Schutzstael

SS redirects here. For other uses, see SS (disambigua- 1.1

tion).

Forerunner of the SS

By 1923, the Nazi Party (NSDAP) had created a small

volunteer guard unit known as the Saal-Schutz (HallProtection) to provide security at their meetings in
Munich.[1] That same year, party leader Adolf Hitler ordered the formation of a small bodyguard unit dedicated
to his personal service. He wished it to be separate from
the suspect mass of the party, including the paramilitary Sturmabteilung (Storm Battalion"; SA), which he
did not trust.[2] The new formation was designated the
Stabswache (Sta Guard).[3] Originally the unit was composed of eight men, commanded by Julius Schreck and
Joseph Berchtold, and was modeled after the Erhardt
Naval Brigade, a Freikorps of the time. The unit was renamed Stotrupp (Shock Troops) in May 1923.[4][5]

The Schutzstael (SS; also stylized as

with Armanen
runes; German pronunciation: [tstafl]; literally Protection Squadron) was a major paramilitary organization under Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP; Nazi Party) in Nazi Germany. It began with a small guard unit known as the
Saal-Schutz (Hall-Protection) made up of NSDAP volunteers to provide security for party meetings in Munich.
In 1925, Heinrich Himmler joined the unit, which had by
then been reformed and given its nal name. Under his
direction (192945), it grew from a small paramilitary
formation to one of the most powerful organizations in
Nazi Germany. From 1929 until the regimes collapse in
1945, the SS was the foremost agency of surveillance and
terror within Germany and German-occupied Europe.

The two main constituent groups were the Allgemeine

SS (General SS) and Waen-SS (Armed SS). The Allgemeine SS was responsible for enforcing the racial policy of Nazi Germany and general policing, whereas the
Waen-SS consisted of combat units of troops within
Nazi Germanys military. A third component of the SS,
the SS-Totenkopfverbnde (SS-TV), ran the concentration
camps and extermination camps. Additional subdivisions
of the SS included the Gestapo and the Sicherheitsdienst
(SD) organizations. They were tasked with the detection
of actual or potential enemies of the Nazi state, the neutralization of any opposition, policing the German people
for their commitment to Nazi ideology, and providing do- NSDAP supporters and stormtroopers in Munich during the Beer
mestic and foreign intelligence.
Hall Putsch, 1923
The SS was the organization most responsible for the
genocidal killing of an estimated 5.5 to 6 million Jews in
the Holocaust. Members of all of its branches committed war crimes and crimes against humanity during World
War II (193945). The SS was also involved in commercial enterprises and exploited concentration camp inmates as slave labor. After Nazi Germanys defeat, the
SS and the NSDAP were judged by the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg to be criminal organizations.
Ernst Kaltenbrunner, the highest-ranking surviving SS ofcer, was found guilty of crimes against humanity at the
Nuremberg trials and hanged in 1946.

The Stotrupp was abolished after the failed 1923 Beer

Hall Putsch, an attempt by the NSDAP to seize power in
Munich.[6] In 1925, Hitler ordered Schreck to organize
a new bodyguard unit, the Schutzkommando (Protection
Command).[7] It was tasked with providing personal protection for Hitler at NSDAP functions and events. That
same year, the Schutzkommando was expanded to a national organization and renamed successively the Sturmstael (Storm Squadron), and nally the Schutzstael
(Protection Squad; SS).[8] Ocially, the SS marked its
foundation on 9 November 1925 (the second anniversary of the Beer Hall Putsch).[9] The new SS was to provide protection for NSDAP leaders throughout Germany.
Hitlers personal SS protection unit was later enlarged to
include combat units.[10]

Origins
1

1.2

Early commanders

Schreck, a founding member of the SA and a close

condant of Hitler, became the rst SS chief in March
1925.[11] On 15 April 1926, Joseph Berchtold succeeded
him as chief of the SS. Berchtold changed the title of the
oce to Reichsfhrer-SS (Reich Leader-SS).[12] Berchtold was considered more dynamic than his predecessor,
but became increasingly frustrated by the authority the
SA had over the SS.[13] This led to him transferring leadership of the SS to his deputy, Erhard Heiden, on 1 March
1927.[14] Under Heidens leadership, a stricter code of
discipline was enforced than would have been tolerated
in the SA.[13]

ORIGINS

In 1929, the SS-Hauptamt (main SS oce) was expanded

and reorganized into ve main oces dealing with general administration, personnel, nance, security, and race
matters. At the same time, the SS-Gaus were expanded
into three SS-Oberfhrerbereiche areas, namely the SSOberfhrerbereich Ost, SS-Oberfhrerbereich West, and
SS-Oberfhrerbereich Sd.[23] The lower levels of the SS
remained largely unchanged. Although ocially still
considered a sub-organization of the SA and answerable
to the Stabschef (SA Chief of Sta), it was also during
this time that Himmler began to establish the independence of the SS from the SA.[24] The SS grew in size
and power due to its exclusive loyalty to Hitler, as opposed to the SA, which was seen as semi-independent and
a threat to Hitlers hegemony over the party, mainly because they demanded a second revolution beyond the
one that brought the NSDAP to power.[25] By the end
of 1933, the membership of the SS reached 209,000.[26]
Under Himmlers leadership the SS continued to gather
greater power as more and more state and party functions
were assigned to its jurisdiction. Over time the SS became answerable only to Hitler, a development typical
of the organizational structure of the entire Nazi regime,
where legal norms were replaced by actions undertaken
under the Fhrerprinzip (leader principle), where Hitlers
will was considered to be above the law.[27]

Between 1925 and 1929, the SS was considered to be a

small Gruppe (battalion) of the SA.[15] Except in the Munich area, the SS was unable to maintain any momentum
in its membership numbers, which declined from 1,000
to 280 as the SA continued its rapid growth.[16] As Heiden attempted to keep the SS from dissolving, Heinrich
Himmler became his deputy in September 1927. Himmler displayed good organizational abilities compared to
Heiden.[15] The SS established a number of Gaus (regions or provinces). The SS-Gaus consisted of SS-Gau
Berlin, SS-Gau Berlin Brandenburg, SS-Gau Franken, SSGau Niederbayern, SS-Gau Rheinland-Sd, and SS-Gau
Sachsen.[17]
In the latter half of 1934, Himmler oversaw the creation
of SS-Junkerschule (Junker schools), institutions where
SS ocer candidates received leadership training, politi1.3 Himmler appointed
cal and ideological indoctrination, and military instruction. The training stressed ruthlessness and toughness
as part of the SS value system, which helped foster a
sense of superiority among the men and taught them selfcondence.[28] The rst schools were established at Bad
Tlz and Braunschweig, with additional schools opening
at Klagenfurt and Prague during the war.[29]

1.4 Ideology
Main article: Ideology of the SS

Heinrich Himmler (with glasses, to the left of Adolf Hitler) was

an early supporter of the NSDAP.

With Hitlers approval, Himmler assumed the position of

Reichsfhrer-SS in January 1929.[18][19] There are diering accounts of the reason for Heidens dismissal from
his position as head of the SS. The party announced that
it was for family reasons.[20] Under Himmler, the SS
expanded and gained a larger foothold. He considered
the SS an elite, ideologically driven National Socialist organization, a conation of Teutonic knights, the Jesuits,
and Japanese Samurai".[21] His ultimate aim was to turn
the SS into the most powerful organization in Germany
and most inuential branch of the party.[22] He expanded
the SS to 3,000 members in his rst year as its leader.[21]

The SS was regarded as the NSDAPs elite unit.[30] In

keeping with the racial policy of Nazi Germany, in the
early days all SS ocer candidates had to provide proof
of Aryan ancestry back to 1750 and for other ranks to
1800.[31] Once the war started and it became more difcult to conrm ancestry, the regulation was amended
to just proving the candidates grandparents were Aryan,
as spelled out in the Nuremberg Laws.[32] Other requirements were complete obedience to the Fhrer and a commitment to the German people and nation.[33] Himmler
also tried to institute physical criteria based on appearance and height, but these requirements were only loosely
enforced, and over half the SS men did not meet the
criteria.[34] Inducements such as higher salaries and larger
homes were provided to members of the SS, since they
were expected to produce more children than the average

3
German family as part of their commitment to NSDAP Jews or of Polish or other Slavic extraction.[47] A signifdoctrine.[35]
icant number of victims were members of other racial
or ethnic groups such as the Romani people. The SS
was involved in killing people viewed as threats to race
hygiene or NSDAP ideology, including the mentally or
physically handicapped, homosexuals, and political dissidents. Members of trade unions and those perceived to be
aliated with groups that opposed the regime (religious,
political, social, and otherwise), or those whose views
were contradictory to the goals of the NSDAP government, were rounded up in large numbers; these included
clergy of all faiths, Jehovahs Witnesses, Freemasons,
Communists, and Rotary Club members.[47] According
to the judgments rendered at the Nuremberg trials as well
as many war crimes investigations and trials conducted
since then, the SS was responsible for the majority of
The crypt at Wewelsburg was repurposed by Himmler as a place
Nazi war crimes. In particular, it was the primary or[36]
to memorialize dead SS members.
Artwork commemorating
ganization which carried out the Holocaust.[48]
the Holocaust hangs on the walls.

Commitment to SS ideology was emphasized throughout

the recruitment, membership process, and training.[37]
Members of the SS were indoctrinated in the racial
policy of Nazi Germany, and were taught that it was
necessary to remove from Germany people deemed by
that policy as inferior.[38] Esoteric rituals and the awarding of regalia and insignia for milestones in the SS
mans career suused SS members even further with
Nazi ideology.[39] Members were expected to renounce
their Christian faith, and Christmas was replaced with
a solstice celebration.[40] Church weddings were replaced with SS Ehewein, a pagan ceremony invented
by Himmler.[41] These pseudo-religious rites and ceremonies often took place near SS-dedicated monuments
or in special SS-designated places.[42] In 1933, Himmler
bought Wewelsburg, a castle in Westphalia. He initially
intended it to be used as an SS training centre, but its
role came to include hosting SS dinners and neo-pagan
rituals.[43]

2 Pre-war Germany
After Hitler and the NSDAP came to power on 30 January 1933, the SS were considered a state organization
and a branch of the government.[49] Law enforcement
gradually became the purview of the SS, and many SS
organizations became de facto government agencies.[50]

The SS ideology included the application of brutality and

terror as a solution to military and political problems.[44]
The SS stressed total loyalty and obedience to orders unto
death. Hitler used this as a powerful tool to further his
aims and those of the NSDAP. The SS was entrusted with
the commission of atrocities, illegal activities, and war
crimes. Himmler once wrote that an SS man hesitates
not for a single instant, but executes unquestioningly ...
any Fhrer-Befehl (Fhrer order).[45] Their ocial motto
was "Meine Ehre heit Treue" (My Honour is Loyalty).[46]
As part of its race-centric functions during World War
II, the SS oversaw the isolation and displacement of Jews
from the populations of the conquered territories, seizing
their assets and deporting them to concentration camps
and ghettos, where they were used as slave labor or immediately killed.[32] Chosen to implement the Final Solution Reinhard Heydrich was Himmlers protg and a leading SS gfor Jews and other groups deemed inferior or enemies of ure until his assassination in 1942.
the state, the SS led the killing, torture, and enslavement
of approximately 12 million people. Most victims were The SS established a police state within Nazi Germany,

PRE-WAR GERMANY

using the secret state police and security forces under

Himmlers control to suppress resistance to Hitler.[51]
In his role as Minister President of Prussia, Hermann
Gring had in 1933 created a Prussian secret police force,
the Geheime Staatspolizei or Gestapo, and appointed
Rudolf Diels as its head. Concerned that Diels was not
ruthless enough to use the Gestapo eectively to counteract the power of the SA, Gring handed over its control to Himmler on 20 April 1934.[52] Also on that date,
in a departure from long-standing German practice that
law enforcement was a state and local matter, Hitler appointed Himmler chief of all German police outside Prussia. Himmler named his deputy and protg Reinhard
Heydrich chief of the Gestapo on 22 April 1934. Heydrich also continued as head of the Sicherheitsdienst (SD;
security service).[53]

Jews as the SS, Gestapo, SD, Kripo, SiPo and regular police did what they could to ensure that while Jewish synagogues and community centers were destroyed,
Jewish-owned businesses and housing remained intact so
that they could later be seized.[64] In the end, thousands
of Jewish businesses, homes, and graveyards were vandalized and looted, particularly by members of the SA.
Some 500 to 1,000 synagogues were destroyed, mostly by
arson.[65] On 11 November, Heydrich reported a death
toll of 36 people, but later assessments put the number
of deaths at up to two thousand.[66][67] On Hitlers orders, around 30,000 Jewish men were arrested and sent
to concentration camps by 16 November.[68] It is likely
that as many as 2,500 of these people died in the following months.[66] It was at this point that the SS state began
in earnest its campaign of terror against political and reThe Gestapos transfer to Himmler was a prelude to the ligious opponents, who they imprisoned without trial or
for the sake of security, re-education,
Night of the Long Knives, in which most of the SA lead- judicial oversight
[69][70]
or
prevention.
[54]
ership were arrested and subsequently executed.
The
SS and Gestapo carried out most of the killings. On 20
July 1934, Hitler detached the SS from the SA, which 2.1 Hitlers personal bodyguards
was no longer an inuential force after the purge. The SS
became an independent elite corps of the NSDAP, an- Main article: Adolf Hitlers bodyguard
swerable only to Hitler. Himmlers title of Reichsfhrer- As the SS grew in size and importance, so too did Hitlers
SS now became his actual rank, equivalent to the rank
of eld marshal in the army (his previous rank was
Obergruppenfhrer).[55] As Himmlers position and authority grew, so did his de facto rank.[56]
On 17 June 1936, all police forces throughout Germany were united under the purview of Himmler and the SS.[50] Himmler and Heydrich thus became two of the most powerful men in the countrys administration.[57] Police and intelligence forces
brought under their administrative control included the
SD, Gestapo, Kriminalpolizei (Kripo; criminal investigative police), and Ordnungspolizei (Orpo; regular uniformed police).[58] In September 1939, the security and
police agencies, including the Sicherheitspolizei (SiPo; security police) and SD (but not the Orpo), were consolidated into the Reich Main Security Oce (RSHA), Troop inspection in Berlin of Leibstandarte Adolf Hitler, 1938
headed by Heydrich.[59] This further increased the colpersonal protection units.[71] Three main SS groups were
lective authority of the SS.[60]
assigned to protect Hitler. In 1933, his larger personal
In September 1939, the authority of the SS expanded bodyguard unit (previously the 1st SS-Standarte) was
further when the senior SS ocer in each military dis- called to Berlin to replace the Army Chancellery Guard,
trict also became its chief of police.[61] Most of these SS assigned to protect the Chancellor of Germany.[72] Sepp
and police leaders held the rank of SS-Gruppenfhrer or Dietrich commanded the new unit, previously known
above, and answered directly to Himmler in all SS matters as SS-Stabswache Berlin; the name was changed to SSwithin their district. Their role was to police the popula- Sonderkommando Berlin. In November 1933, the name
tion and oversee the activities of the SS men within their was changed to Leibstandarte Adolf Hitler. In April
district.[62] By declaring an emergency, they could bypass 1934, Himmler modied the name to Leibstandarte SS
the district administrative oces for the SS, SD, SiPo, SS- Adolf Hitler (LSSAH). The LSSAH guarded Hitlers priTotenkopfverbnde (SS-TV; concentration camp guards), vate residences and oces, providing an outer ring of
and Orpo, thereby gaining direct operational control of protection for the Fhrer and his visitors.[73] LSSAH
these groups.[63]
men manned sentry posts at the entrances to the old
[74]
During Kristallnacht (910 November 1938), SS secu- Reich Chancellery and the new Reich Chancellery.
rity services clandestinely coordinated violence against The number of LSSAH guards was increased during special events.[75] At the Berghof, Hitlers residence in the

5
Obersalzberg, a large contingent of the LSSAH patrolled
an extensive cordoned security zone.[76]
From 1941, forward, the Leibstandarte became four
distinct entities, the Waen-SS division (unconnected
to Hitlers personal protection but a formation of the
Waen-SS), the Berlin Chancellory Guard, the SS security regiment assigned to the Obersalzberg, and a Munichbased bodyguard unit which protected Hitler when he visited his personal apartment and the Brown House NSDAP headquarters in Munich.[77][78] Although the unit
was nominally under Himmler, Dietrich was the real
commander and handled day-to-day administration.[79]
Two other SS units composed the inner ring of Hitlers
personal protection.
The SS-Begleitkommando des
Fhrers (Escort Command of the Fhrer), formed in
February 1932, served as Hitlers protection escort while
he was travelling. This unit consisted of eight men
who served around the clock protecting Hitler in three
eight-hour shifts.[80] Later the SS-Begleitkommando was
expanded and became known as the Fhrerbegleitkommando (Fhrer Escort Command; FBK). It continued
under separate command and remained responsible for
Hitlers personal protection.[80] The Fhrer Schutzkommando (Fhrer Protection Command; FSK) was a protection unit founded by Himmler in March 1933.[81]
Originally it was charged with protecting Hitler only while
he was inside the borders of Bavaria. In early 1934, they
replaced the SS-Begleitkommando for Hitlers protection
throughout Germany.[82] The FSK was renamed the Reichssicherheitsdienst (Reich Security Service; RSD) in
August 1935.[83] Johann Rattenhuber, chief of the RSD,
for the most part took his orders directly from Hitler.[83]
The current FBK chief acted as his deputy. Wherever
Hitler was in residence, members of the RSD and FBK
would be present. RSD men patrolled the grounds and
FBK men provided close security protection inside. The
RSD and FBK worked together for security and personal
protection during Hitlers trips and public events, but they
operated as two groups and used separate vehicles.[84] By
March 1938, both units wore the standard eld grey uniform of the SS.[85] The RSD uniform had the SD diamond
on the lower left sleeve.[86]

2.2

Concentration camps founded

The SS was closely associated with Nazi Germanys concentration camp system. On 26 June 1933, Himmler appointed SS-Oberfhrer Theodor Eicke as commandant of
Dachau concentration camp, one of the rst Nazi concentration camps.[87] It was created to consolidate the
many small camps that had been set up by various police
agencies and the NSDAP to house political prisoners.[88]
The organizational structure Eicke instituted at Dachau
stood as the model for all later concentration camps.[89]
After 1934, Eicke was named commander of the SSTotenkopfverbnde (SS-TV), the SS formation responsible for running the concentration camps under the au-

Former prisoner at Dachau concentration camp poses at the

camp crematorium, May 1945

thority of the SS and Himmler.[90] Known as the Deaths

Head Units, the SS-TV was rst organized as several battalions, each based at one of Germanys major concentration camps. Leadership at the camps was divided into ve
departments: commander and adjutant, political aairs
division, protective custody, administration, and medical personnel.[91] By 1935, Himmler secured Hitlers approval and the nances necessary to establish and operate
additional camps.[92] Six concentration camps[lower-alpha 1]
housing 21,400 inmates (mostly political prisoners) existed at the start of the war in September 1939.[94] By the
end of the war, hundreds of camps of varying size and
function had been created, holding nearly 715,000 people, most of whom were targeted by the regime because
of their race.[95][96] During 1939, the Totenkopfverbnde
expanded into a combat division with the establishment
of the Totenkopf division, which by 1940 became a full
division within the Waen-SS.[97]

3 SS in World War II
By the outbreak of World War II, the SS had consolidated
into its nal form, which comprised three main organizations: the Allgemeine SS, SS-Totenkopfverbnde, and
the Waen-SS, which was founded in 1934 as the SSVerfgungstruppe (SS-VT) and renamed in 1940.[98][99]
The Waen-SS evolved into a second German army
alongside the Wehrmacht and operated in tandem with
them, especially with the Heer (German Army).[100] Although SS ranks generally had equivalents in the other
services, the SS rank system did not copy the terms and
ranks used by the Wehrmachts branches. Instead it used
the ranks established by the post-World War I Freikorps
and the SA. This was primarily done to emphasize the SS
as being independent from the Wehrmacht.[101]

3 SS IN WORLD WAR II

Polish Jews arrested by the Sicherheitsdienst (SD) and police,

September 1939

3.1

Invasion of Poland

In the September 1939 invasion of Poland, the

LSSAH and SS-VT fought as separate mobile infantry
regiments.[102] The LSSAH became notorious for torching villages without military justication.[103] Members
of the LSSAH committed atrocities in numerous towns,
including the murder of 50 Polish Jews in Bonie and
the massacre of 200 civilians, including children, who
were machine gunned in Zoczew. Shootings also took
place in Bolesawiec, Torzeniec, Goworowo, Mawa, and
Wocawek.[104] Some senior members of the Wehrmacht were not convinced the units were fully prepared for
combat. Its units took unnecessary risks and had a higher
casualty rate than the army.[105] Generaloberst Fedor von
Bock was quite critical; following an April 1940 visit
of the SS-Totenkopf division, he found their battle training was insucient.[106] In its defence, the SS insisted
that its armed formations had been hampered by having
to ght piecemeal and were improperly equipped by the
army.[105] Hitler thought the criticism was typical of the
armys outmoded conception of chivalry.[107]
After the invasion, Hitler entrusted the SS with extermination actions codenamed Operation Tannenberg and
AB-Aktion to remove potential leaders who could form
a resistance to German occupation. The killings were
committed by Einsatzgruppen (task forces; deployment
groups), assisted by local paramilitary groups. Men for
the Einsatzgruppen units were drawn from the SS, the
SD, and the police.[108] Some 65,000 Polish civilians, including activists, intelligentsia, scholars, teachers, actors,
former ocers, and others, were killed by the end of
1939.[109][110] When the army leadership registered complaints about the brutality being meted out by the Einsatzgruppen, Heydrich informed them that he was acting in
accordance with the special order of the Fhrer.[111] The
rst systematic mass shooting of Jews by the Einsatzgruppen took place on 6 September 1939 during the attack on
Krakw.[112]

Einsatzgruppe shoot civilians in Krnik, 1939

of the army.[113] While the SS-Leibstandarte remained

an independent regiment functioning as Hitlers personal
bodyguards, the other regimentsSS-Deutschland, SSGermania, and SS-Der Fhrerwere combined to form
the SS-Verfgungs-Division.[114][105] A second SS division, the SS-Totenkopf, was formed from SS-TV concentration camp guards, and a third, the SS-Polizei, was
created from police volunteers.[115][116] The SS gained
control over its own recruitment, logistics, and supply systems for its armed formations at this time.[116]
The SS, Gestapo, and SD were in charge of the provisional military administration in Poland until the appointment of Hans Frank as Governor-General on 26 October
1939.[117][118]

3.2 Battle of France

On 10 May 1940, Hitler launched the Battle of France,
a major oensive against France and the Low Countries.[119] The SS supplied two of the 89 divisions
employed.[120] The LSSAH and elements of the SS-VT
participated in the ground invasion of the Battle of the
Netherlands.[121] Simultaneously, airborne troops were
dropped to capture key Dutch airelds, bridges, and railways. In the ve-day campaign, the LSSAH linked up
with army units and airborne troops after a number of
clashes with Dutch defenders.[121]

Satised with their performance in Poland, Hitler allowed Himmler inspecting Sturmgeschtz III of the 1st SS Panzer Divifurther expansion of the armed SS formations, but in- sion Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler in Metz, France, September
sisted new units remain under the operational control 1940

7
SS troops did not take part in the thrust through the
Ardennes and the river Meuse.[121] Instead, the SSTotenkopf was summoned from the army reserve to ght
in support of Generalmajor Erwin Rommel's 7th Panzer
Division as they advanced toward to the English Channel.[122] On 21 May, the British launched an armored
counterattack against the anks of 7th Panzer Division
and SS-Totenkopf. The Germans then trapped the British
and French troops in a huge pocket at Dunkirk.[123] On 27
May, 4 Company, SS-Totenkopf perpetrated the Le Paradis massacre, where 97 men of the 2nd Battalion, Royal
Norfolk Regiment were machine gunned after surrendering, with survivors nished o with bayonets. Two men
survived.[124] By 28 May the SS-Leibstandarte had taken
Wormhout, 10 miles (16 km) from Dunkirk. There,
soldiers of the 2nd Battalion were responsible for the
Wormhoudt massacre, where 80 British and French soldiers were murdered after they surrendered.[125] According to historian Charles Sydnor, the fanatical recklessness in the assault, suicidal defense against enemy attacks,
and savage atrocities committed in the face of frustrated
objectives exhibited by the SS-Totenkopf division during
the invasion were typical of the SS troops as a whole.[126]

resistance from the British Expeditionary Force (BEF)

and Greek Army.[135] The ghting was intensied by the
mountainous terrain, with its heavily defended narrow
passes. The LSSAH was at the forefront of the German
push.[136] The BEF evacuated by sea to Crete, but had
to ee again in late May when the Germans arrived.[137]
Like Yugoslavia, the conquest of Greece brought its Jews
into danger, as the Nazis immediately took a variety of
measures against them.[138] Initially conned in ghettos,
most were transported to Auschwitz concentration camp
in March 1943, where they were killed in the gas chambers on arrival. Of Greeces 80,000 Jews, only 20 percent
survived the war.[139]

4 War in the east

On 22 June 1941, Hitler launched Operation Barbarossa,

the invasion of the Soviet Union.[140] The expanding war
and the need to control occupied territories provided the
conditions for Himmler to further consolidate the police
and military organs of the SS.[141] Rapid acquisition of
At the close of the campaign, Hitler expressed his plea- vast territories in the East placed considerable strain on
sure with the performance of the SS-Leibstandarte, telling the SS police organizations as they struggled to adjust to
[142]
them: Henceforth it will be an honour for you, who bear the changing security challenges.
[127]
my name, to lead every German attack.
The SS-VT The 1st and 2nd SS Infantry Brigades, which had been
was renamed the Waen-SS in a speech made by Hitler formed from surplus concentration camp guards of the
in July 1940.[99] Hitler then authorized the enlistment of SS-TV, and the SS Cavalry Brigade moved into the Soviet
people perceived to be of related stock, as Himmler put Union behind the advancing armies. At rst they fought
it, to expand the ranks.[128] A number of Danes, Dutch, Soviet partisans, but by the autumn of 1941, they left the
Norwegians, Swedes, and Finns volunteered to ght in the anti-partisan role to other units and actively took part in
Waen-SS under the command of German ocers.[129] the Holocaust. While assisting the Einsatzgruppen, they
They were brought together to form the new division formed ring parties that participated in the liquidation
SS-Wiking.[128] In January 1941, the SS-Verfgungs Di- of the Jewish population of the Soviet Union.[143][144]
vision was renamed SS-Reich Division (Motorized), and
was renamed as the 2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich On 31 July 1941, Gring gave Heydrich written auwhen it was reorganized as a Panzergrenadier division in thorization to ensure the cooperation of administrative
leaders of various government departments to under1942.[130]
take genocide of the Jews in territories under German
control.[145] Heydrich was instrumental in carrying out
these exterminations, as the Gestapo was ready to or3.3 Campaign in the Balkans
ganize deportations in the West and his Einsatzgruppen
In April 1941, the Germany Army invaded Yugoslavia were already conducting extensive killing operations in
and Greece. The LSSAH and Das Reich were at- the East.[146] On 20 January 1942, Heydrich chaired a
tached to separate army Panzer Corps. Fritz Klingen- meeting, called the Wannsee Conference, to discuss the
berg, a company commander in the Das Reich, led his implementation of the plan.[147]
men across Yugoslavia to the capital, Belgrade, where During battles in Soviet Union in 1941 and 1942, the
a small group in the vanguard accepted the surrender Waen-SS suered enormous casualties. The LSSAH
of the city on 13 April. A few days later Yugoslavia and Das Reich lost over half their troops to illness and
surrendered.[131][132] SS police units immediately began combat casualties.[148] In need of recruits, Himmler betaking hostages and carrying out reprisals, a practice that gan to accept soldiers that did not t the original SS
became common. In some cases, they were joined by racial prole.[149] In early 1942, SS-Leibstandarte, SSthe Wehrmacht.[133] Similar to Poland, the war policies Totenkopf, and SS-Das Reich were withdrawn to the
of the Nazis in the Balkans resulted in brutal occupation West to ret and were converted to Panzergrenadier
and racist mass murder. Serbia became the second coun- divisions.[150] The SS-Panzer Corps returned to the Sotry (after Estonia) declared Judenfrei (free of Jews).[134] viet Union in 1943 and participated in the Third Battle of
In Greece, the Wehrmacht and Waen-SS encountered Kharkov in February and March.[151]

4.1

The Holocaust

WAR IN THE EAST

the SS men the trauma.[163]

4.2 Anti-partisan operations

In response to the armys diculties in dealing with Soviet partisans, Hitler decided in July 1942 to transfer antipartisan operations to the police. This placed the matter
under Himmlers purview.[164][165] As Hitler had ordered
on 8 July 1941 that all Jews were to be regarded as partisans, the term anti-partisan operations was used as a
euphemism for the extermination of Jews as well as actual combat against resistance elements.[166][167] In July
1942 Himmler ordered that the term partisan should
no longer be used; instead resisters to Nazi rule would be
described as bandits.[168]
SS kill Jews in Ivanhorod, 1942

Himmler set the SS and SD to work on developing

additional anti-partisan tactics and launched a propaganda campaign.[169] Sometime in June 1943, Himmler issued the Bandenbekmpfung (bandit ghting) order, simultaneously announcing the existence of the Bandenkampfverbnde (bandit ghting formations), with SSObergruppenfhrer Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski as its
chief. Employing troops primarily from the SS police
and Waen-SS, the Bandenkampfverbnde had four principal operational components: propaganda, centralized
control and coordination of security operations, training
of troops, and battle operations.[170] Once the Wehrmacht
had secured territorial objectives, the Bandenkampfverbnde rst secured communications facilities, roads, railways, and waterways. Thereafter, they secured rural
communities and economic installations such as factories and administrative buildings. An additional priority
was securing agricultural and forestry resources. The SS
oversaw the collection of the harvest, which was deemed
critical to strategic operations.[171] Any Jews in the area
were rounded up and killed. Communists and people of
Asiatic descent were killed presumptively under the assumption that they were Soviet agents.[172]

The SS was built on a culture of violence, which was exhibited in its most extreme form by the mass murder of
civilians and prisoners of war on the Eastern Front.[152]
Augmented by personnel from the Kripo, Orpo (Order
Police), and Waen-SS,[153] the Einsatzgruppen reached
a total strength of 3,000 men. Einsatzgruppen A, B,
and C were attached to Army Groups North, Centre,
and South; Einsatzgruppe D was assigned to the 11th
Army. The Einsatzgruppe for Special Purposes operated
in eastern Poland starting in July 1941.[154] The historian Richard Rhodes describes them as being outside
the bounds of morality"; they were judge, jury and executioner all in one, with the authority to kill anyone
at their discretion.[155] Following Operation Barbarossa,
these Einsatzgruppen units, together with the Waen-SS
and Order Police, engaged in the mass killing of the Jewish population in occupied eastern Poland and the Soviet Union.[155][156] The greatest extent of Einsatzgruppen action occurred in 1941 and 1942 in Ukraine and
Russia.[157] Before the invasion there were ve million
registered Jews throughout the Soviet Union, with three
million of those residing in the territories occupied by the
Germans; by the time the war ended, over two million of
these had been murdered.[158]
4.3
The extermination activities of the Einsatzgruppen generally followed a standard procedure, with the Einsatzgruppen chief contacting the nearest Wehrmacht unit commander to inform him of the impending action; this was
done so they could coordinate and control access to the
execution grounds.[159] Initially the victims were shot, but
this method proved impracticable for an operation of this
scale.[160] Also, after Himmler observed the shooting of
100 Jews at Minsk in August 1941, he grew concerned
about the impact such actions were having on the mental
health of his SS men. He decided that alternate methods
of killing should be found, which led to introduction of
gas vans.[161][162] However, these were not popular with
the men, because removing the dead bodies from the van
and burying them was a horrible ordeal. Prisoners or auxiliaries were often assigned to do this task so as to spare

Death camps

After the start of the war, Himmler intensied the activity of the SS within Germany and in Nazi occupied
Europe. An increasing numbers of Jews and German citizens deemed politically suspect or social outsiders were
arrested.[173] As the Nazi regime became more oppressive, the concentration camp system grew in size and
lethal operation, and grew in scope as the economic ambitions of the SS intensied.[174]
Intensication of the killing operations took place in
late 1941 when the SS began construction of stationary
gassing facilities to replace the use of Einsatzgruppen for
mass killings.[175][176] Victims at these new extermination
camps were killed with the use of carbon monoxide gas
from automobile engines.[177] During Operation Reinhard, run by ocers from the Totenkopfverbnde, who

5 Business empire

Jews from Carpathian Ruthenia arriving at Auschwitz concentration camp, 1944

In 1934, Himmler founded the rst SS business venture,

Nordland-Verlag, a publishing house that released propaganda material and SS training manuals. Thereafter,
he purchased Allach Porcelain, which then began to produce SS memorabilia.[187] Because of the labor shortage and a desire for nancial gain, the SS started exploiting concentration camp inmates as slave labor.[188]
Most of the SS businesses lost money until Himmler
placed them under the administration of Pohls WVHA
in April 1939.[189] Even then, most of the enterprises
were poorly run and did not fare well, as SS men were
not selected for their business experience, and the workers were starving.[190] In July 1940 Pohl established the
Deutsche Wirtschaftsbetriebe GmbH (German Businesses
Ltd; DWB), an umbrella corporation under which he
took over administration of all SS business concerns.[191]
Eventually the SS founded nearly 200 holding companies
for their businesses.[192]

were sworn to secrecy, three death camps were built in

occupied Poland: Beec (operational by March 1942),
Sobibr (operational by May 1942), and Treblinka (operational by July 1942),[178] with squads of Trawniki men
(Eastern European collaborators) overseeing hundreds of
Sonderkommando prisoners,[lower-alpha 2] who were forced
to work in the gas chambers and crematoria before being
murdered themselves.[179] On Himmlers orders, by early
1942 the concentration camp at Auschwitz was greatly
expanded to include the addition of gas chambers, where
victims were killed using the pesticide Zyklon B.[180][181]
For administrative reasons, all concentration camp
guards and administrative sta became full members
of the Waen-SS in 1942. The concentration camps
were placed under the command of the SS-WirtschaftsVerwaltungshauptamt (SS Main Economic and Administrative Oce; WVHA) under Oswald Pohl in April
1939. Richard Glcks served as the Inspector of Concentration Camps.[182] Exploitation and extermination became a balancing act as the military situation deteriorated. The labor needs of the war economy, especially
for skilled workers, meant that some Jews escaped the
genocide.[183] On 30 October 1942, due to severe labor
shortages, Himmler ordered that large numbers of ablebodied people in the Soviet occupied territories should be
taken prisoner and sent to Germany as forced labor.[184]
By 1944, the SS-TV had been organized into three divisions: sta of the concentration camps in Germany and
Austria, in the occupied territories, and of the extermination camps in Poland. By 1944, it became standard
practice to rotate SS members in and out of the camps,
partly based on manpower needs, but also to provide
easier assignments to wounded Waen-SS members.[185]
This rotation of personnel meant that nearly the entire SS
knew what was going on inside the concentration camps,
making the entire organization liable for war crimes and
crimes against humanity.[186]

Extermination through labor. At Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp, inmates were forced to carry heavy granite blocks out
of the quarry on the Stairs of Death.

In May 1941 the VuWHA founded the Deutsche Ausrstungswerke GmbH (German Equipment Works; DAW),
which was created to integrate the SS business enterprises
with the burgeoning concentration camp system.[193]
Himmler subsequently established four major new concentration camps in 1941: Auschwitz, Gross-Rosen,
Natzweiler-Struthof, and Neuengamme. Each had at

10

6 MILITARY REVERSALS

least one factory or quarry nearby where the inmates

were forced to work.[194] Himmler took a particular interest in providing laborers for IG Farben, which was
constructing a synthetic rubber factory at Auschwitz III
Monowitz.[195] The plant was almost ready to commence
production when it was overrun by Soviet troops in
1945.[196] Life expectancy of inmates at Monowitz averaged about three months.[197] This was typical of the
camps, as inmates were underfed and lived under disastrously bad living conditions. Their workload was intentionally made impossibly high, under the policy of
extermination through labor.[198]

A Tiger tank commander of the SS-Das Reich during the Battle

of Kursk, 1943

The SS owned Sudetenquell GbmH, a mineral water producer in Sudetenland. By 1944, the SS had purchased
75 percent of the mineral water producers in Germany
and were intending to acquire a monopoly.[199] Several
concentration camps produced building materials such
as stone, bricks, and cement for the SS-owned Deutsche
Erd- und Steinwerke (German Earth And Stone Works;
DEST).[200] In the occupied Eastern territories, the SS
acquired a monopoly in brick production by seizing all
300 extant brickworks.[199] The DWB also founded the
Ost-Deutsche Baustowerke (East German Building Supply Works; GmbH or ODBS) and Deutsche Edelmbel
GmbH (German Noble Furniture). These operated in
factories the SS had conscated from Jews and Poles.[201]

battle.[209] Due to sti Soviet resistance, Hitler halted the

attack by the evening of 12 July. On 17 July he called
o the operation and ordered a withdrawal.[210] Thereafter, the Germans were forced onto the defensive as the
Red Army began the liberation of Western Russia.[211]
The losses incurred by the Waen-SS and the Wehrmacht during the Battle of Kursk occurred nearly simultaneously with the Allied assault into Italy, opening a twofront war for Germany.[212]

The SS owned experimental farms, bakeries, meat packing plants, leather works, clothing and uniform factories,
and small arms factories.[202][203] Under the direction of
the WVHA, the SS sold camp labor to various factories at a rate of three to six Reichsmarks per prisoner
per day.[204] The SS conscated and sold the property of
concentration camp inmates, conscated their investment
portfolios and their cash, and proted from their dead
bodies by selling their hair to make felt and melting down
their dental work to obtain gold from the llings.[205] The
total value of assets looted from the victims of Operation
Reinhard alone (not including Auschwitz) was listed
by Odilo Globocnik as 178,745,960.59 Reichsmarks.
Items seized included 2,909.68 kilograms of gold worth
843,802.75 RM, as well as 18,733.69 kg of silver, 1,514
kg of platinum, 249,771.50 American dollars, 130 diamond solitaires, 2,511.87 carats of brilliants, 13,458.62
carats of diamonds, and 114 kg of pearls.[206] According to Nazi legislation, Jewish property belonged to the
state, but many SS camp commandants and guards stole
items such as diamonds or currency for personal gain,
or took seized foodstus and liquor to sell on the black
market.[207]

Alarmed by the raids on St Nazaire and Dieppe in 1942,

Hitler had ordered the construction of fortications he
called the Atlantic Wall all along the Atlantic coast, from
Spain to Norway, to protect against an expected Allied invasion.[213] Concrete gun emplacements were constructed at strategic points along the coast, and wooden
stakes, metal tripods, mines, and large anti-tank obstacles
were placed on the beaches to delay the approach of landing craft and impede the movement of tanks.[214] In addition to several static infantry divisions, eleven panzer and
Panzergrenadier divisions were deployed nearby.[215][216]
Four of these formations were Waen-SS divisions.[217]
In addition, the SS-Das Reich was located in Southern
France, the LSSAH was in Belgium retting after ghting
in the Soviet Union, and the newly formed panzer division
SS-Hitlerjugend, consisting of 17- and 18-year-old Hitler
Youth members supported by combat veterans and experienced NCOs, was stationed west of Paris.[218] The creation of the SS-Hitlerjugend was a sign of Hitlers desperation for more troops, especially ones with unquestioning
obedience.[219]

Military reversals

On 5 July
Kursk, an
salient.[208]
panded to

1943, the Germans launched the Battle of

oensive designed to eliminate the Kursk
The Waen-SS by this time had been ex12 divisions, and most took part in the

6.1 Normandy landings

The Normandy landings took place beginning 6 June

1944. 21st Panzer Division under Generalmajor Edgar
Feuchtinger, positioned south of Caen, was the only
panzer division close to the beaches. The division included 146 tanks and 50 assault guns, plus supporting infantry and artillery.[220] At 02:00, Generalleutnant
Wilhelm Richter, commander of the 716th Static Infantry Division, ordered 21st Panzer Division into position to counter-attack. However, as the division was

6.2

Battle for Germany

11
lower Rhine.[230] The 9th and 10th Panzers were among
the units that repulsed the attack.[231]

Indian Legion troops of the Waen-SS guard the Atlantic Wall in

Bordeaux, 21 March 1944.

part of the armoured reserve, Feuchtinger was obliged to

seek clearance from OKW before he could commit his
formation.[221] Feuchtinger did not receive orders until
nearly 09:00, but in the meantime on his own initiative he
put together a battle group (including tanks) to ght the
British forces east of the Orne.[222] SS-Hitlerjugend began
to deploy in the afternoon of 6 June, with its units undertaking defensive actions the following day. They also
took part in the Battle for Caen (JuneAugust 1944).[223]
On 78 and 17 June, members of the SS-Hitlerjugend
shot and killed twenty Canadian prisoners of war in the
Ardenne Abbey massacre.[224]
The Allies continued to make progress in the liberation of France, and on 4 August Hitler ordered a
counter-oensive (Operation Lttich) from Vire towards
Avranches.[225] The operation included LSAHH, Das
Reich, 2nd, and 116th Panzer Divisions, with support from infantry and elements of the 17th SS Panzergrenadier Division Gtz von Berlichingen under SSOberstgruppenfhrer Paul Hausser. These forces were to
mount an oensive near Mortain and drive west through
Avranches to the coast. The Allied forces were prepared
for this oensive, and an air assault on the combined German units proved devastating.[226] On 21 August, 50,000
German troops, including most of the LSSAH, were encircled by the Allies in the Falaise Pocket.[227] Remnants
of the LSSAH which escaped were withdrawn to Germany for retting.[228] Paris was liberated on 25 August, and the last of the German forces withdrew over
the Seine by the end of August, ending the Normandy
campaign.[229]

6.2

Battle for Germany

Waen-SS units which had survived the summer campaigns were withdrawn from the front line to ret. Two of
them, the 9th SS and 10th SS Panzer Divisions, did so in
the Arnhem region of Holland in early September 1944.
Coincidentally, on 17 September, the Allies launched in
the same area Operation Market Garden, a combined airborne and land operation designed to seize control of the

German infantry travel on foot in the Ardennes, December 1944

In December 1944, Hitler launched the Ardennes Oensive, also known as the Battle of the Bulge, a signicant
counterattack against the western Allies through the Ardennes with the aim of reaching Antwerp while encircling
the Allied armies in the area.[232] The oensive began
with an artillery barrage shortly before dawn on 16 December. Spearheading the attack were two panzer armies
composed largely of Waen-SS divisions.[233] The battle
groups found advancing through the forests and wooded
hills of the Ardennes dicult in the winter weather, but
they initially made good progress in the northern sector.
They soon encountered strong resistance from the US
2nd and 99th Infantry Divisions. By 23 December, the
weather improved enough that the Allied air forces could
attack the German forces and their supply columns, causing fuel shortages. In increasingly dicult conditions,
the German advance slowed and was stopped.[234] Hitlers
failed oensive cost 700 tanks and most of their remaining mobile forces in the west,[235] as well as most of their
irreplaceable reserves of manpower and materiel.[236]
During the battle, SS-Obersturmbannfhrer Joachim
Peiper left a path of destruction, which included WaenSS soldiers under his command murdering American
POWs and unarmed Belgian civilians in the Malmedy
massacre.[237] Captured SS soldiers who were part of
Kampfgruppe Peiper were tried during the Malmedy massacre trial following the war for this massacre and sev-

12
eral others in the area. Many of the perpetrators were
sentenced to hang, but the sentences were commuted.
Peiper was imprisoned for eleven years for his role in the
killings.[238]

SS UNITS AND BRANCHES

order.[249]
By this time, on both the Eastern and Western Front, the
activities of the SS were becoming clear to the Allies,
as the concentration and extermination camps were being overrun.[250] Allied troops were lled with disbelief
and repugnance at the evidence of Nazi brutality in the
camps.[251]
On 9 April 1945 Knigsberg fell to the Red Army, and on
13 April Dietrichs SS unit was forced out of Vienna.[252]
The Battle of Berlin began at 03:30 on 16 April with a
massive artillery barrage.[253] Within the week, ghting
was taking place inside the city. Among the many elements defending Berlin were French, Latvian, and Scandinavian Waen-SS troops.[254][255] Hitler, now living
in the Fhrerbunker under the Reich Chancellery, still
hoped that his remaining SS soldiers could rescue the
capital. In spite of the futility of the situation, members
of the SS patrolling the city continued to shoot or hang
soldiers and civilians for what they considered to be acts
of cowardice or defeatism.[256] The Berlin garrison surrendered on 2 May, two days after Hitler committed suicide.[253] As members of SS expected little mercy from
the Red Army, they attempted to move westward to surrender to the western Allies instead.[257]

American troops slain by SS forces led by Joachim Peiper in the

Malmedy massacre during the Battle of the Bulge (December
1944)

In the east, the Red Army resumed their oensive on 12

January 1945. German forces were outnumbered twenty
to one in aircraft, eleven to one in infantry, and seven
to one in tanks on the Eastern Front.[239] By the end of
the month, the Red Army had made bridgeheads across
the Oder, the last geographic obstacle before Berlin.[240]
The western Allies continued to advance as well, but not
as rapidly as the Red Army.[241] The Panzer Corps conducted a successful defensive operation on 1724 February at the Hron River, stalling the Allied advance towards Vienna.[242] The 1st and 2nd SS Panzer Corps
made their way towards Austria, but were slowed by damaged railways.[243]
Budapest fell on 13 February.[244] Hitler ordered Dietrichs 6th SS Panzer Army to move into Hungary to
protect the Nagykanizsa oilelds and reneries, which
he deemed the most strategically valuable fuel reserves on the Eastern Front.[245][242] Frhlingserwachsen
(Operation Spring Awakening), the nal German oensive in the east, took place in early March. German forces
attacked near Lake Balaton, with 6th SS Panzer Army
advancing north towards Budapest and 2nd Panzer Army
moving east and south.[246] Dietrichs forces at rst made
good progress, but as they drew near the Danube, the
combination of muddy terrain and strong Soviet resistance brought them to a halt.[247] By 16 March the battle was lost.[248] Enraged by the defeat, Hitler ordered
the Waen-SS units involved to remove their cu titles
as a mark of disgrace. Dietrich refused to carry out the

7 SS units and branches

7.1 Reich Main Security Oce
Heydrich held the title of Chef des Sicherheitspolizei
und SD (Chief of the Security Police and SD) until 27
September 1939, when he became chief of the newly
established Reich Main Security Oce (RSHA).[59][258]
From that point forward, the RSHA was in charge of
SS security services. It had under its command the SD,
Kripo, and Gestapo, as well as several oces to handle
nance, administration, and supply.[59] Heinrich Mller,
who had been chief of operations for the Gestapo, was
appointed Gestapo chief at this time.[259] Arthur Nebe
was chief of the Kripo, and the two branches of SD
were commanded by a series of SS ocers, including
Otto Ohlendorf and Walter Schellenberg. The SD was
considered an elite branch of the SS, and its members
were better educated and typically more ambitious than
those within the ranks of the Allgemeine SS.[44] Members
of the SD were specially trained in criminology, intelligence, and counter-intelligence. They also gained a reputation for ruthlessness and unwavering commitment to
Nazi ideology.[260]
Heydrich was attacked in Prague on 27 May 1942 by a
British-trained team of Czech and Slovak soldiers who
had been sent by the Czechoslovak government-in-exile
to kill him in Operation Anthropoid. He died from his
injuries a week later.[261][lower-alpha 3] Himmler ran the
RSHA personally until 30 January 1943, when Hey-

7.3

Einsatzgruppen

13

drichs positions were taken over by Ernst Kaltenbrunner.[263]

7.2

SS-Sonderkommandos

Beginning in 1938 and throughout World War II, the

SS enacted a procedure where oces and units of
the SS could form smaller sub-units, known as SSSonderkommandos, to carry out special tasks, includ- SS killings in Zboriv, 1941. A teenage boy is brought to view his
dead family before being shot himself.
ing large-scale murder operations. The use of SSSonderkommandos was widespread. According to former
SS Sturmbannfhrer Wilhelm Httl, not even the SS leadership knew how many SS-Sonderkommandos were constantly being formed, disbanded, and reformed for vari7.3 Einsatzgruppen
ous tasks, especially on the Eastern Front.[264]
A SS-Sonderkommando unit led by SS-Sturmbannfhrer
Herbert Lange murdered 1,201 psychiatric patients at
the Tiegenhof psychiatric hospital in the Free City of
Danzig,[265] 1,100 patients in Owiska, 2,750 patients at
Kocian, and 1,558 patients at Dziadowo, as well as hundreds of Poles at Fort VII, where the mobile gas van and
gassing bunker were developed.[266][267] In 194142, SSSonderkommando Lange set up and managed the rst extermination camp, at Chemno, where 152,000 Jews were
killed using gas vans.[268]
After the battle of Stalingrad in February 1943, Himmler
realised that Germany would likely lose the war, and ordered the formation of Sonderkommando 1005, a special
task force under SS-Standartenfhrer Paul Blobel. The
units assignment was to visit mass graves on the Eastern Front to exhume bodies and burn them in an attempt
to cover up the genocide. The task remained unnished
at the end of the war, and many mass graves remain unmarked and unexcavated.[269]
The Eichmann Sonderkommando was a task force headed
by Adolf Eichmann that arrived in Budapest on 19
March 1944, the same day that Axis forces invaded
Hungary. Their task was to take a direct role in the
deportation of Hungarian Jews to Auschwitz. The
SS-Sonderkommandos enlisted the aide of antisemitic
elements from the Hungarian gendarmerie and proGerman administrators from within the Hungarian Interior Ministry.[270] Round-ups began on 16 April, and
from 14 May, four trains of 3,000 Jews per day left Hungary and travelled to the camp at Auschwitz II-Birkenau,
arriving along a newly built spur line that terminated a few
hundred metres from the gas chambers.[271][272] Between
10 and 25 percent of the people on each train were chosen as forced laborers; the rest were killed within hours
of arrival.[271][273] Under international pressure, the Hungarian government halted deportations on 6 July 1944, by
which time over 437,000 of Hungarys 725,000 Jews had
died.[271][274]

The Einsatzgruppen had its origins in the ad hoc

Einsatzkommando formed by Heydrich following the
Anschluss in Austria in March 1938.[275] Two units of
Einsatzgruppen were stationed in the Sudetenland in October 1938. When military action turned out not to
be necessary because of the Munich Agreement, the
Einsatzgruppen were assigned to conscate government
papers and police documents. They secured government buildings, questioned senior civil servants, and arrested as many as 10,000 Czech communists and German citizens.[275][276] The Einsatzgruppen also followed
Wehrmacht troops and killed potential partisans.[277]
Similar groups were used in 1939 for the occupation of
Czechoslovakia.[278]
Hitler felt that the planned extermination of the Jews
was too dicult and important to be entrusted to the
military.[279] In 1941 the Einsatzgruppen were sent into
the Soviet Union to begin large-scale genocide of Jews,
Romani people, and communists.[280] Historian Raul
Hilberg estimates that between 1941 and 1945 the Einsatzgruppen and related agencies killed more than two
million people, including 1.3 million Jews.[281] The
largest mass shooting perpetrated by the Einsatzgruppen was at Babi Yar outside Kiev, where 33,771 Jews
were killed in a single operation on 2930 September 1941.[282] In the Rumbula massacre (November
December 1941), 25,000 victims from the Riga ghetto
were killed.[283] Another mass shooting early in 1942
claimed the lives of over 10,000 Jews in Kharkov.[284]
The last Einsatzgruppen were disbanded in mid-1944 (although some continued to exist on paper until 1945) due
to the German retreat on both fronts and the consequent
inability to continue extermination activities. Former
Einsatzgruppen members were either assigned duties in
the Waen-SS or concentration camps. Twenty-four Einsatzgruppen commanders were tried for war crimes following the war.[285]

14

7.4

Hauptamt SS-Gericht

SS UNITS AND BRANCHES

7.6 SS Medical Corps

Main article: Hauptamt SS-Gericht

The Hauptamt SS-Gericht (SS Court Main Oce) was an
internal legal system for conducting investigations, trials,
and punishment of the SS and police. It had more than
600 lawyers on sta in the main oces in Berlin and
Munich. Proceedings were conducted at 38 regional SS
courts throughout Germany. It was the only authority authorized to try SS personnel, except for SS members who
were on active duty in the Wehrmacht (in such cases, the
SS member in question was tried by a standard military
tribunal). Its creation placed the SS beyond the reach of
civilian legal authority. Himmler personally intervened
as he saw t regarding convictions and punishment.[286]
The historian Karl Dietrich Bracher describes this court
system as one factor in the creation of the Nazi totalitarian police state, as it removed objective legal procedures,
rendering citizens defenseless against the summary justice of the SS terror.[287]

7.5

SS Cavalry

Shortly after Hitler seized power in 1933, most horse

riding associations were taken over by the SA and
SS.[288] Members received combat training to serve in
the Reiter-SS (SS Cavalry Corps).[289] The rst SS cavalry regiment, designated SS-Totenkopf Reitstandarte 1,
was formed in September 1939. Commanded by then
SS-Standartenfhrer Hermann Fegelein, the unit was assigned to Poland, where they took part in the extermination of Polish intelligentsia.[290][291] Additional squadrons
were added in May 1940, for a total of fourteen.[292]
The unit was split into two regiments in December
1939, with Fegelein in charge of both. By March 1941
their strength was 3,500 men.[293][294] In July 1941, they
were assigned to the Pripyat swamps punitive operation,
tasked with rounding up and exterminating Jews and
partisans.[295] The two regiments were amalgamated into
the SS Cavalry Brigade on 31 July, twelve days after
the operation started.[296] Fegeleins nal report, dated
18 September 1941, states that they killed 14,178 Jews,
1,001 partisans, and 699 Red Army soldiers, with 830
prisoners taken.[297][298] The historian Henning Pieper estimates the actual number of Jews killed was closer to
23,700.[299] The SS Cavalry Brigade took serious losses
in November 1941 in the Battle of Moscow, with casualties of up to 60 per cent in some squadrons.[300]
Fegelein was appointed as commander of the 8th SS Cavalry Division Florian Geyer on 20 April 1943. This unit
saw service in the Soviet Union in attacks on partisans
and civilians.[301][302] In addition, SS Cavalry regiments
served in Croatia and Hungary.[303]

Hungarian Jews on the Judenrampe (Jewish ramp) after disembarking from the transport trains. Photo from the Auschwitz Album (May 1944).

Main article: SS Medical Corps

The SS Medical Corps were initially known as the Sanittsstael (sanitary units). After 1931, the SS formed
the headquarters oce Amt V as the central oce for SS
medical units. An SS medical academy was established
in Berlin in 1938 to train Waen-SS physicians.[304] SS
medical personnel did not often provide actual medical care; their primary responsibility was medicalized
genocide.[305] At Auschwitz, about three-quarters of new
arrivals, including almost all children, women with small
children, all the elderly, and all those who appeared on
brief and supercial inspection by an SS doctor not to be
completely t were killed within hours of arrival.[306] In
their role as Desinfektoren (disinfectors), SS doctors also
made selections among existing prisoners as to their tness to work, and supervised the killing of those deemed
unt. Inmates in deteriorating health were examined by
SS doctors, who decided whether or not they would be
able to recover in less than two weeks. Those too ill or
injured to recover in that time frame were killed.[307]
At Auschwitz, the actual delivery of gas to the victims
was always handled by the SS, on the order of the supervising SS doctor.[308][309] Many of the SS doctors
also conducted inhumane medical experiments on camp
prisoners.[310] The most infamous SS doctor, Josef Mengele, served as a medical ocer at Auschwitz under
the command of Eduard Wirth of the camps medical
corps.[311] Mengele undertook selections even when he
was not assigned to do so in the hope of nding subjects for his experiments.[312] He was particularly interested in locating sets of twins.[313] In contrast to most of
the doctors, who viewed undertaking selections as one
of their most stressful and horrible duties, Mengele undertook the task with a amboyant air, often smiling or
whistling a tune.[314][315] After the war, many SS doctors were charged with war crimes for their inhumane
medical experiments and for their role in gas chamber

15
selections.[316]

7.7
7.7.1

Other SS units
Ahnenerbe

The Ahnenerbe (Ancestral Heritage Organization) was

founded in 1935 by Himmler, and became part of the
SS in 1939.[317] It was an umbrella agency for more
than fty organizations tasked with studying the German racial identity and ancient Germanic traditions and
language.[317][318] The agency sponsored archaeological
expeditions in Germany, Scandinavia, the Middle East,
Tibet, and elsewhere to search for evidence of Aryan
roots, inuence, and superiority.[319] Further planned expeditions were postponed indenitely at the start of the
war.[320]
7.7.2

Oce) to establish Waen-SS recruiting oces in Nazioccupied Europe.[330] The majority of the resulting foreign Waen-SS units wore a distinctive national collar
patch and preceded their SS rank titles with the prex Waen instead of SS. Volunteers from Scandinavian
countries lled the ranks of two divisions, the SS-Wiking
and SS-Nordland.[331] Belgian Flemings joined Dutchmen to form the SS-Nederland legion,[332] and their Walloon compatriots joined the SS-Wallonien.[333] By the
end of 1943 about a quarter of the SS were ethnic Germans from across Europe,[334] and by June 1944, half the
Waen-SS were foreign nationals.[335]

SS-Frauenkops

The SS-Frauenkops was an auxiliary reporting and clerical unit,[321] which included the SS-Helferinnenkorps
(Women Helper Corps), made up of female volunteers.
Members were assigned as administrative sta and supply personnel, and served in command positions and
as guards at womens concentration camps.[322][323] Like Grand Mufti of Jerusalem Haj Amin al-Husseini greeting
their male equivalents in the SS, females participated in Bosniak SS volunteers before their departure to the Eastern Front,
1943
atrocities against Jews, Poles, and others.[324]
In 1942, Himmler set up the Reichsschule fr SS Helferinnen (Reich school for SS helpers) in Oberehnheim to
train women in communications so that they could free
up men for combat roles. Himmler also intended
to replace all female civilian employees in his service
with SS-Helferinnen members, as they were selected
and trained according to NSDAP ideology.[325][326] The
school was closed on 22 November 1944 due to the Allied
advance.[327]
7.7.3

SS-Mannschaften

The SS-Mannschaften (Auxiliary-SS) were not considered regular SS members, but were conscripted from
other branches of the German military, the NSDAP, SA,
and the Volkssturm for service in concentration camps
and extermination camps.[328]

Foreign legions and volunteers

See also: Waen-SS foreign volunteers and conscripts

Beginning in 1940, Himmler opened up Waen-SS
recruiting to ethnic Germans that were not German
citizens.[329] In March 1941, the SS Main Oce established the Germanische Leitstelle (Germanic Guidance

Additional Waen-SS units were added from the

Ukrainians, Albanians from Kosovo, Serbians, Croatians,
Turkic, Caucasians, Cossack, and Tatars. The Ukrainians
and Tatars, who had suered persecution under Stalin,
were likely motivated primarily by opposition to the Soviet government rather than ideological agreement with
the SS.[336] The exiled Grand Mufti of Jerusalem Amin
al-Husseini was made an SS-Gruppenfhrer by Himmler in May 1943.[337] He subsequently used antisemitism
and anti-Serb racism to recruit a Waen-SS division of
Bosnian Muslims, the SS-Handschar.[338] The year-long
Soviet occupation of the Baltic states at the beginning
of World War II resulted in volunteers for Latvian and
Estonian Waen-SS units. The Estonian Legion had
1,280 volunteers under training by the end of 1942.[339]
Eventually, approximately 25,000 men served in the Estonian SS division, with thousands more conscripted into
Police Front battalions and border guard units.[340] In
early 1944, Himmler even contacted Pohl to suggest releasing Muslim prisoners from concentration camps to
supplement his SS troops.[341]
The Indian Legion was a Wehrmacht unit formed in August 1942 chiey from disaected Indian soldiers of the
British Indian Army captured in the North African Campaign. In August 1944 it was transferred to the auspices
of the Waen-SS as the Indische Freiwilligen-Legion der
Waen-SS.[342] There was also a French volunteer division, SS-Charlemagne, which was formed in 1944 mainly

16

12 AUSTRIAN SS

from the remnants of the Legion of French Volunteers

Against Bolshevism and French Sturmbrigade.[343]

Persnlicher Stab Reichsfhrer-SS Hauptamt (Personal Sta of the Reich Leader SS)
SS-Hauptamt (Main Administrative Oce; SS-HA)

Ranks and uniforms

SS-Fhrungshauptamt (SS Main Operational Oce;

SS-FHA)

Main article: Uniforms and insignia of the Schutzstael

See also: Runic insignia of the Schutzstael

Ordnungspolizei Hauptamt (Main Oce of the Order Police)

The SS established its own symbolism, rituals, customs,

ranks and uniforms to set itself apart from other organizations. Before 1929, the SS wore the same brown uniform
as the SA, with the addition of a black tie and a black
cap with a Totenkopf (deaths head) skull and bones symbol, moving to an all-black uniform in 1932.[11] In 1935,
the SS combat formations adopted a service uniform in
eld grey for everyday wear. The SS also developed its
own eld uniforms, which included reversible smocks and
helmet covers printed with camouage patterns.[344] Uniforms were manufactured in hundreds of licensed factories, with some workers being prisoners of war performing forced labor. Many were produced in concentration
camps.[345]

Hauptamt SS-Gericht (Main Oce of SS Legal Matters)

Hitler and the NSDAP understood the power of emblems

and insignia to inuence public opinion.[346] The stylized
lightning bolt logo of the SS was chosen in 1932. The
logo is a pair of runes from a set of 18 Armanen runes
created by Guido von List in 1906. It is similar to the
ancient Sowil rune, which symbolizes the sun, but was
renamed as Sig (victory) in Lists iconography.[346] The
Totenkopf symbolized the wearers willingness to ght
unto the death, and also served to frighten the enemy.[347]

10

SS-Rasse- und Siedlungshauptamt (SS Oce of Race

and Settlement; RuSHA)
SS-Personalhauptamt (SS Personnel Main Oce)
Hauptamt Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle (Racial German
Assistance Main Oce; VOMI)
SS-Schulungsamt (SS Education Oce)
Hauptamt Reichskommissar fr die Festigung
Deutschen Volkstums (Main Oce of the Reich
Commissioner for the Consolidation of German
Nationhood; RKFDV)

12 Austrian SS

SS membership estimates 1925

45

After 1933 a career in the SS became increasingly attractive to Germanys social elite, who began joining the
movement in great numbers, usually motivated by political opportunism. By 1938 about one-third of the SS
leadership were members of the upper middle class. The Ernst Kaltenbrunner, Heinrich Himmler, August Eigruber, and
trend reversed after the rst Soviet counter-oensive of other SS ocials visit Mauthausen concentration camp, 1941.
1942.[348]
Main article: Austrian SS
The term Austrian SS is often used to describe that
portion of the SS membership from Austria, but it was
never a recognized branch of the SS. In contrast to SS
11 SS oces
members from other countries, who were grouped into
By 1942 all activities of the SS were managed through either the Germanic-SS or the Foreign Legions of the
Waen-SS, Austrian SS members were regular SS pertwelve main oces.[360][361]
sonnel. It was technically under the command of the SS
in Germany, but often acted independently concerning
Reich Main Security Oce
Austrian aairs. The Austrian SS was founded in 1930
SS Main Economic and Administrative Oce
and by 1934 was acting as a covert force to bring about

13.1

International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg

the Anschluss with Germany, which occurred in March

1938. Early Austrian SS leaders were Kaltenbrunner and
Arthur Seyss-Inquart.[362] Austrian SS members served
in every branch of the SS. Political scientist David Art of
Tufts University notes that Austrians constituted 8 percent of the Third Reichs population and 13 percent of
the SS; he states that 40 percent of the sta and 75 percent of commanders at death camps were Austrian.[363]

17
corpses, and stabbed them with bayonets or struck them
with their rie butts if they slowed their pace.[377] Some
members of the US Army Counter Intelligence Corps
delivered captured SS camp guards to displaced persons
camps, where they knew they would be subject to summary execution.[378]

After the Anschluss, the Austrian SS was folded into 13.1 International Military Tribunal at
Nuremberg
SS-Oberabschnitt Donau. The third regiment of the SSVerfgungstruppe (Der Fhrer) and the fourth Totenkopf
regiment (Ostmark) were recruited in Austria shortly Main article: Nuremberg trials
thereafter. On Heydrichs orders, mass arrests of poten- The Allies commenced legal proceedings against captial enemies of the Reich began immediately after the Anschluss.[364] Mauthausen was the rst concentration camp
opened in Austria following the Anschluss.[365] Before the
invasion of the Soviet Union, Mauthausen was the harshest of the camps in the Greater German Reich.[366]
The Hotel Metropole was transformed into Gestapo headquarters in Vienna in April 1938. With a sta of 900
(80 percent of whom were recruited from the Austrian
police), it was the largest Gestapo oce outside Berlin.
An estimated 50,000 people were interrogated or tortured
there.[367] The Gestapo in Vienna was headed by Franz
Josef Huber, who also served as chief of the Central
Agency for Jewish Emigration in Vienna. Although its de
facto leaders were Adolf Eichmann and later Alois Brunner, Huber was nevertheless responsible for the mass deportation of Austrian Jews.[368]
Kaltenbrunner, highest-ranking surviving SS ocer, after execution by hanging on 16 October 1946

13

Post-war activity and aftermath

tured Nazis, establishing the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg in 1945.[379] The rst war crimes trial
of 24 prominent gures such as Gring, Albert Speer,
Joachim von Ribbentrop, Alfred Rosenberg, Hans Frank,
and Kaltenbrunner took place beginning in November
1945. They were accused of four counts: conspiracy,
waging a war of aggression, war crimes, and crimes
against humanity in violation of international law.[379]
Twelve received the death penalty, including Kaltenbrunner, who was convicted of crimes against humanity and
executed on 16 October 1946.[380] The former commandant at Auschwitz, Rudolf Hss, who testied on behalf
of Kaltenbrunner and others, was tried and executed in
1947.[381]

Following Nazi Germanys collapse, the SS ceased to

exist.[369] Numerous members of the SS, many of them
still committed Nazis, remained at large in Germany and
across Europe.[370] On 21 May 1945, the British captured
Himmler, who was in disguise and using a false passport. At an internment camp near Lneburg, he committed suicide by biting down on a cyanide capsule.[371] Several other leading members of the SS ed, but some were
quickly captured. Kaltenbrunner, chief of the RSHA
and the highest-ranking member of the SS upon Himmlers suicide, was captured and arrested in the Bavarian
Alps.[372] He was among the 24 defendants put on trial at
the International Military Tribunal in 194546.[373]
Additional SS trials and convictions followed.[382] Many
Some SS members were subject to summary execution, defendants attempted to exculpate themselves using the
torture, and beatings at the hands of freed prisoners, dis- excuse that they were merely following superior orders,
placed persons, or Allied soldiers.[374][375] American sol- which they had to obey unconditionally as part of their
diers of the 157th Regiment, who entered the concen- sworn oath and duty. The courts did not nd this to be
tration camp at Dachau in April 1945 and saw the hu- a legitimate defense.[383] A trial of 40 SS ocers and
man deprivation and cruelty committed by the SS, shot guards from Auschwitz took place in Krakw in Novemsome of the remaining SS camp guards.[376] On 15 April ber 1947. Most were found guilty, and 23 received the
1945, British troops entered Bergen-Belsen. They placed death penalty.[384] In addition to those tried by the Westthe SS guards on starvation rations, made them work ern allies, an estimated 37,000 members of the SS were
without breaks, forced them to deal with the remaining tried and convicted in Soviet courts. Sentences included

18

16

hangings and long terms of hard labor.[385] Piotr Cywiski, the director of the Auschwitz-Birkenau Museum,
estimates that of the 70,000 members of the SS involved
in crimes in concentration camps, only about 1,650 to
1,700 were tried after the war.[386] The International Military Tribunal declared the SS a criminal organization in
1946.[387]

13.2

Escapes

REFERENCES

of Hudals network. He was deported to Germany in

1967 and was sentenced to life in prison in 1970. He
died in 1971.[391]
Mengele, worried that his capture would mean a death
sentence, ed Germany on 17 April 1949.[392] Assisted
by a network of former SS members, he traveled to
Genoa, where he obtained a passport under the alias Helmut Gregor from the International Committee of the
Red Cross. He sailed to Argentina in July.[393] Aware
that he was still a wanted man, he moved to Paraguay in
1958 and Brazil in 1960. In both instances he was assisted by former Luftwae pilot Hans-Ulrich Rudel.[394]
Mengele suered a stroke while swimming and drowned
in 1979.[395]
Simon Wiesenthal and others have speculated about
the existence of a Nazi fugitive network code-named
ODESSA (an acronym for Organisation der ehemaligen SS-Angehrigen, Organization of former SS members) that allegedly helped war criminals nd refuge in
Latin America.[396] British writer Gitta Sereny, who conducted interviews with SS men, considers the story untrue
and attributes the escapes to postwar chaos and Hudals
Vatican-based network. While the existence of ODESSA
remains unproven, Sereny notes that there certainly were
various kinds of Nazi aid organizations after the war
it would have been astonishing if there hadn't been.[397]

14 See also
Glossary of Nazi Germany
HIAG
List of SS personnel
SS State of Burgundy
Red Cross passport under the name of Ricardo Klement that
Adolf Eichmann used to enter Argentina in 1950

15 Notes

After the war, many former Nazis ed to South America,

especially to Argentina, where they were welcomed by [1] Buchenwald, Dachau, Flossenbrg, Mauthausen,
Ravensbrck, and Sachsenhausen.[93]
Juan Pern's regime.[388] In the 1950s, former Dachau inmate Lothar Hermann discovered that Buenos Aires res- [2] Not to be confused with SS-Sonderkommandos, ad hoc SS
ident Ricardo Klement was in fact Adolf Eichmann, who
units that used the same name.
had in 1948 obtained false identication and a landing
permit for Argentina through an organization directed by [3] In an act of reprisal, upwards of 10,000 Czechs were arrested; 1,300 were shot, including all male inhabitants
Bishop Alois Hudal, an Austrian cleric with Nazi sympa[389]
from the nearby town of Lidice (where Heydrichs assasthies then residing in Italy.
Eichmann was captured
sins had supposedly been harbored), and the town was
in Buenos Aires on 11 May 1960 by Mossad, the Israeli
razed.[262]
intelligence agency. At his trial in Jerusalem in 1961,
he was found guilty and sentenced to death by hanging.
Eichmann was quoted as having stated, I will jump into
my grave laughing, because the fact that I have the death 16 References
of ve million Jews [or Reich enemies, as he later claimed
to have said] on my conscience gives me extraordinary 16.1 Citations
satisfaction.[390] Franz Stangl, the commandant of Treblinka, also escaped to South America with the assistance [1] Evans 2003, p. 228.

16.1

Citations

19

[2] McNab 2009, pp. 14, 16.

[40] Yenne 2010, p. 93.

[3] McNab 2009, p. 14.

[41] Yenne 2010, p. 94.

[4] Weale 2010, p. 16.

[42] Laqueur & Baumel 2001, p. 608.

[5] McNab 2009, p. 16.

[43] Yenne 2010, pp. 111113.

[6] Hein 2015, p. 10.

[44] Langerbein 2003, p. 21.

[7] Weale 2010, p. 26.

[45] Himmler 1936, p. 134.

[8] Weale 2010, pp. 2629.

[46] Weale 2012, pp. 6061.

[9] Koehl 2004, p. 34.

[47] Rummel 1992, p. 12.

[10] Cook & Bender 1994, pp. 17, 19.

[48] International Military Tribunal 1946.

[11] Laqueur & Baumel 2001, p. 604.

[49] Williams 2001, p. 77.

[12] Weale 2010, p. 30.

[50] Buchheim 1968, p. 157.

[13] Weale 2010, p. 32.

[51] Hein 2015, pp. 6671.

[14] Hein 2015, p. 12.

[52] Evans 2005, p. 54.

[15] Weale 2010, pp. 4546.

[53] Williams 2001, p. 61.

[16] Weale 2010, pp. 3233.

[54] Hildebrand 1984, pp. 1314.

[17] Miller & Schulz 2012, pp. 12.

[55] Kershaw 2008, pp. 313, 316.

[18] McNab 2009, p. 18.

[56] McNab 2009, pp. 9, 17, 2627, 30, 4647.

[19] Weale 2010, p. 47.

[57] Reitlinger 1989, p. 90.

[20] Longerich 2012, p. 113.

[58] Dear & Foot 1995, pp. 814815.

[21] Burleigh & Wippermann 1991, pp. 272273.

[59] Longerich 2012, p. 470.

[22] Weale 2010, pp. 4547, 300305.

[60] Hein 2015, pp. 7071.

[23] Miller & Schulz 2012, pp. 23.

[61] Hildebrand 1984, p. 61.

[24] Kershaw 2008, pp. 308314.

[62] Koehl 2004, pp. 144, 148, 169, 176177.

[25] Baranowski 2010, pp. 196197.

[63] McNab 2009, p. 165.

[26] Zentner & Bedrftig 1991, p. 901.

[64] Read 2005, pp. 512514.

[27] Zentner & Bedrftig 1991, p. 903.

[65] Evans 2005, p. 584.

[28] Laqueur & Baumel 2001, p. 606.

[66] Read 2005, p. 515.

[29] Allen 2002, p. 112.

[67] Evans 2005, p. 590.

[30] Hhne 2001, pp. 146, 147.

[68] Evans 2005, p. 591.

[31] Stackelberg 2002, p. 116.

[69] Hildebrand 1984, pp. 6162.

[32] Jacobsen 1999, pp. 82, 93.

[70] Weale 2010, p. 85.

[33] Weale 2010, pp. 6267.

[71] Spielvogel 1992, pp. 102108.

[34] Weale 2010, pp. 6365.

[72] Cook & Bender 1994, pp. 8, 9.

[35] Langerbein 2003, p. 19.

[73] Cook & Bender 1994, pp. 9, 12, 1719.

[36] Yenne 2010, p. 115.

[74] Homann 2000, pp. 157, 160, 165.

[37] Hhne 2001, pp. 148149.

[75] Homann 2000, p. 166.

[38] Weale 2010, pp. 6566.

[76] Homann 2000, pp. 181186.

[39] Hhne 2001, pp. 150151.

[77] Cook & Bender 1994, pp. 1719.

20

16

[78] Homann 2000, pp. 157, 160, 165, 166, 181186.

[116] McNab 2009, p. 66.

[79] Cook & Bender 1994, pp. 19, 33.

[117] Hildebrand 1984, p. 50.

[80] Homann 2000, pp. 3648.

[118] Weale 2010, p. 229.

[81] Joachimsthaler 1999, p. 288.

[119] Hellwinkel 2014, p. 9.

[82] Homann 2000, p. 32.

[120] Reitlinger 1989, p. 147.

[83] Homann 2000, p. 36.

[121] Stein 1984, p. 61.

[84] Felton 2014, pp. 3233.

[122] Butler 2003, p. 64.

[85] Homann 2000, pp. 36, 48.

[123] Manning 1999, p. 59.

[86] Felton 2014, p. 18.

[124] Cooper 2004.

[87] Padeld 2001, pp. 128129.

[125] Weale 2012, p. 251.

[88] Weale 2010, p. 95.

[126] Sydnor 1977, p. 102.

[89] Evans 2005, p. 85.

[127] Flaherty 2004, p. 143.

[90] Hilberg 1985, p. 222.

[128] Stein 1984, pp. 150, 153.

[91] Hein 2015, p. 63.

[129] Koehl 2004, pp. 213214.

[92] Wachsmann 2010, p. 22.

[130] Mattson 2002, pp. 77, 104.

[93] Weale 2010, pp. 106108.

[131] Flaherty 2004, pp. 162, 163.

[94] Weale 2010, p. 108.

[132] Weale 2012, p. 297.

[95] Evans 2008, pp. 366367.

[133] Bessel 2006, pp. 110111.

[96] Weale 2010, pp. 108109.

[134] Bessel 2006, p. 110.

[97] Sydnor 1977, p. 119.

[135] Flaherty 2004, pp. 163, 165.

[98] Stein 1984, p. 23.

[136] Flaherty 2004, pp. 163166.

[99] Flaherty 2004, p. 156.

[137] Evans 2008, p. 155.

[100] Mollo 1991, p. 1.

[138] Bessel 2006, p. 111.

[101] Mollo 1991, pp. 13.

[139] Frusetta 2012, p. 266.

[102] Stein 1984, p. 27.

[140] Glantz 2001, pp. 79.

[103] Butler 2001, p. 45.

[141] Bracher 1970, p. 409.

[104] Rossino 2003, pp. 114, 159161.

[142] Blood 2006, p. 64.

[105] Flaherty 2004, p. 149.

[143] Windrow & Burn 1992, p. 9.

[106] Hein 2015, p. 82.

[144] Heer & Naumann 2000, p. 136.

[107] Stone 2011, p. 127.

[145] Browning 2004, p. 315.

[108] Longerich 2010, pp. 144145.

[146] Hilberg 1985, p. 164.

[109] Evans 2008, pp. 1415.

[147] Kershaw 2008, pp. 696697.

[110] Flaherty 2004, pp. 109111.

[148] Flaherty 2004, p. 168.

[111] Kershaw 2001, p. 246.

[149] Flaherty 2004, p. 171.

[112] Laqueur & Baumel 2001, p. xxxi.

[150] Reynolds 1997, p. 9.

[113] Reynolds 1997, pp. 6, 7.

[151] Flaherty 2004, p. 173.

[114] Stein 1984, p. 32.

[152] Fritz 2011, pp. 6970, 94108.

[115] Stein 1984, pp. 3335.

[153] Krausnik 1968, p. 77.

REFERENCES

16.1

Citations

21

[154] Longerich 2010, p. 185.

[192] Longerich 2012, p. 482.

[155] Rhodes 2003, pp. 159160.

[193] Allen 2002, p. 95.

[156] Bessel 2006, pp. 118119.

[194] Longerich 2012, pp. 480481.

[157] Laqueur & Baumel 2001, p. 164.

[195] Longerich 2012, p. 480.

[158] Bessel 2006, p. 119.

[196] Steinbacher 2005, p. 129.

[159] Zentner & Bedrftig 1991, p. 227.

[197] Steinbacher 2005, p. 56.

[160] Evans 2008, pp. 256257.

[198] Longerich 2010, p. 316.

[161] Longerich 2012, p. 547.

[199] Longerich 2012, p. 484.

[162] Gerwarth 2011, p. 199.

[200] Weale 2012, pp. 114115.

[163] Rhodes 2003, p. 243.

[201] Allen 2002, p. 102.

[164] Blood 2006, pp. 7071.

[202] Weale 2012, pp. 115116.

[165] Longerich 2012, p. 625.

[203] Longerich 2012, p. 483.

[166] Longerich 2010, p. 198.

[204] Frei 1993, p. 128.

[167] Longerich 2012, pp. 626, 629.

[205] Weale 2012, p. 116.

[168] Longerich 2012, p. 627.

[206] International Military Tribunal 1950.

[169] Blood 2006, pp. 7177.

[207] Baxter 2014, p. 67.

[170] Blood 2006, p. 121.

[208] Evans 2008, p. 486.

[171] Blood 2006, pp. 152154.

[209] Bessel 2006, p. 143.

[172] Longerich 2012, pp. 628629.

[210] Evans 2008, pp. 488489.

[173] Wachsmann 2010, p. 27.

[211] McNab 2009, pp. 68, 70.

[174] Wachsmann 2010, pp. 2627.

[212] Fritz 2011, p. 350.

[175] Gerwarth 2011, p. 208.

[213] Ford & Zaloga 2009, p. 30.

[176] Longerich 2010, pp. 279280.

[214] Ford & Zaloga 2009, pp. 5456.

[177] Evans 2008, p. 283.

[215] Whitmarsh 2009, pp. 12, 13.

[178] Evans 2008, pp. 283, 287, 290.

[216] Ford & Zaloga 2009, pp. 60, 63, 122, 275.

[179] McNab 2009, p. 141.

[217] Stein 1984, p. 219.

[180] Evans 2008, pp. 295, 299300.

[218] McNab 2013, p. 295.

[181] Wachsmann 2010, p. 29.

[219] Rempel 1989, p. 233.

[182] Koehl 2004, pp. 182183.

[220] Whitmarsh 2009, p. 73.

[183] Gruner 2012, pp. 174175.

[221] Ford & Zaloga 2009, p. 230.

[184] Longerich 2012, p. 629.

[222] Wilmot 1997, p. 282.

[185] Reitlinger 1989, p. 265.

[223] McNab 2013, p. 297.

[186] Stein 1984, pp. 258263.

[224] McNab 2009, p. 73.

[187] Weale 2012, p. 114.

[225] Wilmot 1997, pp. 399400.

[188] Flaherty 2004, pp. 119, 120.

[226] Stein 1984, pp. 222223.

[189] Weale 2012, p. 115.

[227] Wilmot 1997, p. 420.

[190] Mazower 2008, pp. 312313.

[228] McNab 2013, p. 197.

[191] Longerich 2012, p. 485.

[229] Shirer 1960, pp. 10851086.

22

16

REFERENCES

[230] Weinberg 1994, p. 701.

[268] Stackelberg 2007, p. 220.

[231] Murray & Millett 2001, pp. 439442.

[269] Rhodes 2003, pp. 258260, 262.

[232] Weinberg 1994, pp. 765766.

[270] Laqueur & Baumel 2001, p. 195.

[233] Murray & Millett 2001, p. 465.

[271] Longerich 2010, p. 408.

[234] Weinberg 1994, pp. 767769.

[272] Cesarani 2005, pp. 168, 172.

[235] Weinberg 1994, p. 769.

[273] Cesarani 2005, p. 173.

[236] Stein 1984, p. 232.

[274] Cesarani 2005, p. 160, 183.

[237] Murray & Millett 2001, p. 468.

[275] Streim 1989, p. 436.

[238] Parker 2012, p. 278.

[276] Longerich 2012, pp. 405, 412.

[239] Kershaw 2011, p. 168.

[277] Stackelberg 2007, p. 161.

[240] Beevor 2002, p. 70.

[278] Flaherty 2004, p. 109.

[241] Beevor 2002, p. 83.

[279] Hilberg 1985, p. 102.

[242] Duy 2002, p. 293.

[280] Langerbein 2003, p. 1516.

[243] Ziemke 1968, p. 439.

[281] Rhodes 2003, p. 257.

[244] Beevor 2002, p. 82.

[282] Flaherty 2004, pp. 120123.

[245] Seaton 1971, p. 537.

[283] Rhodes 2003, pp. 210214.

[246] Duy 2002, p. 294.

[284] Zentner & Bedrftig 1991, p. 228.

[247] Stein 1984, p. 238.

[285] Rhodes 2003, p. 274.

[248] Ziemke 1968, p. 450.

[286] McNab 2009, pp. 37, 40, 41.

[249] Messenger 2001, pp. 167168.

[287] Bracher 1970, p. 214.

[250] Wachsmann 2015, pp. 542548.

[288] Krger & Wedemeyer-Kolwe 2009, p. 34.

[251] Fritz 2004, pp. 5055.

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[252] Stein 1984, p. 237.

[290] McNab 2013, pp. 224225.

[253] Kershaw 2011, p. 302.

[291] Pieper 2015, p. 38.

[254] Stein 1984, p. 246.

[292] McNab 2013, p. 225.

[255] McNab 2013, pp. 328, 330, 338.

[293] Miller 2006, p. 308.

[256] Moorhouse 2012, pp. 364365.

[294] Pieper 2015, pp. 5253.

[257] Stein 1984, pp. 248249.

[295] Pieper 2015, pp. 8190.

[258] Headland 1992, p. 22.

[296] Pieper 2015, pp. 8182.

[259] Weale 2010, p. 131.

[297] Pieper 2015, pp. 119120.

[260] Langerbein 2003, p. 2122.

[298] Miller 2006, p. 310.

[261] Hhne 2001, pp. 494495.

[299] Pieper 2015, p. 120.

[262] Hhne 2001, pp. 495496.

[300] Pieper 2015, pp. 146147.

[263] Longerich 2012, p. 661.

[301] McNab 2013, p. 182.

[264] Diner 2006, p. 123.

[302] Stockert 1997, p. 229.

[265] Laqueur & Baumel 2001, p. 228.

[303] McNab 2013, pp. 225230.

[266] Montague 2012, pp. 188190.

[304] Proctor 1988, p. 86.

[267] Friedlander 1997, p. 138.

[305] Lifton 1986, p. 147.

16.1

Citations

23

[306] Levy 2006, pp. 235237.

[344] Flaherty 2004, pp. 8892.

[307] Lifton 1986, pp. 148149.

[345] Givhan 1997.

[308] Piper 1994, p. 170.

[346] Yenne 2010, p. 64.

[309] Lifton & Hackett 1994, p. 304.

[347] Yenne 2010, p. 69.

[310] Yahil 1990, p. 368.

[348] Ziegler 2014, pp. 132134 and note 13.

[311] Yahil 1990, p. 369.

[349] Weale 2012, p. 26.

[312] Levy 2006, pp. 248249.

[350] Weale 2012, p. 32.

[313] Posner & Ware 1986, p. 29.

[351] Weale 2012, p. 30.

[314] Posner & Ware 1986, p. 27.

[352] Weale 2012, p. 46.

[315] Lifton 1985.

[353] Weale 2012, p. 49.

[316] Pringle 2006, pp. 294296.

[354] Weale 2012, p. 33.

[317] Spielvogel 1992, p. 108.

[355] Ziegler 2014, p. 133.

[318] Yenne 2010, pp. 132133.

[356] Ziegler 2014, p. 131.

[319] Yenne 2010, pp. 128131, 139, 142.

[357] Snyder 1994, p. 330.

[320] Yenne 2010, p. 141.

[358] Laqueur & Baumel 2001, p. 609.

[321] Lower 2013, p. 108.

[359] Evans 2008, p. 724.

[322] Schwarz 1997, pp. 223244.

[360] Yerger 1997, pp. 1321.

[323] Lower 2013, pp. 108109.

[361] Stackelberg 2007, p. 302.

[324] Lower 2013, p. 109.

[362] Browder 1996, pp. 205206.

[325] Century 2011.

[363] Art 2006, p. 43.

[326] Rempel 1989, pp. 223224.

[364] Gerwarth 2011, pp. 120121.

[327] Mhlenberg 2011, p. 27.

[365] Weale 2012, p. 107.

[328] Benz, Distel & Knigseder 2005, p. 70.

[366] Gerwarth 2011, p. 121.

[329] Flaherty 2004, p. 160.

[367] Anderson 2011.

[330] Koehl 2004, pp. 212213.

[368] Mang 2003, pp. 15.

[331] Koehl 2004, pp. 214219.

[369] Hhne 2001, p. 580.

[332] McNab 2013, pp. 272273.

[370] Evans 2008, pp. 739741.

[333] McNab 2013, pp. 321323.

[371] Longerich 2012, p. 736.

[334] Hhne 2001, p. 458.

[372] Weale 2012, p. 410.

[335] Weale 2012, p. 306.

[373] Burleigh 2000, pp. 803804.

[336] Reitlinger 1989, pp. 200204.

[374] MacDonogh 2009, p. 3.

[337] Reitlinger 1989, p. 199.

[375] Murray & Millett 2001, pp. 565568.

[338] Hale 2011, pp. 264266.

[376] Lowe 2012, pp. 8384.

[339] Bishop 2005, p. 93.

[377] Lowe 2012, pp. 8487.

[340] Bishop 2005, pp. 9394.

[378] Brzezinski 2005.

[341] Motadel 2014, p. 242.

[379] Evans 2008, p. 741.

[342] Stein 1984, p. 189.

[380] Evans 2008, pp. 741742.

[343] McNab 2013, pp. 326330.

[381] Evans 2008, p. 743.

24

16

[382] Burleigh 2000, p. 804.

[383] Ingrao 2013, pp. 240241.
[384] Evans 2008, pp. 743744.
[385] Burleigh 2010, p. 549.
[386] Bosacki, Uhlig & Wrblewski 2008.
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[395] Levy 2006, pp. 294295.
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Wachsmann, Nikolaus (2015). KL: A History of
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Weale, Adrian (2010). The SS: A New History. London: Little, Brown. ISBN 978-1-4087-0304-5.
Weale, Adrian (2012). Army of Evil: A History of
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Weinberg, Gerhard (1994). A World at Arms: A
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Whitmarsh, Andrew (2009). D-Day in Photographs.
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Williams, Max (2001). Reinhard Heydrich: The Biography (Vol. 1). Church Stretton: Ulric. ISBN
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Wilmot, Chester (1997) [1952]. The Struggle For
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Windrow, Martin; Burn, Jerey (1992). The
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Yahil, Leni (1990). The Holocaust: The Fate of European Jewry. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504522-X.
Yenne, Bill (2010). Hitlers Master of the Dark Arts:
Himmlers Black Knights and the Occult Origins of
the SS. Minneapolis: Zenith. ISBN 978-0-76033778-3.

29
Yerger, Mark C. (1997). Allgemeine-SS: The Commands, Units, and Leaders of the General SS. Atglen,
PA: Schier. ISBN 0-7643-0145-4.
Zentner, Christian; Bedrftig, Friedemann (1991).
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Ziemke, Earl F. (1968). Stalingrad to Berlin: The
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17

Further reading

Browder, George C. (1990). Foundations of the

Nazi Police State: The Formation of Sipo and SD.
Lexington: University of Kentucky. ISBN 0-81311697-X.
Gellately, Robert (1990). The Gestapo and German
Society: Enforcing Racial Policy, 19331945. New
York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19822869-1.
Johnson, Eric (1999). Nazi Terror: The Gestapo,
Jews, and Ordinary Germans. New York: Basic
Books. ISBN 978-0-465-04906-6.
Miller, Michael (2015). Leaders of the SS and German Police, Vol. 2. San Jose, CA: Bender. ISBN
978-1-932970-25-8.
Segev, Tom (1988). Soldiers of Evil: The Commandants of the Nazi Concentration Camps. New York:
McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-056058-1.

18

External links

Judgment of Nuremberg Trials on the SS

SS at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum

30

19

19
19.1

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19.2

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File:Bodies_of_U.S._officers_and_soldiers_slained_by_the_Nazis_after_capture_near_Malmedy,_Belgium._-_NARA_
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Bodies_of_U.S._officers_and_soldiers_slained_
-_196544.jpg
Source:
by_the_Nazis_after_capture_near_Malmedy%2C_Belgium._-_NARA_-_196544.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors:
U.S. National Archives and Records Administration Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img
alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
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File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-263-1580-05,_Atlantikwall,_Soldaten_der_Legion_\char"0022\relax{}Freies_Indien.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-263-1580-05%2C_Atlantikwall%2C_Soldaten_der_
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org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-380-0069-33%2C_Polen%2C_Verhaftung_von_Juden%2C_Transport.jpg
License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches
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File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101III-Lerche_Stereo-046-03,_Metz,_Sepp_Dietrich_bei_Ordensverleihung.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101III-Lerche_Stereo-046-03%2C_Metz%2C_Sepp_
Dietrich_bei_Ordensverleihung.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the
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File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101III-Weill-059-04,_Metz,_Heinrich_Himmler_neben_Panzer.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101III-Weill-059-04%2C_Metz%2C_Heinrich_Himmler_neben_Panzer.jpg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals
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File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101III-Zschaeckel-207-12,_Schlacht_um_Kursk,_Panzer_VI_(Tiger_I).jpg
Source:
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Panzer_VI_%28Tiger_I%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the
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commons/a/a0/Bundesarchiv_Bild_119-1486%2C_Hitler-Putsch%2C_M%C3%BCnchen%2C_Marienplatz.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a
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File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1968-034-19A,_Exekution_von_polnischen_Geiseln.jpg Source:
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3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part

32

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of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or
positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown
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a5/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1969-054-16%2C_Reinhard_Heydrich.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German
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originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Homann, Heinrich
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CC BY-SA
3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the
originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist:
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width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050'
data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1980-036-05,_Amin_al_Husseini_bei_bosnischen_SS-Freiwilligen.jpg
Source:
https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1980-036-05%2C_Amin_al_Husseini_bei_bosnischen_
SS-Freiwilligen.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal
Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation
only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive.
Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050'
data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-45534-0005,_Kz_Mauthausen,_Besuch_Heinrich_Himmler,_Franz_Ziereis.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-45534-0005%2C_Kz_Mauthausen%2C_Besuch_
Heinrich_Himmler%2C_Franz_Ziereis.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons
by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees
an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the
Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown
File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-A0706-0018-030,_Ukraine,_ermordete_Familie.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/2/27/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-A0706-0018-030%2C_Ukraine%2C_ermordete_Familie.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part
of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist:
Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590'
/></a>
File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H04436,_Klagenfurt,_Adolf_Hitler,_Ehrenkompanie.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/0/09/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H04436%2C_Klagenfurt%2C_Adolf_Hitler%2C_Ehrenkompanie.jpg
License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches
Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive.
Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050'
data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H15390,_Berlin,_Kaserne_der_LSSAH,_Vergatterung.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/2/20/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H15390%2C_Berlin%2C_Kaserne_der_LSSAH%2C_Vergatterung.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv)
as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative
and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown
File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H26996,_KZ_Dachau,_Verbrennungsofen.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/2/28/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H26996%2C_KZ_Dachau%2C_Verbrennungsofen.jpg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 de
Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv)
as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist:
Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050'
data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-J28510,_Ardennenoffensive,_deutsche_Infanterie_geht_im_Wald_vor..jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-J28510%2C_Ardennenoffensive%2C_deutsche_

19.2

Images

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Infanterie_geht_im_Wald_vor..jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the
German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic
representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image
Archive. Original artist: Rutkowski, Heinz
File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R97512,_Berlin,_Geheimes_Staatspolizeihauptamt.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R97512%2C_Berlin%2C_Geheimes_Staatspolizeihauptamt.jpg License:
CC
BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches
Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive.
Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050'
data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S72707,_Heinrich_Himmler.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/
Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S72707%2C_Heinrich_Himmler.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to
Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal
Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals
as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Friedrich Franz Bauer
File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_192-269,_KZ_Mauthausen,_Hftlinge_im_Steinbruch.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Bundesarchiv_Bild_192-269%2C_KZ_Mauthausen%2C_H%C3%A4ftlinge_im_Steinbruch.jpg
License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches
Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive.
Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050'
data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Dead_ernstkaltenbrunner.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Dead_ernstkaltenbrunner.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Also here [1] Original artist: Photograph of the US Army
File:Flag_Schutzstaffel.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Flag_Schutzstaffel.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Flag Schutzstael.gif: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_Schutzstaffel.gif' class='image'><img
alt='Flag
Schutzstael.gif'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Flag_Schutzstaffel.gif/18px-Flag_
Schutzstaffel.gif' width='18' height='12' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Flag_Schutzstaffel.gif/
27px-Flag_Schutzstaffel.gif 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Flag_Schutzstaffel.gif/36px-Flag_
Schutzstaffel.gif 2x' data-le-width='324' data-le-height='216' /></a> Original artist: NielsF
File:Flag_of_German_Reich_(19351945).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Flag_of_German_
Reich_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Fornax
File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Gruft_der_Wewelsburg_(10573265394).jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Gruft_der_
Wewelsburg_%2810573265394%29.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Gruft der Wewelsburg Original artist: Dirk Vorderstrae
File:Himmler_besichtigt_die_Gefangenenlager_in_Russland._Heinrich_Himmler_inspects_a_prisoner_of_war_camp_
in_Russia,_circa..._-_NARA_-_540164.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/Himmler_
besichtigt_die_Gefangenenlager_in_Russland._Heinrich_Himmler_inspects_a_prisoner_of_war_camp_in_Russia%2C_circa...
_-_NARA_-_540164.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: U.S. National Archives and Records Administration Original artist:
Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050'
data-le-height='590' /></a> or not provided
File:Jew_Killings_in_Ivangorod_(1942).jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Jew_Killings_in_
Ivangorod_%281942%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Original publication: Zwiazek Bojownikw o Wolnosc i Demokracje / League of Fighters for Freedom and Democracy / Union
des Combattants pour la Libert et la Dmiocratie / Verband der Kmpfer fr Freiheit und Demokratie (1959) 1939-1945.
We have not forgotten / Nous n'avons pas oubli / Wir haben es nicht vergessen., Warsaw: Polonia, pp. 267 no ISBN (multilingual book)[#cite_note-Spiegel-3 [3]][#cite_note-Janina_Struk-2 [2]] Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img
alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png
1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a> (Sometimes mistakenly
attributed to Jerzy Tomaszewski who discovered it.)
File:Majdanek_(June_24,_1944).jpg
%28June_24%2C_1944%29.jpg License:
href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'

Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Majdanek_
Public domain Contributors:
Majdanek Museum Original artist:
Unknown<a
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img
alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.

34

19

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
width='20'
height='11'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png
1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050'
data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:May_1944_-_Jews_from_Carpathian_Ruthenia_arrive_at_Auschwitz-Birkenau.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/0/0e/May_1944_-_Jews_from_Carpathian_Ruthenia_arrive_at_Auschwitz-Birkenau.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: Yad Vashem. The album was donated to Yad Vashem by Lili Jacob, a survivor, who found it in the Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp in 1945. Original artist: Unknown. Several sources believe the photographer to have been Ernst Homann or Bernhard
Walter of the SS
File:National_Socialist_swastika.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/National_Socialist_swastika.svg
License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: DIREKTOR
File:Schutzstaffel_SS_SVG1.1.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Schutzstaffel_SS.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Derivative work from File:Schutzstaffel SS.png Original artist: ?
File:Selection_Birkenau_ramp.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Selection_Birkenau_ramp.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Yad Vashem. The album was donated to Yad Vashem by Lili Jacob, a survivor, who found it in the
Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp in 1945. Original artist: Unknown. Several sources believe the photographer to have been Ernst
Homann or Bernhard Walter of the SS
File:Speaker_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg License: Public domain Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable
author provided. Mobius assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Stroop_Report_-_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_06b.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Stroop_
Report_-_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_06b.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: en:Image:Warsaw-Ghetto-Josef-Bloesche-HRedit.
jpg uploaded by United States Holocaust Museum Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img
alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png
1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a> (Franz Konrad confessed to taking some of the photographs, the rest was probably taken by photographers from Propaganda Kompanie nr
689.[#cite_note-Stempowski-3 [3]][#cite_note-Zbikowski-4 [4]] )
File:WP_Eichmann_Passport.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/WP_Eichmann_Passport.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Fundacion Memoria del Holocausto, Argentina (archive link); issuing date from [1]. Original artist:
The photographer who took Eichmanns photo used in the passport is unknown.
File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau

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