. The extremely low
filtration rates attainable with oil muds make
such an approach feasible.
The oil mud system can be used for drilling
and completing at any pressure and tem.pe,rature encountered to date. Composition and
properties for optimum drilling performance,
however, may not be the same as for minimum
filtrate invasion. For example, recent laboratory drilling tests have indicated that faster
drilling rates might be attained if the colloid
content could be kept low. 13 Limiting the
colloid content, on the other hand, would result in higher filtration rates and greater depth
of filtrate invasion. Proper planning and utilization of either an oil mud or a water -base

system calls for knowledge and understanding

of the filtration characteristics.
API FILTRATION TESTS
Filtration rate is usually considered in
terms of permeability of the filter cake,
thickness of the filter cake, viscosity of the
filtrate, and fluid pressure in the filter cake.
Such parameters cannot be measured for control of a drilling fluid in a well. Filtration
tests are made routinely, of course, but under
arbitrary conditions that are not intended
to simulate downhole conditions. The filtration tests prescribed in APIRP 13 B are relatively simple tests that can be made in the
field and used as indices for controlling drilling fluids based on experience.
The API low-temperature procedure calls
for filtration under the following conditions:
Filter Medium
Total Pressure
Differential Pressure
Temperature
Filtration Time
Flow Condition

Paper
100 Psi
100 Psi
A.mbient
(usually 70 to 120 F)
30 Minutes
Static

Filtrate volumes measured by the API lowtemperature test may be unrelated to values
measured at higher temperature or differential pressure. 14
Conditions for the API high-temperature
test are the same as the above except that
temperatures as high as 450 F can be used.
The total pressure is 600 to 950 psi and the
differential pressure is 500 psi. For temperature of 400 to 450 psi, the filter medium is a
thin disc cut from. a sheet of pressed stainless
steel fibers. While giving better guidance
than the low -temperature test, the A.PI hightemperature test fails to simulate downhole
conditions in several important ways.
One limitation of the API tests is the relatively low total pressures. Heating the drilling fluid to simulate the downhole temperature
lowers the viscosity of the filtrate, increasing
the filtration rate. Increasing pressure to
simulate the total pressure downhole would
tend to raise.the viscosity of the filtrate and
decrease filtration rate, but the A.PI test does
not provide for such a high total pressure.

SPE 4779

JAY P

S'MPSON

107

The compressib.ility of water is slight, and the

effect of very high pressure on filtr'ation of a
water mud might be insignificant. In contrast,
oil is very compressible. An oil mud would
have a much lower filtration rate downhole
than indicated by the API high-temperature
test.

as a measure of filtrate volume. (No adjustment is made for any volume change due to
temperature differences in the back-pressure
system.) Temperature is controlled by
electric heating rods fitted in an outer shell
of the filtration cell and immersed in a temperature stable fluid.

A second serious limitation of the API filtration tests is the use of filter media that
have no significant thickness and are not compos ed of porous earth materials. A drilling
fluid having a poor particle size distribution
but containing material adsorbable by cellulose
might have a low filtrate on paper. Conversely
a drilling fluid containing solids that would seal
the surface pores of a rock might have the solids stack on the surface of metal fibers with
the colloidal fraction passing through
unimpeded.

The filter is a fused aluminum oxide material (Aloxite 2) having a water permeability
of about 500 md. Dimensions of the filter
cylinder are: 2-1/2 inch - OD, 1-3/4 inch ID, and 6 inch - Length. The filter is mounted below a ring attached to a rotating shaft
and supporting a series of baffles (Figure 3).
The baffles are rotated around the filter at
20 RPM to avoid gelation and allow the drilling
fluid to be heated and maintained at an even
temperature. This stirring is not intended to
simulate any specific downhole condition of
dynamic filtration, but it does have an affect
on filtrate volumes. For that reason, tests
made while stirring with the baffles are
designated as dynamic.

A third aspect of the API tests that should

be kept in mind is that the filtration is static,
with the drilling fluid filtering vertically
through the filter medium. Settling of solids
can give results that would not relate to radial
filtration in a near-verticle hole.
SIMULATING DOWNHOLE FILTRATION
As wells are drilled deeper, there is a
growing need for information on the performance of drilling fluids at the very high pressures and temperatures encountered. Such
information is particularly important in the
development of drilling fluid systems to meet
the extreme conditions. Data on even a few
specific drilling fluids can indicate performance
trends and provide guidance for interpretation
of results of tests made by conventional methods. For these reasons, equipment has been
designed to permit filtration tests at pressures
as high as 10, 000 psi and temperatures up to
,400 F.
A portion of Baroid's wellbore simulation
equipment 15 has been modified to provide a
filtration cell (Figure 1) capable of maintaining
a 500-psi differential pressure with a total
pressure as high as 10, 000 psi. As shown
schematically in Figure 2, a cylindrical filter
is mounted inside the cell so that drilling fluid
can be maintained at high pressure on the outside and a clear back-pressure fluid can be
kept at a 500-psi lower pressure on inside.
Displacement of back-pressure fluid is taken

TESTS AT DOWNHOLE CONDITIONS

The special filtration equipment was used
to test three drilling fluids at temperatures
of 80 F, 300 F, and 400 F and at total pressures of 2000, 5000, and 10,000 psi. Differential pressure was 500 psi for all tests.
Some of the drilling fluids were filtered as
long as four hours.
Drilling Fluids Tested
Three drilling fluids were selected for
testing. One was an oil mud typical of those
used today in deep-well drilling where temperatures are in the 300 F range. This mud
contained enough soap emulsifier and oildispersible lignite to give a low filtrate volume as measured on the API high-temperature test at 300 F.
The second drilling fluid was also an oil
mud, but one designed to give a faster drilling rate on microbit tests. 13 This low-colloid
oil mud contained sufficient oil-dispersible
bentonite to give suspension of barite at
temperatures as high as 400 F. It contained
enough temperature-stable emulsifie-r to
maintain emulsification of water and oilwetting of solids at 400 F. Colloidal materials not essential for these purposes were

108
omitted.. This resulted in an oil mud having
higher filtrate volumes on the API tests than
usually considered acceptable.
The third dr illing fluid was a potas s ium
lignite/ surfactant water-base mud such as now
being used for deep drilling in situations where
there is some objection to an oil mud.
All thre~ of the muds were weighted to
12 Ib/gal-with. barite. They were mixed in- 8gallon batches in a system utilizing a stirrer
and a centrifugal pump. The muds were stabilized by stirring and pumping continuously for
54 hours. Nothing was added to simulate the
fine solids that would have accumulated if these
muds had been used for drilling.
The compositions of the three muds are
listed in Table 1 and the properties as tested
at 75 F are given in Table 2.
Effect of Very High Pressure on Dynamic
Filtration
The oil mud was used to study the effect of
varying pressures from 2000 psi to 10, 000 psi
when filtering at 80 F and 300 F. Differential
pressure was kept at 500 psi. Results of these
tests are shown in Figure 4. In the tests at
80 F, higher pressures gave lower :(iltrate volumes during the initial filtration and during the
transition period while an equilibrium filter
cake was forming. Apparently the higherfiltrate viscosity at higher pressure had a significant effect. After about two hours, however,
the filtration rates were about the same for all
three pressures. Under the equilibrium conditions the higher filtrate viscosity caused by the
higher pressure was perhaps being offset by
more erosion of filter cake.
In contrast, pressure had little effect on the
initial f~ltration for tests at 300 F. A.fter about
one -half hour the higher pressures began to
lower filtration rates. This might be due to
filtrate viscosity being so low at 300 F that
pressure made no significant difference in initial filtration or subsequent filter cake erosion.
In that event pressure effect would become significant as clas sification of solids in the filter
cake during the transition period resulted in
lower permeability. 16

Comparison of Dynamic and Static

Filtration at 5000 Psi
Clas s ification of solids in the filter cake
was indicated by the comparison of dynamic
and static filtration tests shown in Figure 5.
Rotation of the baffles at 20 rpm might cause
very little erosion of filter ;.cake and yet provide enough motion to cause classification of
particles and a less permeable filter cake.
In a drilling operation, static filtration
occurs at any time that the drilling fluid is
not being pumped and circulated.. Such static
filtration would take place only after dynamic
filtration had occurred when the hole was first
drilled. The static filtration reported in
Figure 5 was not preceded by dynamic filtration and therefor e would not simulate downhole
conditions .
Dynamic filtration during a drilling operation occurs under conditions ranging from the
extremely high shear rates under the bit to
the very low rates for laminar flow at the wall
of the hole around the drill pipe. Thes e laboratory tests made no attempt to simulate any
specific shear condition that might be encountered in actual drilling.
Dynamic Filtration of Various Muds at 5000 Psi
The oil mud, the low -colloid mud, and the
water mud were filtered at 5000 psi total pressure and 500 psi differential pressure. Results of tests at 300 F are shown in Figure 6
and results for 400 F are in Figure 7. The oil
mud gave low filtrate volumes at both temperatures. Filtrates for the low-colloid oil mud
were somewhat higher, and the water mud gave
filtrates considerably higher.
This ranking of performance would not
have been indicated by the API high-temperature filtration tests of the three muds.
Comparison of Filter Media in the API HighTemperature Filtration Test
The three muds were tested using the API
high-temperature test procedure and comparing
three filter media. The filter media compared
were:

SPE 4779

JAY P

1.

Filter Paper - This is the filter medium

specified by API for the test at 300 F.
In tests at 400 F, the filter paper has been
noted to char. For that reason a sheet of
fiberglass was used as a backer in tests
at 400 F.

2.

Dynalloy X-5 - This thin sheet of stainless

steel fiber mesh is specified by API for
tests at 400 F.

3.

Aloxite 5 - This filter medium is similar

in composition to the Aloxite 2 used in the
high-pressure dynamic tests, except that
the water permeability is about 1700 md.
For the static API tests a porous disc
1/4-inch in thickness was used. The disc
was saturated with diesel oil for tests of
the oil muds and with water for tests of
the water mud.

Shown in Table 3 are results of tests at

300 F using the API high-temperature filtration procedure. For comparison, the table
also lists the 30 -minute filtrate volumes for
the three muds as tested dynamically at 300 F
and 5000 psi.
Table 4 shows the comparison of filter
media for similar tests at 400 F.
Both the filter paper and the Dynalloy X - 5
indicated the low-colloid oil mud to have the
highest filtrate of the three muds at 300 F and
the lowest filtrate when tested at 400 F.
Static filtration on A.loxite 5, however, indicated the same performance ranking for the
three muds at both 300 F and 400 F as was
shown by the dynamic, high-pressure tests.
The filtrate volumes for the API procedures
were considerably higher. This could have
been caused by the higher permeability of the
Aloxite 5, the lower total pressure of the API
procedure, and the static filtration condition
of the API procedure.
DEPTH OF FILTRATE INVASION
As discussed earlier, consideration of
drilling conditions can permit selection of a
drilling fluid to minimize damage to the invaded zone. No matter what fluid is selected,
however, filtration control plays a m.ajor role
in combating formation damage. In some
situations, the best protection may be simply

c:IMPSON

109

to limit the depth of filtrate invasion so that

the well can be perforated beyond the invaded
zone. For such an approach, the drilling and
completion program should be planned so that
the following can be accomplished:
Maintain very low filtration rates while
the productive zone is exposed.
Minimize the time that the productive zone
is exposed.
Provide space for perforators large
enough to give adequate penetration of
the formation.
Some idea of depth of filtrate invasion is
needed for planning of this type. The filtration
data measured under downhole conditions can
give some guidance for the three types of mud
tested. As an example, Table 5 gives filtrate
invasion depths for one particular hole size
and formation porosity.. These values are
calculated on simple volume displacement and
are intended to give an indication of the order
of magnitude of filtrate invasion.
Use of the API high-temperature filtrate
values for these same calculations would have
given quite different results. Depth of filtrate
invasion for five days exposure, for exam.ple,
would have calculated to be 10 inches for the
oil mud, 28 inches for the low -colloid oil mud,
and 23 inches for the water mud.
SUMMAR Y AND CONCLUSIONS
1.

Selection of water -bas e drilling fluids to

minimize formation damage from filtrate
invasion can be based on the following
criteria:
Utilize potassium ion or a high-total
salinity to combat hydration and
swelling of formation clay.
Avoid the use of strong dispersants that
would tend to increase migration of
formation clay particles.
Avoid the use of highly alkaline systems
that could cause chemical alteration of
the formation matrix.

110

DRILLING FLUID FILTRATION UNDER SIMULATED DOWNHOLE CONDITIONS

Minimize the use of alkali soluble com.ponents that would precipitate within.
the formation upon los s of alkalinity.

2.

Drilling fluid systems now available to

combat formation damage include:

2.

Glenn, E. E. and Slusser, M. L.: "Factors Affecting Well Productivity - II. Drilling Fluid Particle Invasion Into Porous
Media," Trans .. AIME (1957)" 210, 132.

3.

Nowak" T. J. and Krueger, R. F.: lIThe

Effect of Mud Filtrates and Mud Particles
Upon the PerlTIeability of Cor es," API
Drill. and Prod. Prac. (1951) 164.

4.

Monaghan, P. H.; Salathiel, R. A.;

Morgan, B. E.; Kaiser, A. D., Jr.:
11 Laboratory Studies of ForlTIation DalTIage
in Sands Containing Clay," Trans. AIME
'(1959), 216, 209.

5.

Slobod, R. L.: "Restoring Permeability

to Clay-Containing Water DalTIaged Formations," Paper No. SPE 2683, 44th Annual
Fall Meeting of SPE of AIME (October, 1969)

6.

Sawhney, B. L." "Selective Sorption and

Fixation of Cations by Clay Minerals: A
Review," Clay and Clay Minerals (1972)"
20, 2.

7.

O'Brien, D. E. and Chenevert, M. E.:

"Stabilization of Sensitive Shales Using
Inhibited, PotassiulTI Based Drilling
Fluids" I' Paper No. SPE 4232, Sixth Conference Drilling and Rock Mechanics,
(January, 1973).

8.

Gray, D. H. and Rex, R. W.: "ForlTIation

Damage on Sandstone Caus ed by Clay Dispersion and Migration," Proc. 14th Conference on Clays and Minerals, PergalTIon
Press, London (1966)~, 18.

9.

Gray, G. R.; Neznako, M. and Gilkeson,

P. W. "SolTIe Factors Affecting the Solidification of LilTIe-Treated Muds .at High
TelTIperatures, II API Drill. and Prod. Prac.
(1952) 73.

Salt/polymer - where low-solids can be

maintained.
Potassium lignite/ surfactant - where
better solids tolerance and temperature
stability are required.
Oil Mud - for maxilTIum protection.
3.

4.

5.

6.

The effect of very high total pressure on

filtration of a drilling fluid varies depending upon the temperature of the test. No
simple calculation can be made to normalize for effect of pressure.
The API high-telTIperature filtration tests
can indicate different ranking of perforlTIance of drilling fluids frolTI that shown
by filtration tests lTIade under silTIulated
downhole conditions.
The API high-temperature filtration test
can give the same performance ranking of
drilling fluids as indicated by tests lTIade
under silTIulated downhole conditions if the
filter medium is a disc of porous earth
material having a thickness on the order
of 1/4 inch.
Use of API high-temperature filtration
rates for calculation of depth of filtrate
invasion can give lTIuch higher values than
depths calculated from filtration rates
measur ed under silTIulated downhole
conditions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks to C. P. Lawhon for his general

assistance and to Mike Vackar who lTIade
lTIost of the laboratory tests.

SPE 4779

10.

Peacock, D. W.: "Process For Treating

Earth ForlTIations to Be' Relatively IlTIperlTIeable to ForlTIation Water, " U. S.
Patent 3, 291, 212 (December 13, 1966).

11.

Mondshine, T. C.: "A New PotassiulTI

Based .Mu~ System," Paper No. SPE 4516,
48th Annual Fall Meeting of SPE of 'AIME
(October, 1973).

REFERENCES

1.

Krueger, R. F. and Vogel, L. C.: "Damage to Sandstone Cores by Particles from

Drilling Muds," API Drill. and Prod. (1954)
158.

111

12.

13.

14.

Mondshine, T. C.: "New Technique

Determines Oil Mud Salinity Needs in
Shale Drilling," Oil and Gas J. (July 14,
1969).

eratures and Pressures," Trans. AIME

(1952) 195, 157.
15.

Lawhon, C. P.; Evans, W. M. and

Simpson, J. P.: "Laboratory Drilling
Rate and Filtration Studies of Clay and
Polymer Drilling Fluids, " Trans. A.IME
(1967) 240, 688.

16.

Prokop, C. L.: "Radial Filtration of

Drilling Mud," Trans. AIME (1952)
195, 5.

Fontenot, J. E. and Simpson, J. P.: "A

Microbit Investigation of the Potential for
Improving the Drilling Rate of Oil-Base
Muds in Low Permeability Rocks," Paper
No. SPE 4519, 48th Annual Fall Meeting
of SPE of AIME (October, 1973).
Schremp, F. W. and Johnson, V. L.:
"Drilling Fluid Filter Los s at High Temp-

TABLE 1
COMPOSITION OF MUDS USED IN FILTRATION TESTS
Water Mud

Oil Mud
Diesel Oil
Soap Emulsifier

3
226 cm

Water
Bentonite

15 g

Potassium Lignite

Oil-Dispersible Lignite

Amide Emulsifier

2 g

Nonionic Surfactant

57 cm3

Potassium Chloride

Water
Oil-Dispersible Bentonite
Calcium Chloride
Barite

Biopolymer

5 g

Barite

26 g

3
304 cm
8 g

25 g

4.5 g
9 g

0.25 g
190 g

210 g

Low-Colloid Oil Mud

Oil-Dispersible Bentonite

Diesel Oil

Calcium Chloride

Amide Emulsifier

11 g

Water

23 cm

Barite

8 g
12 g
271 g

TABLE 2
PROPERTIES OF 12-LB/GAL MUDS USED IN FILTRATION TESTS

Plastic Viscosity, cp
Yield Point, Ib/IOO ft 2
10-Second Gel, Ib/IOO ft 2
10-Minute Gel, Ib/IOO ft 2
Electrical Stability, Volts
pH

API Filtrate, cm3

TABLE 3
COMPARISON OF FILTER MEDIA - 300 F
30-Minute Filtrate Volumes - API Filter Area(Cm3 per 45.8 Cm2 )
500 Psi Dtfferential Pressure

Oil Mud

Low-Colloid
Oil Mud
Water Mud

Static; Mud Pressure 800 Psi

Filter Paper (API Test)

3.4 (Oil)

18 (Oil)

13 (Water)

Stainless Steel Mesh Dynalloy X-5)

4.0 (Oil)

20 (Oil)

16 (Water)

10 (Oil)

-13 (Oil)

24 (Water)

6.8

10

*Porous Disc (Aloxite 5)

Dynamic; Mud Pressure 5000 Psi
*Porous Cylinder (Aloxite 2)

~'('Porous

2.7

filter media were saturated with diesel oil for tests of

oil muds and with water for tests of water muds.

TABLE 4
COMPARISON OF FILTER MEDIA - 400 F
30-Minute Filtrate Volumes - API Filter Area (Cm3 per 45.8 Cm2 )
500 Psi Differential Pressure

Low-Colloid
Oil Mud
Water Mud

Oil Mud
Static; Mud Pressure 800 Psi
Filter Paper (On Fiberglass Sheet)

65 (Oil)

59 (Oil)

Stainless Steel Mesh (API Test)

62 (Oil)

53 (Oil) 137 (Water)

50 (Oil)

58 (Oil)

69 (Water)

7.3

12

15

";'(Porous Disc (A1oxite 5)

64 (Water)

Dynamic; Mud Pressure 5000 Psi

";'('Porous Cylinder (A1oxite 2)

*Porous filter media were saturated with diesel oil for

t~sts

of

oil muds and with water for tests of water muds.

TABLE 5
DEPTH OF FILTRATE INVASION
Calculated for 10-Inch Hole Diameter and 36% Porosity
(100% Displacement of Formation Fluid by Filtrate)

Oil Mud

Low-Colloid
Oil Mud

Water Mud

Filtration Rate, Ga1/Day/Ft

Depth of Invasion, Inches
1 Day

1.2

3.3

3.7

5 Days

4.6

11

12

10 Days

7.7

17

18

15 Days

10

21

23

20 Days

12

25

27

25 Days

14

29

31

30 Days

16

32

34

Based on dynamic

fi1tr~tion

A10xite 2 filter medium.

300 F.

rate (30 to 45-minute interval) on

Mud Pressure - 5000 Psi.

Differential Pressure - 500 Psi.

Mud Temperature -

Fig. 3' - Porous Filter Cylinder Mounted

Inside Rotating Baffles

Fig. 1 - High-Pressure, High-Temperature

Filtration Cell

:Q)

"'C
C

Q)
l-

::J

en

C/)

Q)

Drilling Fluid

:-

c..

..c

Aloxite Filter Cylinder

0')

I-W~--~~I

Clear Fluid
Back Pressure Pump

><

:!fig. 2

Filtrate Receiver

Schematic Of Equipment Used For Filtration Tests

At Simulated Downhole Pressure And Temperature

Effect Of Pressure On Dynamic Filtration Of Oil Mud

At 80 F and 300 F (500 PSI Differential)

30

E
()

25

03

Q.

E
()

Q)

20

>

2,000 PSI}
5,000 PSI
300 F
10,000 PSI

"S
E
:J

15

(])

E
:J

>

(])

10

_____---============

iI

~_ _- - - - - - - - - - - -

2,000 PSI}
5,000 PSI
80 F
10,000 PSI

Time, Hours

Fig.

Comparison Of Dynamic And Static Filtration

Of Oil Mud At 5,OOOPSI and 300 F
(500 PSI Differential)

20

E
()

0
0

03

Q.

15

E
()

Q)

>

"S
E
:J

~
(])

10

:J

>
(])

i:L

10

20

30

40

Time, Minutes

Fig.

50

60

70

Dynamic Filtration Of Various Muds At 5,000 PSI

300 F
(500 PSI Differential)

60

E
()

~
Q)

50

Cl..

E
()

a>
>

40

~
"S
E
:J

30

Q)

E
:J
"0

>

Q)

~
u.:

20

10

Time, Minutes

Fig.

Dynamic Filtration Of Various Muds At 5,000 PSI

400 F
(500 PSI Differential)

60

E
()

0
0

50

Q)
Cl..

E
()

Q)

40

>

~:J

:J

30

Q)

E
:J
"0

>

Q)

20

u.:

10

10

20

30

40

50

60

Time, Minutes

Fig.

70

80

90