Ugs 2003

Proceedings of
UNDERGROUND SINGAPORE 2003

27- 28 November 2003
and
WORKSHOP
Updating the Engineering Geology of Singapore

29 November 2003
NTU, Singapore
Organised by:
Tunnelling and Underground
Construction Society (Singapore)
Centre for Soft Ground Engineering
The National University of Singapore
Geotechnical Research Centre

Nanyang Technological University
INTRODUCTION BY NICK SHIRLAW,

CONFERENCE COMMITTEE CHAIRMAN
I would like to welcome authors, presenters and delegates to Underground Singapore 2003. This
is the second in the series that started with UGS 2001. In keeping with the times, we are trying to
deliver more, while reducing fees. The conference includes papers on a wide range of topics
related to underground construction. All of the major infrastructure projects that are underway or
have been recently completed in Singapore are represented in the list of papers. There is also a
broad selection of papers on the research being carried out at the Universities. Although the main
focus is on work in Singapore, we have a number of papers on work outside Singapore. These
international papers particularly focus on innovative technologies.
As an innovation this year, there is a half-day workshop on the Engineering Geology of Singapore,
after the main conference. The standard reference manual on the Geology of Singapore was
published in 1976. Since 1976 there has been rapid development in Singapore, resulting in the
drilling of tens of thousands of boreholes and much deep excavation and tunnelling. Although the
Geology of Singapore has proven to be a valuable reference, it is inevitable that the new
information has significantly augmented our understanding of the ground beneath Singapore.
However, there are very few professional geologists working in Singapore, and little of the new
information has been synthesised and published. Ideally, the Geology of Singapore should be reevaluated based on the information obtained in the last 30 years. Although this has been suggested,
funding for such a project has not been forthcoming. Much of the information is locked away in
dusty files and in the heads of those involved in the individual projects, and there is a danger of it
being lost. The purpose of this workshop is to record some of the major findings, which are either
different from the 1976 publication, or augment it. The work has been done by groups composed
mainly of practising engineers, on a volunteer basis. The extent of the work that can be done on
such a basis is, inevitably, limited. However, by focussing on a limited number of topics, and
recording where the information was obtained, it is hoped that this will be a valuable reference if
it is decided to update the 1976 publication.
A conference really only needs four main elements: organisation, funding, authors and delegates.
I must first thank the Organising Committee, which consists of:
Secretary: WONG Kai Sin
Treasurer: K.K. LIM
Member: Dick FLANAGAN
Member: CHIAM Sing Lih
Member: Anthony GOH
Member: TAN Thiam Soon
NTU
TUCSS
TUCSS
TUCSS
NTU
NUS
The committee doubled as members of the technical committee, who reviewed all of the abstracts
and papers submitted. The Secretary, assisted by Dr Shen Weiyue of NTU, carried out much of
the day-to day work. I must thank all of them for their unstinting work in support of the
Conference.
Funding is provided both by delegate fees and sponsorship. It is contributions of the Sponsors
that allows us to keep the delegate fees to a minimum. I would like to give particular thanks to
the two main Conference Sponsors, Amberg & TTI International Engineering Pte Ltd and
WH/STEC/NCC Joint Venture, for their generosity, both in terms of sponsorship and their
support in terms of papers and delegates. GeoLS Pte Ltd has sponsored the Conference bag. I
would also like to thank the other exhibitors and sponsors.
Finally, I would like to thank all of the authors and delegates for their support of this Conference
and Workshop.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The Organising Committee wishes to express its gratitude to the two

Conference Sponsors for their financial support to the Conference.
ii
CONTENTS
UNDERGROUND SINGAPORE 2003
INTRODUCTION: MESSAGE FROM CONFERENCE COMMITTEE CHAIRMAN ............................... i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................................................................... ii
SESSION 1: INVITED LECTURE .......................................................................................................1
Uetliberg Tunnel, Switzerland: State-of-the-Art Tunneling of Large Cross-Sections .....................3
in Soft Ground and Rock
H.C. Schmeed and D.F. Stewart
SESSION 2: CAVERNS ....................................................................................................................15
Feasibility of Developing Water Service Reservoirs in Rock Caverns in Singapore.....................17
T.R. Bye, E. Broch, H.Y. Bian and J. Zhao
New Technologies Extend the Range of Applications of Roadheaders .........................................23
P. Kogler and E. Lammer
An Evaluation of Constructing the Worlds Largest Cavern for Public Use in Singapore ............38
J. Zhao, H.W. Song, H.Y. Bian, Y.X. Zhou and C.C. Seah
A Study on Stress Rock Arch around a Cavern .............................................................................44
H. Song, C. Wang, J. Zhao and X. Liang
Permanent Corrosion-Protected Steel Strand Reinforcement in Civil Rock Engineering..............52
Applications
I. Satola, J. Aromaa, P. Salminen and M. Mnttri
Feasibility of Underground Hydrocarbon Storage Caverns at the Jurong Island ...........................62
J. Zhao, W.L. Ng, J.G. Cai and X.H. Zhang
SESSION 3: EXCAVATION 1 ...........................................................................................................73

Construction of Diaphragm Walls for Contract 825 with Particular Reference to their ................75
Impact upon the Ground
N.H. Osborne, K.B. Chang, S.V. Ng and C. Daniels
Comparison of Results of Excavation Analysis using WALLAP, SAGE CRISP and...................83
EXCAV97
K. W. Lim, K. S. Wong, K. Orihara and P. B. Ng
Behaviour of an Embedded Improved Soil Layer in an Excavation ..............................................95
T.S. Tan, K.Y. Yong, T.L. Goh and Thanadol Kongsomboon
Full-scale Pile Response to Lateral Soil Movements from nearby Soil Excavation ....................103
A.T.C. Goh, K.S. Wong, C.I. Teh and D. Wen
The Effect of Excavation on Some Buildings on Mixed Foundations in Singapore....................111
J.N. Shirlaw, D. Wen, R.G. Algeo and K.J. Patterson-Kane
iii
SESSION 4: MICROTUNNELLING, GROUNDWATER & WATERPROOFING ...............................123

Microtunnelling in Singapore - Past and Present .........................................................................125
H. P. Yeo and P. Nicholas
Small but Important Gaskets for Tunnel Segments...................................................................131
M. Schurch and M. Joos
Sprayed Membranes for Tunnel Water Proofing .........................................................................141
K. F. Lee
Flow of Groundwater in Fractured Rocks ....................................................................................149
P.G. Ranjith, S. F. Pong and N. Saravanan
Tunnel Waterproofing with Membranes - Waterproofing at Senoko Cable Tunnel ...................157
in Comparison with International Standards
M. Joos and M. Schurch
SESSION 5: TUNNELS ...................................................................................................................167
On Modeling of Dynamic Response of Underground Tunnels to Blast Loading ........................169
Y.Y. Jiao, J. Zhao and H. Song
Weathering Influence on TBM Tunnelling ..................................................................................177
X.H. Zhang, J. Zhao, Q.M. Gong and J.G. Cai
Design Considerations for Small Diameter Tunnels in Singapore...............................................187
J.F. Benson
Numerical Fitting Attempts of Tunnelling-Induced Ground Movement in .................................196
Granitic Residual Soil
K.C. Lim, F.H Lee and K.K Phoon
Use of Passive Fire Protection Systems for Tunnel Linings ........................................................204
N.J. Varley
SESSION 6: SHAFTS & TUNNELS ................................................................................................213

Design and Construction of Deep Shafts in Hong Kong Special Administrative ........................215
Region (SAR), China
L.J. Pakianathan, A.K.L. Kwong, D.D. McLearie and W.K. Ng
DTSS Shaft R2: Shaft and Tunnel Excavation in Weathered Bukit Timah Granite ....................229
O. Sigl, G. Jedlitschka and J.M. Wehrli
Soil-Structure Interaction between Existing and New Bored Tunnels.........................................239
A.M. Hefny, H.C. Chua and J. Zhao
Design of TBM Work Shaft and TBM Launching Chamber .......................................................246
O. Sigl and B. Stacherl
Centrifuge Modeling of Tunnel-Pile Interaction in Clay .............................................................256
X. Ran, C.F. Leung and Y.K. Chow
vi
SESSION 7: SITE INVESTIGATION AND MONITORING ...............................................................265

Site Investigation Practice: LTAs Experience and Some New Initiatives for.............................267
Improving Local Practice
S.L. Chiam, J.C.W. Ong, A.S. Ling and E.S. Huang
A Review of the Rock Mass Classification System and Applicability to ....................................276
Machine Tunnelling
Q.M. Gong, X.H. Zhang, J. Zhao and J.G. Cai
Engineering Properties of the Old Alluvium Soil ........................................................................285
J. Chu, P.P. Goh, S.C. Pek and I.H. Wong
Investigating the Henderson Road Fault Zone .............................................................................296
Moe Sein, J.W.C Ong, S.L. Chiam and E.S. Huang
Development and Operating a Robust Automated Real Time Tunnel Monitoring System .........308
G.H. Tan and K.G. Chua
SESSION 8: EXCAVATION 2 .........................................................................................................317
Performance of Basement Excavation for the Singapore Esplanade Car Park.............................319
T.Y. Poh and I.H. Wong
A Floating-Type Braced Excavation in Soft Marine Clay ...........................................................326
P.C. Lim and T.S. Tan
Cantilevered Earth Retaining System for a Building Complex Constructed on ..........................338
Undulating Terrain
B. Chandrasekaran, S.K. Tang and T.L. Lim
Gaps in Diaphragm Walls and Remedial Measures for the Deep Excavations at........................344
Race Course Road
D. Wen, H.H. Chiang, Y.C. Hong and S.I. Yoon
UPDATING THE ENGINEERING GEOLOGY OF SINGAPORE....................................351

Buried Granite Ridges in Old Alluvium.......................................................................................353
J.C.W. Ong, Moe Sein, R.F. Flanagan, S.K. Tang and J.G. Cai
Limestones of the Jurong Formation............................................................................................372
K. Jeyatharan, K.W. Lee, L.J. Pakianathan and C.P. Seh
The Fort Canning Boulder Bed ....................................................................................................388
J.N. Shirlaw, P.B. Broome, S. Chandrasegaran, J. Daley, K. Orihara, G.V.R. Raju,
S.K. Tang, I.H. Wong, K.S. Wong and Kyi Yu
The Old Alluvium ........................................................................................................................408
S.L. Chiam, K.S. Wong, T.S. Tan, Q. Ni, K.S. Khoo and J. Chu
The Age and Origin of the Quaternary Sediments of Singapore with Emphasis .........................428
on the Marine Clay
M.I. Bird, C.H. Chang, J.N. Shirlaw, T.S. Tan and T.S. Teh
Author Index...............................................................................................................................441
SESSION 1
INVITED LECTURE
Main
Underground Singapore 2003
Uetliberg Tunnel, Switzerland: State of the Art Tunneling

of Large Cross Sections in Soft Ground and Rock
H.C. Schmid
Amberg Engineering Ltd., Switzerland
D.F. Stewart
Amberg & TTI Engineering Pte. Ltd., Singapore
ABSTRACT: The Uetliberg Tunnel is the key element of Zurich's western bypass expressway. The
project comprises two tunnel tubes, each 4.4 km long. Each tube has 2 traffic lanes and 1 hard shoulder. The two tubes are connected every 300 m by pedestrian crossovers and every 900 m by transverse
roadways. The 3 traffic crossover links are provided for emergencies and maintenance work. An underground ventilation station can exhaust waste air or smoke with high intensity from any point of the
tunnel through steerable openings in the intermediate roof.
The Uetliberg Tunnel passes under two ranges of hills, Ettenberg and Uetliberg. A valley divides the
tunnel into two sections (Ettenberg and Uetliberg). The 2 sections will be connected by a false tunnel.
Tunnel excavation comprises two rock and three soft ground sections. The rock sections pass through
flatly layered upper fresh water molasse. The Eichholz section will be excavated by drill and blast in
stages: crown, bench and invert. In the Uetliberg molasses, the excavation will be done in 2 phases:
5 m diameter pilot tunnel excavated with a tunnel boring machine (TBM), followed by a tunnel bore
extender (TBE), which will enlarge the pilot tunnel to the final cross-section of 14.20 m to 14.40 m.
The soft ground sections are passing through very heterogeneous moraine complexes. The tunnel is lying partly below the groundwater table. All soft ground sections of both tunnels have been excavated
using the core method. The behaviour of the excavated tunnels was intensively monitored.
Advanced semi automatic equipment and a new approach of work is being used for surveying and setting out. Considerable economical advantages are achieved.
Total investment cost of the Uetliberg Tunnel is about CHF 1.12 billion. The Opening of the western
by pass is planed in 2008. This paper will be focusing on the excavation of the soft ground sections of
the tunnel and on some real novelties introduced on this project.
1 THE PROJECT
1.1 Overview
The Uetliberg Tunnel project comprises two parallel tubes, each some 4.4 km in length. The two tunnel tubes are connected by man-size crosscuts at 300 m intervals and by three cross-passages allowing
vehicles to cross from one tube to the other every 900 m. SOS niches are set up at 150 m intervals.
There are stations with technical facilities at both portals. The ventilation station is located in the open
cut in the Reppisch Valley. The tunnel dips with a gradient of 1.6 % from the western portal at Wannenboden to the eastern portal at Gnziloo. The project also includes a waste air shaft at Ettenberg
which is connected to the ventilation plant in the region of the Reppisch Valley via a waste air tunnel.
Main
3
Reppisch Valley
Ettenberg
Uetliberg
Figure 1 Layout Uetliberg Tunnel
1.2 Geology
From west to east, the Uetliberg Tunnel passes beneath the Ettenberg and Uetliberg chains of hills.
The Reppisch Valley is located in-between. It will divide the Uetliberg Tunnel into two independent
tunnels, i.e. the 710 m-long Eichholz Tunnel below the Ettenberg and the 3,450 m-long Uetliberg
Tunnel beneath the chain of hills of the same name.
Essentially, both chains of hills comprise flatly bedded freshwater molasse strata, with alternating
strata of hard sandstone outcrops and soft marl layers. The maximum overburden amounts to 320 m.
Three soft ground sections - Gjuch, Diebis and Juchegg have to be excavated through moraine before reaching the Eichholz (500 m) and Uetliberg (2800 m) molasse sections. Ground conditions vary
from soft loamy sandy material with stones and boulders to compact moraine. The Gjuch soft ground
section is the most difficult one due to presence of saturated clayey sands
UETLIBERG
+ 800
ETTENBERG
+ 700
+ 600
Ventilation flue
Eichholz
Portal station
Wannenboden
Portal station
G ziloo
Zurich West
interchange
Zurich East
interchange
+ 500
Reppisch valley
cut-and-cover section
with the ventilation station
+ 400
+ 300 m ? M.
1
2
3
4
5
Soft ground section Gjuch

Molasse section Eichholz
Soft ground section Diebis
Molasse section Uetliberg
Soft ground section Juchegg
25.0 km
29.0 km
Moraine
Alluvial moraine
210.00 m
~ 500.00 m
~ 240.00 m
~ 2800.00 m
~
Watertable
Control levels
Sandstone
Marl
Loam
410.00 m
Figure 2 Geological profile through Ettenberg and Uetliberg
Basle Tube
Chur Tube
Figure 3 Schematic plan view Uetliberg Tunnel and its different sections and objects
1.3 Construction Program, Procedures and cost

Preliminary construction works like access roads and the preparation of installation areas for the contractors started in 2000. The main contractors moved onto site on October 16, 2000. Since then, about
50% of the construction work has been completed. Current progress is as follows:
The excavations of the soft ground section LGGJU on the west side of the Ettenberg and LG-DIE
facing the Reppisch valley side of the Uetliberg are finished. On the east side of the Uetliberg, the
excavation of the soft ground section LG-JUC is about 85% complete.
The Uetliberg rock tunnel section MOUET is being excavated with two different machines (one TBM
and one TBE) from the Reppisch valley intermediate construction yard towards the Gnziloo portal
near the Zurich East interchange on the east side of the Uetliberg Tunnel.
Rock tunnelling in the Uetliberg was preceded by the headings of the soft ground sections LG-DIE.
The excavation of these sections started in April 2001, and both headings reached the molasses rock
early 2002. The soft ground excavation of this section was finished in March 2002 respectively in May
2002.
Following this intermediate goal, caverns for the assembly of the TBM and the TBE were then excavated in the molasse of the Uetliberg.
In April 2002 a Wirth TB III 500 E (diameter 5.00 m) tunnel boring machine (TBM) was assembled in
the Basel tube in order to drive a pilot tunnel. Starting in the mid May 2002, the TBM finished the pilot tunnel excavation of the entire Ueltiberg molasse section of approximately 2800m within 9 months.
The machine was pulled back to the Reppisch valley construction site, moved across to the Chur tube,
from where it began its journey in the direction of Gnziloo in early May 2003. By the end of September, it had excavated approximately 1300 m.
Also at the beginning of May 2003, a tunnel bore extender (TBE) Wirth TBE 500/1440 started to extend the pilot tunnel bore from 5 m diameter to the final cross section of 14.20 to 14.40 m diameter.
By end of September 2003, the machine had widened some 350 m of tunnel to its full size.
An 8 year construction period seems long. Considering the constraints and all the auxiliary structures,
the time frame is actually ambitious. The undertaking is also challenging from the turnover point of
view: In order to finish construction in time means an average monthly turnover of 15 Mio. SGD!
TYPICAL TUNNEL CROSS SECTIONS

1.4 Soft ground sections
Horse shoe cross section with curved invert is used in all soft ground sections (LG). The excavation
measures about 14.70 m in width and 12.70 m in height. The face measures approx. 148 m2.
1.5 Rock section in the Ettenberg molasse
A horse shoe cross section with curved invert is also used for the drill-and-blast excavation in the
Eichholz molasse section (MO-EIC). The face measures about 14.50 m in width and 12.50 m in height.
The face measures approx. 143 m2.
1.6 Rock section in the Uetliberg molasse
Since the Uetliberg molasse section MO-UET will be excavated by the use of tunnel boring machines,
the typical section is circular or almost circular with a diameter of 14.00 to 14.40 m. The face measures 155 to 160 m2, depending on rock conditions and temporary support requirements.
Exca va tion a rea

= ca . 148 m
In-situ concrete lining
Abluftkanal
Fahrbahnbreite 10.50 m
False ceiling
Waterproofing
membrane
Slotted channal
12.70 m
Excavation support
Hydrant pipe
Prefabricated
service duct
Drainage main
14.70 m
Figure 4 Typical cross section in soft ground and drill and blast sections
Exca va tion a rea

= ca . 160 m
False ceiling
Abluftkanal
Waterproofing
membrane
Excavation support
In-situ concrete lining

Slotted channal
Temporary site road
Hydrant pipe
Prefabricated
service duct
Drainage main
14.40 m
Figure 5 Typical cross section in the Uetliberg rock section
14.20 m
Fahrbahnbreite 10.50 m
2 EXCAVATION OF THE SOFT GROUND SECTIONS

2.1 Construction method
As already mentioned, the project contains 3 sections of tunnelling in soft ground, each section consisting of 2 tubes. Total length of tunnel in a variety of species of soft ground and partly under the
ground water table exceeds 1700 m. The construction of these sections has posed a challenging task
both for the designer as well as for the contractor. The method of excavation was selected with consideration of boundary conditions, like soil and groundwater conditions, 6 faces, and cross-sections of
148 m2. Consideration was also given to conditions and constraints given by the Client and the surroundings near the portal areas.
In the following the excavation method, temporary support measures, encountered problems and
achieved performances will be described. Information will also be given about the monitoring of the
excavated sections.
All soft ground sections have been excavated using the same method of excavation, the so called core
method, sometimes also called side wall drift method. The sequence of the excavations and typical dimensions and cross-sections (total area 147.6 m2) are shown in Figure 6.
17.35 m
17.35m
12.70 m
24.30 m
4
26.66 m
22.55 m
22.55 m
5
16.84 m
14.72 m
Figure 6 Typical cross section of soft ground tunnel
The following detailed description of the individual excavation steps and support measures is typical
for most sections. In portal areas auxiliary measures like pipe screens were used for the first 20 m of
tunnel, and in sections below the ground water table, drainage and water table lowering measures were
implemented to improve properties of the ground and stability of the surface.
1. The upper wall headings have been excavated meter by meter using small excavators. The freshly
excavated surfaces of the tunnel including the face were sealed with 3 to 5 cm of shotcrete directly
after excavation. Furnace-dried, ready mixed dry-mix shotcrete was used on account of its ready availability and to enhance working safety through very fast setting. Steel supports were placed at 1 m
spacing. The space in between the beams was filled up with steel fibre wet-mix shotcrete in 2 to 3 layers. Certain sections required the setting of forepoles before the excavation or the anchoring of the face
to safeguard face stability.
2. The excavation of the lower wall heading followed some 10-20 m behind the top heading. The
same equipment and supporting elements as in the upper side wall heading were used. The removal of
muck and the supply of construction materials for the lower as well as for the upper heading were handled over a temporary road in the lower heading. Shotcrete was pumped from the portal directly to the
place of its point of application.
3. Excavation and support of the crown: Various auxiliary measures, which were refined on the basis
of experience gained with the side wall heading operations, were applied prior to the excavation of the
crown:
Roof support with steel forepoles, diameter 30 mm, length 4 to 5 m. Up to 30 forepoles were placed
into the roof area between the fitted steel arches after each stage of excavation.
Face anchoring with a variable number of 15 m-long steel self-drilling anchors with 3 m overlap.
The anchors were cut back after each stage of excavation, and the face was again supported by
means of fibre reinforced shotcrete and new anchor bolt plates. Where necessary, drainage piping
was drilled and fitted in the face.
The support elements were installed similar to the proceedings in the wall heading drives. After
excavating one metre of crown, the surface was sealed with dry-mix shotcrete and the crown area
then supported by means of mesh and steel vaults. In the next step, the forepoles were rammed in
and, after this; the free area between the steel arches was sprayed with steel fibre wet-mix shotcrete. This procedure was retained throughout the entire crown driving operation. This was crucial
with respect to work safety and with regards to keeping deformations within the specified limits.
4. Excavation of the core: The design engineer (Amberg) specified that the ring closure had to take
place within 40 m from the crown face in order to limit deformations of the overall cross-section. A
further condition was that the temporary inner walls from the side wall headings could only be removed 6 m behind the face of the crown. The contractor asked to remove the core over a ramp down to
the invert rather than perpendicularly as originally planned. This ramp to the core excavation area allows the contractor to use the same equipment for crown drive and upper wall headings. The temporary walls were removed during removal of the core, prior to invert excavation.
5. Excavation of the invert: After every 12 m of the crown excavation, operations were changed to the
invert excavation. The excavation of the invert took place in 12 metre stages from the tunnel face in
direction of the portal. Usually 3-4 m was excavated, followed by applying the sealing shotcrete layer,
the steel supports and steel fibre wet-mix shotcrete.
Figure 7 Soft ground excavation with core method
2.2 Personnel and Equipment

The contractors recognized the importance of well qualified personnel for this challenging task and
provided a substantial number of skilled and experienced staff which led the many rather small individual working groups. The contractor also invested generously in suitable new equipment. Each
group responsible for one heading had their own equipment like excavator, shotcrete mobile and
equipment for the setting of anchors and forepoles. Considering that there were up to 12 parallel running headings, this strategy was not cheap but paid off in the end by good rates of progress.
2.3 Safety and stability of excavation

The selected method for the excavation of the soft ground sections proved very successful. There were
no collapses in any of the headings in any section and at no time was there any serious problem with
the stability of individual cross sections or the whole tunnel. Work safety was very good. Apart from
some typical minor injuries there was no serious incident at all. Consequent attention was given to the
respective ground conditions in all headings and necessary adjustments to the support measures were
made in a timely manner.
2.4 Performance
The achieved progress of work was according to schedule. In parts the performance even exceeded expectations and programmed values. The following table shows the performance range in the different
soft ground sections. The variance is mainly due to variable ground conditions.
Table
1 Excavation and support measures in soft ground sections in m/day
__________________________________________________________________________
Heading
From
To
Average
__________________________________________________________________________
1 Upper wall heading
2.80
5.00
3.80
2 Lower wall heading
4.00
6.00
5.20
3 Excavation Crown
3.00
4.00
3.60
4 Excavation Core
6.50
12.00
9.60
5 Excavation Invert
8.20
12.00
10.20
Excavation
of full cross section
1.10
1.40
1.25
__________________________________________________________________________
2.5 Monitoring
The behavior of the excavated and temporarily supported tunnel sections was monitored, both on the
individual cross sections as well as on the full cross section. In certain areas, monitoring was also used
to check the behavior of the surface in the influence area of the tunnel construction.
2.5.1 Deformation of the tunnel
Deformations have been monitored with optical 3-D measurements and with Distometer convergence
measurements. For the optical 3-D measurements permanent reflectors were bolted onto the shotcrete
lining and the measurement of the deformation was done using a fully automatic theodolite. The following are typical results recorded: Almost no deformations were measured after the excavation of the
upper wall heading. The excavation of the lower wall headings caused settlements on the upper heading of 10 to 25 mm. In the rear of the fully excavated wall heading, a narrowing of the cross section in
the order of 10 to 15 mm was typically recorded. The excavation of the crown led to further settlements of the wall headings of 10 to 15 mm, and the excavation of the invert caused settlement of the
crown of the tunnel of 20 to 30 mm. The excavation of the full cross section caused therefore a settlement of 40 to 70 mm. This value compared well with the calculated total settlement of 50 to 100 mm,
depending on the assumptions of the soil parameters. The total settlement of up to 40 to 70 mm was
also confirmed with the measurement of the profile.
2.5.2 Piezometer
Several piezometers were placed in boreholes which were in the sphere of influence of tunnel excavation. The measurements during excavation showed a lowering of the ground water table by 1 to 3 meters in the stiffer parts of the moraine. In the soft ground section Gjuch where the water table is
above the tunnel and the ground contains sandy layers the water table had to be lowered in order to
improve conditions for the excavation.
3 EXCAVATION OF THE ROCK SECTION

3.1 Drill and Blast Technique for the Ettenberg Tunnel
Coming from the west, the Gjuch soft ground section is followed by the Eichholz molasse section.
This 500 m long tunnel section is excavated by d+b with round lengths of 3 m. The cross section is divided into crown, bench and base. Rock support generally consists of fibre-reinforced shotcrete
and rock bolts. Initially, the tunnel crown was driven over the entire length of the molasse
stretch. As soon as breakthrough of the crown was achieved, excavation of the middle section
of the bench was started, using a Caterpillar D10 Dozer for the loosening of the rock. The side walls of
the bench and the invert will be excavated using a heavy road header.
3.2 Combined Machine Excavation of the Uetliberg Tunnel
The rock section of the Uetliberg tunnel will be excavated in 2 stages, following one another in independent steps:
1. Pilot Tunnel, 5 m diameter
2. Enlargement to the full cross section of 14.20 to 14.40 m with a TBE, Tunnel Boring extender
3.3 Pilot Tunnel
The pilot tunnel is being driven with an open type TBM of 5m diameter. On February 20, 2003, the
breakthrough of the Basel tubes pilot tunnel was celebrated. The TBM had been boring the tunnel
since May 8, 2002, and about nine months and 2800 meters later it reached its goal cavern at the end
of the Juchegg soft ground section.
Figure 8 TBM-Excavation of the pilot tunnel
Figure 9 Breakthrough of first pilot tunnel
Rock support consisted of steel-fibre-reinforced shotcrete and glassfiber-reinforced rock bolts 2.5 m
long. The peak rate of advance was 42.6 m/workday in three-shifts. The average rate over the entire
section was 20 m/workday.
Starting in May 2003 the same TBM is now driving the second pilot tunnel (Chur tube). At the end of
September 2003 the machine has mined approximately 1200 m.
3.4 Tunnel Bore Extender (TBE)
The TBE has to enlarge the pilot tunnel from 5.00 m to the full size of the tunnel. The typical cross
section of the tunnel has a diameter in the range of 14.20 to 14.40 m. This size represents the worlds
largest diameter TBE to date. The shape of the excavation can be circular or oval, which is another
novelty in mechanised tunnelling. Why a variable diameter and an oval shape, and how can this be
achieved? It will be explained below.
10
Figure 10 The TBE boring head
Early November 2002 saw the beginning of the assembly of the TBE. The erection of the TBE with its
back-up equipment of about 180 m length was completed by mid-April 2003. Following initial test
runs, the widening of the pilot tunnel to the final cross-section of 160 m2 began after Easter 2003.
The TBE operates with an open type cutterhead with six cutter arms. The TBE is braced in the pilot
tunnel in front of the head and in the widened tunnel cross-section behind the cutter head. The disc
cutters are mounted on radially movable slides on the cutter arms. The rock is excavated with the undercutting technique. In this new technique of TBM tunnelling, the rollers work against the rocks tensile strength, which is much lower than its compressive strength. Energy consumption and tool wear
are thus much lower.
When the six-arm boring head rotates, the rollers are shifted from an inner to an outer boring diameter.
When the nominal boring diameter has been reached, the slides are retracted. Then the continuously
rotating head is shifted by one 20 cm advance towards the face, and boring of the next round can begin. The boring diameter can be adjusted from 14.20 to 14.40 m. It is also possible to excavate an oval
tunnel of 14.20 m wide and 14.40 m high to give extra space for temporary support in the crown where
needed. This computerised feature is cost effective, as the size of the profile can be
adjusted to the actual ground conditions and the need of support measures. The TBE at the Uetliberg
thus incorporates two novel features which will lead to further developments and optimisations.
Figures 11 and 12 Principle of the undercutting technique and operating principle of the TBE
The TBE started to excavate on April 11, 2003. The initial phase was used to test all possibilities of
the machine. It showed that the undercutting principle works well. The rock is cut away smoothly. The
testing phase also confirmed that the diameter and the form of the tunnel could easily be adjusted to
suit actual needs. The initial phase also gave the operators an opportunity to become accustomed to a
new technique.
11
The TBE has now enlarged some 350 m of tunnel to the full size required. This does not quite meet the
planned average performance of 9 m/day yet, but on some days 12 m have been achieved. The progress is dependant on the quantity of temporary support and also on the works which have to follow in
the rear of the machine, namely the waterproofing and concreting of the invert. Additionally the placing and backfilling of the precast duct which hosts the drainage and all technical services needed for
the operation of the tunnel can also constrain machine performance.
Rock support was initially done with steel arches and shotcrete. After the initial trial period, Swellex
bolts have been used in combination with shotcrete.
Figure 13 TBE back-up equipment
Figure 14 Cutterhead seen from the pilot tunnel
4 AUTOMATED SURVEYING AND SETTING OUT

Surveying requirements have changed little since the first tunnels were dug many centuries ago. Leaving and arriving at the required place was the goal and still is today. However, techniques and instrumentation to achieve this have developed considerably, and also the cost constraints within which the
task should be achieved.
One of the critical factors for the successful construction of a tunnel is that the finished excavation is
fit for the purpose for which it was designed. For this to be achieved the tunnel must follow the designed axis and be of the correct size and shape. These factors are easy to design with the up to date
CAD facilities, which produce precise designs for complex shapes in 3 dimensions with absolute coordinates. However to translate this complex data into a finished tunnel still relies on the application of
surveying technology, which due to the underground environment and confined spaces is a unique
challenge in itself.
The development of computerised total surveying stations with functionalities such as automatic target
recognition, automatic target tracking, power search and remote control has provided the hardware for
increasingly accurate survey tasks. But what about the actual tunnel construction?
TBM manufacturers have been at the forefront of tunnel guidance systems due to the critical nature of
the control of the direction and elevation of the TBM and associated support in the backup. The more
varied and flexible methods of tunnelling have traditionally relied on the old fashioned methods for
setting out the direction and dimensions of the tunnel. However this has been changing over a number
of years with the latest systems being very technically advanced indeed.
The latest type of surveying systems is the so called TMS (Tunnel Measurement System), developed
by Amberg Measuring Technique Ltd. for LEICA Geosystems Ltd. The system can be divided into 2
packages, the TMS SETOUT and the TMS PROFILE. At the construction site, the system provides a
12
seamless translation of the complex design data into readily available set out information at the face.
The system is available to the tunnelling crew at anytime through the creation of task orientated software and the use of remote control units. Important at the tunnel face are exact positionings for
Points or contour
steel arches
Systematic anchoring
formwork
All these tasks are set up on the office based PC where all the design data is managed through the
common platform of TMS office.
At the Uetliberg Tunnel, this latest survey technology is used extensively. The contractor is using
LEICA TPS1100 Series total stations with TMS SETOUT (Plus) and TMS PROFILE (Plus) software
packages. The concept behind the software solution was to identify the production tasks required and
automate them in such a way, that a non-surveyor like the tunnel foreman with little or no surveying
knowledge can do the setting out himself. One key benefits of this approach is time savings and more
accurate setting out of profile and steel arches, thus saving excavation volume, but more important
shotcrete and concrete, which would be needed to fill up oversize profile. On the Uetliberg project
there are up to 8 TMS systems of hardware and software employed at any one time, and there is one
only surveyor doing all the setting up of these automated systems.
Behind each tunnel face 1 Leica TCRA1105 is mounted on a permanent bracket out of the way of construction equipment as shown on the pictures below. Each of these instruments contains TMS SETout
(Plus) on-board software with all project data loaded via PCMCIA card from TMS OFFICE on an office based PC. This is the common platform for handling all the design data, such as alignment, excavated profile, position of arches, thickness of shotcrete required etc.
The savings in time and money are evident. Besides the savings in time and labour there are savings in
materials and overall project cost. The system has applications for most activities in conventional tunnel construction and many of the works carried out behind the TBMs for the finished tunnel. To
maintain some regulation over these activities each foreman has a password controlled user name and
it is possible for the surveyor to check all the actions carried out on the total stations. By this security
check it is impossible for a non-qualified person to make serious errors that can go unnoticed.
Figure 15 Tunnel Measuring System (TMS) developed by Amberg Engineering for Leica Geosystems
The improved hardware in Total Measuring Stations offer many potential applications for the storing
and translation of design data into the finished tunnel. This does not only improve the quality of construction but also give more responsibility to the operatives to enable them to excavate the right shape,
size and direction first time.
13
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The tunnel is being constructed for the client, Baudirektion Kanton Zrich by the joint venture contractors ARGE Uetli, lead by Zschokke Locher and including the follwing partner companies; Murer
AG, Prader AG, CSC Bauunternehmung AG, Wayss & Freytag GmbH, Alpine Mayreder Bau GmbH,
ZblinSchlittlerSpaltenstein Bau AG.
Amberg Engineering Ltd is singly responsible for the design and project management.
For further information, click on:
www.westumfahrung.ch (client)
www.uetlibergtunnel.ch (project coordinator)
www.arge-uetli.ch (subcontractors)
14
SESSION 2
CAVERNS
Main
Feasibility of Developing Water Service Reservoirs in

Rock Caverns in Singapore
T.R. Bye
Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Norway
H.Y. Bian, J. Zhao

2
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
E. Broch
Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Norway
ABSTRACT: This paper evaluates the potential for storing of drinking water in rock caverns in Singapore. The feasibility study is primarily based on investigations carried out in the Bukit Timah granite in an earlier feasibility study by Nanyang Technological University (NTU) and the former Public
Works Department (PWD). These studies showed that the granite is a suitable material for cavern construction. A total of five sites have been identified based on height requirements in three different rock
formations: the Bukit Timah granite, the Gombak norite and the Jurong Formation. Detailed investigations in the Gombak norite have not been carried out, but available literature has however shown
that the formation has similar properties as the Bukit Timah granite. As for the Jurong Formation, the
rock is competent for cavern development, but the costs will be higher.
1 INTRODUCTION
The population in Singapore is to be increased by one million in the 21st century. The domestic consumption of clear water for the increased population is estimated to be 150,000 m3/day. Additional
clear water service storage will thus be needed (Broms and Zhao, 1993).
Clear water can be stored in either open reservoirs, concrete or steel tanks or rock caverns. This storage is a buffer capacity which provides a reserve of purified water which can be drawn when the demand is greater than the output from the waterworks. This will make it easier to operate the treatment
plants and the pumps at constant capacities. It will also act as an emergency storage in case of fire and
during failure of mains, pumps or other equipments. Water stored in open reservoirs is exposed to
sunlight and pollution. Therefore, closed water tanks of some kind are preferred for better protection
of the drinking water.
In Singapore, water is stored in 15 concrete water tanks spread out all over the island. These are all put
on high ground to give a certain water pressure and to make sure that the water flows by gravity to the
consumers. The total storage volume of these water tanks covers one-day consumption. Most of the
tanks are located underground such as concrete basements, but some are also located above ground.
One alternative way is to store the water in excavated caverns in rocks. The advantages of constructing
rock caverns rather than water tanks are better use of land, a high degree of safety, good possibilities
for future expansion and lower maintenance costs. The better use of land is especially important in
land-scarce Singapore. Although some of the existing water tanks are located underground, they are
shallow and exposed at surface and subjected to attack. In addition, they occupy land area because it is
not planned to build another structure on top of them. It would therefore be preferable to construct underground caverns for future storage facilities.
Main
17
2 INTEGRATING ROCK CAVERNS TO PRESENT WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

Raw water from the reservoirs is treated in waterworks to make it safe for consumption. The treated
water is temporarily stored in clear water tanks in the waterworks and then sent into the distribution
system. Apart from direct delivery to consumers, the water is also stored in large water tanks sited on
high ground so it can flow by gravity. This storage provides a reserve of purified water which may be
drawn in times when the demand is greater than the output from the waterworks and during failure of
mains, pumps or other equipments (PUB, 2003). All in all, there are 15 water reservoirs spread out all
over Singapore, and they are inter-connected by a network of pipelines. The clean water reservoirs are
primarily concrete tanks. The average size of a water tank facility is about 100,000 m3. The total capacity of all the water tanks covers the daily consumption in Singapore (1.3 million m3).
Using rock caverns for storing of clear water is a good alternative to above ground water tanks. However, even if most of the concrete water tanks in Singapore are located underground, they are shallow
and exposed at surface. Replacement of some of the existing water tanks may be an option, but the
best solution will be to expand the storage capacity by constructing rock caverns to cater for the increasing demand due to the anticipated increase in population.
The existing water tanks are generally built on high ground, mostly about 60 m, so that the water can
flow by gravity and a certain water pressure is created. With the relatively low topographical relief in
Singapore this will limit the suitable sites available for rock caverns. However, the underground caverns are additional, so the existing water tanks can supply the areas of high elevation. The critical elevation of the rock cavern invert is chosen to be 40 m to make sure there is a certain water pressure.
3 SITE SELECTION
As the caverns are shallowly seated, the critical factor deciding cavern depth is the rock mass overburden. A rule of thumb is that the rock cover above the crown of a cavern should be about equal to the
span. In this study, the span of a typical cavern is chosen to be 16 m, and the height of the cavern is 15
m. The assumed overburden of weathered rock is 10 m and required rock cover is 15 m. The water
service caverns must therefore be sited below hilltops with an elevation of at least +80 m MSL, as illustrated in Figure 1, to give the cavern crown at least at +55 m MSL and invert at least at +40 m
MSL.
Based on the above assumption and the site investigations carried out earlier by NTU and PWD (Zhao
et al, 1995), Table 1 indicates suitable locations for water supply caverns in Singapore and the respective potential storage volume for different height requirements. Among the five locations indicated,
three sites are ideal locations above +80 m MSL in the Bukit Timah granite, one in the Gombak norite
and one in the Jurong Formation. The site in Jurong formation satisfies the height requirements, but
the cost is expected to be higher than for the igneous rocks because of the expected extra rock support
and ground treatment required due to poorer rock mass quality and higher permeability in sedimentary
rocks.
4 PROPOSED CAVERN GEOMETRY FOR A TYPICAL SITE
As described in Section 3, the span of a typical cavern is chosen to be 16 m, with a height of 15 m. The
slightly low walls are possible because of the expected favorable high horizontal stress (Zhao et al.,
2003). The ideal water cavern facility consists of a complex of 5 caverns, each with a length of 100 m.
Typical layouts of a cavern complex at Bukit Batok hill and Bukit Gombak hill are shown in Figure 2.
Cross-sections are shown in Figures 3 and 4.
As seen in Figure 2, the water caverns at Bukit Gombak can have an invert elevation of +70 m MSL,
while the caverns at Bukit Batok can have an invert elevation of +40 m MSL. The cross-section shown
in Figure 3 is perpendicular to the caverns. As seen in the figure, they can be built in different elevation, which is done to make them fit the topographic constraints.
18
+80 m MSL
Soil
10m
Rock
15m
15m
+40 m MSL
Figure 1 Illustration of a typical cavern and soil and rock covers
Table 1 Possible locations of clear water reservoir caverns in Singapore rocks
Location
Plan area (m2)Potential volume (m3)
Cavern invert elevation at +40 m MSL

Bukit Batok Natural Park (G)
48,700
365,200
787,500
5,906,200
Bukit Kallang (G)
81,200
609,000
Bukit Gombak (N)
875,000
6,562,500
18,700
140,200
20,600
154,500
701,200
5,259,300
Bukit Kallang (G)
30,600
229,500
Bukit Gombak (N)
600,000
4,500,000
552,100
4,140,700
Bukit Kallang (G)
11,200
84,000
Bukit Gombak (N)
320,300
2,402,200
Bukit Timah Nature Reserve (G)
Mount Faber (J)

Bukit Batok Natural Park (G)

Note: G : Bukit Timah granite; N: Gombak norite; J: Jurong Formation
19
The length of each cavern can be adjusted to fit the topographic constraints. It is not necessary for all
the caverns to have the same length (e.g., all at 100 m). Indeed, some of them can be longer or shorter.
At the ends of caverns, the rock cover could be thinner.
The cross-section in Figure 4 is parallel to the caverns and shows the configuration and connection between the access tunnel and caverns. It illustrates that the access tunnel is at higher elevation than the
water caverns. This will make the access tunnel shorter and it will thus be cheaper. Caverns will be
constructed from the access tunnel by drill-and-blast method to form a heading and then benching to
excavate downward for the remaining part of each cavern. A ramp (marked by dotted line) of about 4
m wide, which is sufficient for machines and vehicles, is made, and remains for equipment and material transport and also for future access to caverns for inspection and maintenance. A concrete wall will
be constructed between the access tunnel and the caverns once excavation is completed.
According to the investigation carried out by NTU and PWD (Zhao et al, 1995), about 75% of the rock
mass quality is good to extremely good. Based on the Q-value design char (Barton et al, 1992), the
caverns can be built with a large span of up to 30 m. But to ease the water regulation and maintenance, the water storage complex will consist of 5 caverns of 16 m span. These will give a total storage
volume of 113,500 m3, which is about the same size as the existing water tank storage facility.
As for the permanent rock support needed, this will be a function of rock mass quality, cavern dimensions and the intended function of the cavern. A water cavern would not involve any regular human
activity inside, therefore requires less factor of safety (i.e., higher effective span ratio, ESR). The total
amount of support can be estimated from the Q-value design chart. In the good sections (zone 2), only
spot bolting is needed, and for the possible few sections with poor rock quality (zone 3 and poorer),
shotcrete may be required in addition to closer-spaced bolting.
The caverns shall be sited in massive granite and norite rock masses of low permeability. This will
prevent fresh water leaking out or groundwater leaking in. The experience from the cavern constructed
in the Bukit Timah granite shows that the caverns are generally dry, i.e., no water leakage in massive
granite rock masses. However, in siting the caverns, major discontinuities, such as faults and shear
zones, must be avoided.
5 COST COMPARISON
The estimated cost for the clear water storage cavern is compared with the cost for the above ground
concrete water tank. The cost of a concrete tank is provided by the Water Department of the Public
Utilities Board, as a unit cost per m3 storage. The typical water storage system is a tank facility of several concrete tanks built at ground of high elevation. A typical storage system has a storage volume of
about 100,000 m3. The typical cost of constructing a concrete tank for such storage system is about
S$ 120 (US$ 67) per m3 of storage, including the cost of associated pipelines, instrument house, control valves and other equipment. Therefore, the total construction cost of concrete tanks for a 113,500
m3 storage system is approximately S$ 13.6 million (US$ 7.6 million).
The cost of construction, i.e., building the rock cavern facility of the same storage volume of 113,500
m3 is similar. The experience in Norway has shown that the cost of cavern option is lower when the
storage capacity is above 8,000 m3 (Broch and degaard 1983). The relative high cost for cavern construction in Singapore is due to the relative high rate of cavern construction and long access tunnels
due to the constraints of terrain.
However, it should be noted that the above ground concrete tanks occupy land space, and the cost of
land is relatively high in Singapore. Such additional cost due to land premium should be an important
factor for consideration. With a storage volume of 113,500 m3, and a typical concrete tank farm with a
height of about 5 m occupies approximately 27,240 m2 of land. The land area covered by the tanks is
22,700 m2, and the land area occupied between the tanks is approximately 20% of the land covered by
the tanks.
20
water cavern
connecting tunnel
access tunnel
Figure 2 Possible locations of water service reservoir caverns at Bukit Batok (left) and Bukit Gambak (right)
Access Tunnel
5m
5m
Water Cavern
Connecting Tunnel
Figure 3 Cross-section perpendicular to the caverns
Access
Tunnel
Water Cavern
Figure 4 Cross-section parallel to the caverns
21
The land premium is estimated at S$ 240 (US$ 140) per m2. This premium is a typical cost for land of
industrial use in Singapore. This should be considered as a lower limit of land premium as generally
land premium of central Singapore is higher than that of the industrial estate in the west Singapore.
With the area estimated and the assumed land premium, the cost for land used for building water storage tank farms is approximately S$ 6.8 million (US$ 3.8 million). It is about 50% of the construction
cost of the tanks, including pipelines, mechanical and electrical installations.
The proposed locations of underground rock cavern water storage facility are mostly below the nature
reserve or parks, of high elevation above +80 m MSL. The land premium is not provided by the land
authority. However, due to the scarcity of land, particularly the land of high elevation, those areas are
usually highly protected and preserved. Therefore, in addition to the economics, there is a highly environmental benefit, which is very difficult to measure by cost.
6 CONCLUSIONS
With large concentrations of people in limited space, underground development can be a useful contribution in Singapore. For the additional storage needed for clear water, rock caverns can be utilized as
service reservoir.
Based on the rock mass quality combined with the topographical relief, five sites are potential locations for the water storage caverns. The Bukit Timah granite and the Gombak norite are the main
choices for cavern development for water storage. The location in the Jurong Formations satisfies the
height requirements but the costs are expected to be higher due to the poorer rock mass quality and the
higher permeability.
The decision to locate the caverns below hill tops of an elevation of +80 m MSL is based on the assumption that the weathering on hill tops is about 10 m. The exact weathering must therefore be examined through further field investigations at the specific sites.
REFERENCES
Barton, N., Grimstad, E., Aas, G., Opsahl, O.A., Bakken, A., Perdersen, L., and Johansen, E.D. (1992). Norweigian method of tunneling. World Tunnelling, June/August 1992.
Broch, E. and degaard, L. (1983). Storing of water in rock caverns. Underground Space, Vol.7, pp.269-272.
Broms, B.B. and Zhao, J. (1993). Potential use of underground caverns in Singapore. Proc. Seminar Rock Caverns for Underground Space Utilization, Singapore, pp.11-21.
Public Utilities Board web-site: www.pub.gov.sg, 2003
Zhao J, Hefny A.M., Zhou Y. (2003). Hydrofracturing in situ stress measurements in Singapore granite. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, Vol.40.
Zhao, J., Lee, K.W. and Choa, V. (1995). Construction and utilization of rock caverns in the Bukit Timah granite of Singapore. NTU-PWD Geotechnical Research Center, Singapore, Geotechnical Engineering Monograph 1, 111 p.
22
New Technologies Extend the Range of Applications of

Roadheaders
P. Kogler and E. Lammer
VOEST-ALPINE Bergtechnik Ges.M.B..H., Zeltweg, Austria
ABSTRACT: A Roadheader forms a unique equipment for underground excavation in mining and
tunnelling, providing high flexibility in operation and having the ability to cut almost any shape of
profile. Limitations on the extent to which mechanical rock excavation with Roadheaders can be applied, are largely linked to costs associated with cutting harder rock. In particular, consumption of the
cutting tools increases sharply in hard and abrasive materials. In addition, equipment downtime associated with pick replacement adds to the cost and cuts down the advantages of the more continuous
mechanical excavation. It is the aim of this paper to present the latest developments of Roadheaders,
mainly with the aim to extend their range of application towards harder rock.
The results of the joint R&D project called ICUTROC (I cut rock) are now taking mechanical excavation to new performance levels. Some typical recent applications, which were previously out of
reach for Roadheader operation, will highlight the capability of the new generation of boom-type cutting machines. The environmental and economic significance of that development project is underlined by the fact that the research work was funded by the European Union within the Brite-Euram III
Program for Industrial and Material Technologies, managed by the European Commission-DG XII.
1 INTRODUCTION
A Roadheader forms an unique equipment for underground excavation in mining and tunnelling. (Figure 1)
Fig. 1 Roadheader ATM105 ICUTROC
Roadheaders excavate rock by means of a cutter boom which is independently movable in the vertical
and horizontal direction. So Roadheaders can cut any shape of profile and are adaptive to changing
operating conditions or selective excavation. The mechanical cutting process avoids shock loads to the
surrounding rock and minimises overbreak resulting in smooth openings with reduced hazardous areas.
Main
23
2 THE ICACUTROC RTD PROJECT

In 1995, Voest Alpine Bergtechnik (VAB) took the initiative to start a research project under the acronym ICACUTROC, with the aim to extend the economic range of application of Roadheaders towards cutting of harder types of rock. (Figure 2)
30
c/t=6
RANGE FOR COMMON

ROCK FORMATIONS
AVERAGE PRESENT LIMIT FOR

ECONOMICALLY CUTTING
20
CAI=1
CAI=4
CAI=1
10
c/t=20
CAI=3
VAB's TARGET
LIMIT
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH c [MPa]
Fig. 2 Target of Roadheader development for hard rock cutting
The project objective was to achieve these targets with Roadheaders not exceeding
300 kW cutterhead power
approx. 120 t operating weight, to maintain sufficient flexibility and maneuverability, but also
to keep investment cost at an admissible level.
This research program incorporated VOEST ALPINE BERGTECHNIK and Sandvik Rock Tools as the
industrial core. Two customer partners (Thyssen Schachtbau and Somincor) and three research institutes
(Seibersdorf Research institute, ARMINES CGES and the mining engineering department of Montanuniversitt Leoben) supplemented the research partnership. (Figure 3)
(A)
(S)
(A)
(A)
(D)
(F)
Fig. 3
(P)
Organisation of the ICACUTROC- research and development project.
3 THE ICACUTROC RESEARCH APPROACH

The research approach was characterised by combined development addressing the mechanical and
wear properties of the cutting tools as well as the characteristics of the cutting system and machine system. The research work included:
24
New concepts and production technologies of cutting tools

Laboratory testing of the new developed tools.
Cutting system development by using computer aided modelling and calculations.
Testing and optimisation of the new system under practical conditions by civil engineering and mining end-users.
Improvement of understanding of the interaction between rockmass behaviour and cutting process.
4 DEVELOPMENT OF NEW CUTTING TOOLS

A complete new generation of cemented carbide grade the so called S-GRADE has been developed
and patented by Sandvik Rock Tools. The concept means that it is now possible to compose the structure
of Tungsten-Carbide (TC)-grains and cobalt perfectly brick by brick to the desired composition,
grainsize distribution and morphology, without porosity and other imperfections.
Fig. 4 Thermo mechanical FEM calculations of cutting tools
Accompanied by FEM-calculations, (Figure 4) numerous lab tests and research on wear mechanisms and
thermophysical properties, the life of the new cutting tools was more than doubled over former grades.
Comparative site tests with standard TC-grades confirmed the results from theory and test rig.
5 DEVELOPMENT OF A NEW COOLING SYSTEM
Heat generation and temperatures occurring on the picks TC-tip during cutting hard and abrasive
rocks, have great influence on pick wear and failure. A new pick cooling system has been developed,
providing optimal cooling at acceptable water flow rates, resulting in nearly half the tool-wear compared to the present system (Figure 5). This result was achieved by optimising the spray configuration
in combination with a patented, intermittent sectoral controlled water spraying valve.
Fig. 5 Results of Pick Cooling Test at the VAB-testrig. Cutting of Sandstone (u.c.s.: 150 MPA, CAI ~ 2,8)
In addition to the highly reduced wear, the amount of flushing water could be reduced by approximately 25 %.
25
6 DEVELOPMENT OF A NEW CUTTING PROCESS

Basic pick-lacing layout-investigations according to testrig-results (forces, cutting depth, cutting distances), using the Voest Alpine Bergtechnik cutterhead design software, resulted in a new cutting process with the highest possible efficiency.
Fig. 6 Cutter head design
Providing higher forces at the cutterhead, applying low speed cutting combined with the development
of the new generation of picks able to cope with these forces, have been the major steps in the process.
7 DEVELOPMENT OF THE ADAPTED MACHINE SYSTEM

Modelling the complete cutting system using computer simulation techniques in order to harmonise
the factors of the cutting process with the characteristics of the cutting machine was executed, taking
into consideration rock properties, geometric parameters of the cutting unit and the operating characteristics of the cutting system (cutting speed, sump-in depth, cutting depth and machine stiffness). A
FE-model of the complete cutting machine has been set up for simulations of the elastic behaviour of
the system. (Figure 7)
Fig. 7 Stiffness simulations for the cutting system
The required stiffness parameters for hard rock cutting required a reduction in the elasticity of the cutting system. A substantial improvement of the stiffness situation for the cutting action could be obtained by a boom stabilisation system acting on the hydraulic boom cylinders. Beside a more uniform
swivel process, the stiffness helps to maintain the preset cutting depth. The reduced vibration (by less
bouncing of boom) and the shorter overall path length of picks further improve pick life.
26
8 SUMMARY OF THE RESULTS OF THE DEVELOPMENT

The most significant result of the development was that a cutting process with a much higher efficiency could be realised. The diagrams below show a comparison of results from the new, low speed
cutting process compared to the reference system:
Fig. 8 Comparison of the required energy for cutting
In Figure 8 the significant reduction in the specific energy required for cutting the rock, using the new,
low speed cutting process (compared to the reference system) is shown. This effect is also reflected by
a larger size of the cuttings and by a significant reduction of the creation of dust. The total dust concentration approximately 4 m behind the face was reduced from 143.6 mg/m at the reference system
to 14.6 mg/m with the new, low speed cutting. The higher pick forces, at low speed, in combination
with the stabilised and controlled guiding of the cutter-arm, allows harder rock to be cut and gives a
significant increase in performance (Figure 9).
Fig. 9 Comparison of the production rate.
The tool wear is reduced dramatically with the lower cutting speed (Figure 10).
Fig. 10 Comparison of the tool consumption
The main reasons for this effect are:

a strong relation between heat generation and cutting speed, leading to weakening of the temperature
sensitive tungsten carbide at rising cutting speeds.
the impulse of impact of picks penetrating the rock rises proportionally with cutting speed, resulting
in loads exceeding the mechanical strength of the pick tip.
All of these results were turned into a new generation of Roadheaders within the product development
project called ICUTROC (I cut rock), which followed the ICACUTROC basic development project.
27
The following, recent examples of applications will highlight the capabilities of the new ICUTROC
Roadheader generation.
9 EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION: PREMADIO II PROJECT / ITALY
In Premadio/Nortern Italy (Provinzia di Sondrio, Lombardia), the contractor Quadrio Curzio SpA decided to use an ICUTROC AM105 Roadheader for the expansion of an existing hydroelectric power
plant by the installation of an additional generator. The aim of the project is to guarantee the electric
supply of the region around Bormio, which is very important for the Italian tourism. The support of the
existing power house cavern consists of a tubbing system which is very sensitive to any kind of vibration. Therefore, a very smooth method of excavation was required for the enlargement, to avoid any
damage of the existing powerhouse. Because of the fact that blasting causes high and hardly controllable vibrations the customer decided to use a Roadheader.
Rock type:
The geology consisted of a series of metamorphic rocks comprising gneiss, mica-gneiss, chloritic
mica-shist, chlorite-phyllite and graphitic phyllite.
Rock/rockmass data:
Rock Strength 27 - 129 MPa
Abrasivity 2.0 3.4 CAI
Rock Mass Rating (Gehring/rev.)
8 - 30
The Premadio II project comprised two sub-projects:

The excavation of a starting chamber for the TBM, drilling the pressure tunnel for the new generator.
Excavating the the enlargement of the powerhouse.
9.1 Excavation of the starting chamber for the TBM:

Length:
130 m
Section: 30 45 m
Volume: 5.000 m
Roof support: Rock bolts, wire mesh, shotcrete
6m
5m
6m
Fig. 11 Cross section of the TBM starting tunnel
28
Fig. 12 Face conditions
Fig. 13 Cutting conditions
Fig. 14 The ATM 105 ICUTROC in the tunnel
Operational results:
Working Days: 49
1 shift cutting + 1 shift support per day
Net Cutting rate: 65 m/h (average)
Pick Consumption: 0.2 picks/m
29
100
0,34
0,32
90
0,28
NCR - Net Cutting Rate [bcm/h]
0,26
0,24
70
0,22
60
0,20
NCR
SPC
50
40
0,18
0,16
0,14
0,12
30
0,10
0,08
20
0,06
SPC - Specific Pick Consumption [picks/bcm]
0,30
80
0,04
10
0,02
0,00
16.02.01
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02.05.01
03.05.01
Date
Fig. 15 Statistics of operational data of ATM105 IC at Premadio based on shift reports
In the one shift per day cutting operation, (the second shift was used to do the roof support work)
maximum advance rates of 7-8 m per day were achieved.
9.2 Excavating the the enlargement of the powerhouse

The cavern for the enlargement of the power house has a height of 30 m, a width of 31 m and a length
of 23.6 m, resulting in a total excavation volume of about 22,000 bcm.The ATM 105-IC started its operation from an assembly chamber crossing the cavern at the top (Figure 16).
Fig, 16 Layout of the expansion of the powerhouse
Fig. 17 Cross section of the cavern
30
In the following operation, the ATM 105-IC excavated the cavern from the top to the bottom whereas
the machine had to cut its own declines to come from one level to the next one. The cavern was seperated into 9 levels with a height of about 3 m (Figure 17). When the machine reached the bottom of the
cavern, it left the cavern through an already existing tunnel.
Summary:
With net cutting rates of 40 to 90 bcm/hour achieved, it can be stated the chosen ICUTROC Roadheader technology was the optimum solution for that project.
10 EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION: AMERICAN COLLEGE TUNNEL / GREECE
In November 2000, another ICUTROC unit went to the contractor Actor to excavate the American
College Tunnel in Athens/Greece. This tunnel is part of a large highway project where almost 50% of
the new alignment is on on bridges, galleries and in tunnels, situated at the foot of a mountain range to
the north of Athens (Figure 18).
Fig. 18 The American College Tunnel near CHALANDRI / STAVROS
The purpose of the new highway project is to improve the general traffic infrastructure in the area
around Athens as quickly as possible, also with regard to the approach of the Olympic Games in 2004,
which will then be held in their mother country again.
Fig. 19 The construction site in Athens
31
The American College Tunnel is situated in an area sensitive to vibrations despite running in a limestone formation of high rock strength, and it is located 30 m below a more than 1000 years old monastery, listed as a historic monument. Therefore it was decided to use an ICUTROC ATM 105 Roadheader for the excavation. The project comprises two tunnel tubes, one with a length of 560 m and an
other with a length of 640 m. Because of the large tunnel with of 19 m, the profile had to be separated
into 3 partial sections, which had to be cut separately.
Fig. 20 The cross section of the tunnel
Rock type:
Both tubes run in a formation consisting of limestone with interbeddings of limestone shale:
Crystalline limestone (55%),
Carbonatic schist (40%)
Phyllitic shist, clay (5%).
Rock/rockmass data:
Rock Strength 30 - 150 MPa
Abrasivity 0.5 2.5 CAI
Rock Mass Rating (Gehring/revised) 31 43
Roof support:
Steel arches, wire mesh, shotcrete
Fig. 21 Starting the tunnel
32
Fig. 22 Face conditions
Fig. 23 ATM 105 ICUTROC
Impressive net cutting rates of 45 to 80 bcm/hours were realised, with an average tool consumption of
0.22 tools/bcm. This project would not have been possible with Roadheaders based on conventional
technology. The best indication of success was that Actor bought a second ICUTROC AM105 in October 2001.
11 EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION: METRO MONTREAL PROJECT, LOT C 04 / CANADA

Montreals current Metro system consists of four lines and was built in the early 70s. Two years ago
funds were allocated to extend the current line 2 from Henry Bourassa station to Laval.
The project owner is the department of transportation and the engineering consortium SGTM has the
contract for the detail engineering as well as oversees the construction. Engineering work started beginning of 2001 and final construction started in July 2002. The schedule calls for completing the excavation by July of 2004, connecting up to the existing Henry Bourassa station. The new metro extension - budgeted at 380 million Canadian dollars - should be commissioned in January 2006. This paper
describes the C04 contract awarded to NEILSON INC., using mechanical excavation with the ATM
105 ICUTROC Roadheader.
33
Geology:
The crown of the running tunnel is located between approx. 10 to 26 m below surface.
The geological environment of the project is formed by an overburden cover consisting of soil and by
a sequence of limestone intersected by single shale layers.
The cover consisting of sand silt and partly gravely can reach up to 13m in thickness.
The host rock cover, depending on the tunnel location, varies between 3 and 13 m.
On a few occasions a very hard diabase dyke, tested at an average of 300 MPa in unconfined compressive strength, appeared.
Rock/rockmass data:
Rock Strength Limestone 65 - 135 MPa
Rock Strength Shale 63 MPa
Rock Strength Diabase Dyke 272-346 MPa
Abrasivity 0.3 1.0 CAI, (up to CAI 1.7 for the Diabase Dyke)
Rock Mass Rating (Gehring/rev.) 30
Roof support:
For primary ground support, 3 m long resin bolts are installed. The pattern is 6 bolts per row at a spacing of 1.5 or 2.2 m depending on the geology. A wire mesh installed at the crown section is pined to
the roof with 3ft mechanical roof bolts at spacing of about 1 m.
Fig. 24 Cross section of the tunnel: 44.3 m (width 8.2 m, height 6 m)
The ATM105 ICUTROC was the machine, previously used for the PREMADIO - powerhouse excavation in Italy and was factory reconditioned prior to the use in Montreal. The 115 t machine has 300 kW
on the cutter head and a total of 542 kW installed power and is equipped with a slewing belt conveyor
for truck loading and a profile monitoring system.
Fig. 25 The ATM 105 ICUTROC excavating the access ramp
34
Figure 26 shows the final tunnel excavated with the ATM105 in comparison to the tunnel in Lot C05,
which is done in the same geological environment with conventional drill & blast, as shown in Figure
27.
Fig. 26 The tunnel profile of the Roadheader operation with an accuracy of + 40 to 100 mm
Fig. 27 The tunnel profile of the drill and blast operation in LOT C05
After about 800 m of tunnel excavation, the average surveyed overcut with the ATM105 was 100 mm.
With improved operator experience, an accuracy as close as 40mm to the nominal tunnel circumference could be reached. As seen on the drill & blast picture there is a considerable over break at the
crown shaped roof and at the sidewalls. With the concrete savings in Neilsons opinion the profile accuracy is one of the biggest selling points for a Roadheader
For excavation work the originally scheduled 8 hour shifts have been stretched to 10.5 hours to meet
the schedules. The excavation is done on a 5-day week, with some production on Saturdays as well.
For the 2-shift operation there are in total 30 people on site together with 5 people for administration.
In terms of the daily advance rates, nearly 10 m of face advance could be realized on an average. The
best daily advance was close to 15 meters.
35
15
14
13
12
Daily Advance Rate [m]
11
10
9
8
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06.03.03
Date
Daily Advanve Rate
Currently Average Advanve Rate
Fig. 28 Statistics of the daily advance rates of ATM105 IC at Montreal, Lot 4
Total excavation:
Length: 1200 m metro tunnel, 60 m access tunnel
Section: 44.3 m (width 8.2 m, height 6 m)
Volume: 70.000 m average
Average Net Cutting rate: 43.79 m/h
Average Pick Consumption: 0.064 picks/m
Summary:
The heavy duty ICUTROC Roadheader technology was used for the first time in North America and it
started as a big unknown to both the contractor and the project owner. Neither Neilson nor the engineering group had any mechanical cutting experience before. It has been a very good learning curve
and the achievements had been quite outstanding. One of the big advantages granted to mechanical excavation is the environmental impact. While drill & blast had ongoing vibration problems exceeding
vibration limits with well over 200 complaints filed by the community Neilson had no complains at
all. It is also recognized that the mechanical excavation does not damage the immediate rock integrity.
It results in ground stability improvements and does not open vertical joint systems for ground water
inflow. Because of the delicate excavation under the river and close to the existing station in operation
and with the unknown taken away while operating at C04, the project owner will also use an ATM105
Roadheader for Lot C01 excavation.
12 CONCLUSIONS
The versatility of Roadheaders makes them an ideal solution for a wide variety of operating conditions. The latest developments, already well proven in practice, show that Roadheaders can now be
used where they have previously not been economical or their application was too risky. ICUTROC's
improved cutting ability and economics had pushed the effective range of the Roadheader to harder
rock materials up to 150 to 200 MPa compressive strength, depending on the properties of the rock
mass.
Roadheaders based on the latest ICUTROC developments can enter conditions considerably beyond
common expectations - and this with convincing results.
36
REFERENCES
Akerman J. Gerer R., Lammer E, Siebenhofer G. (1998): Improvement of Capabilities of Cutting
Tools and Cutting Systems for Hard Rock Cutting Icacutrock. Unpublished report by VAB.
Gehring K. (1997): Classification of Drillability, Cuttability, Borability and Abrasivity in Tun nelling. Felsbau 15, No.3, pp. 183-191.
Gehring K. (1999): Rozadoras para la Excavasin de Tneles. Principios de Operacin,
Aplicaciones y Necesidades operativa, Ingeo Tuneles, Libro 2, Edorno Grafico S.L., Madrid, pp.
109-141
Gehring K. (2000): Roadheaders, Design, Range of Application and Performance, Proc. of Curso
Sobra de Excavacin de Tneles por Voladora y/o Rozadora, Madrid.
Gehring K. (2000): Modern Roadheader Technology for Tunnel Excavation, Tunnel Maq`2000,
Madrid.
Lammer E., Gehring K. (1998): Verbesserung von Schneidwerzeugen und Schneidsystemen fr
Hartgesteinsbedingungen. Felsbau 16, pp. 27-32
Reumueller B. (2003): ATM105 Operating Results at the Metro Montreal, VAB - Cutting
Technology 2003, Judenburg
37
An Evaluation of Constructing the Worlds Largest

Cavern for Public Use in Singapore
J. Zhao, H.W. Song, H.Y. Bian
Underground Technology and Rock Engineering Program, Protective Technology Research Centre
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Y.X. Zhou, C.C. Seah
Building and Infrastructure Division

Defence Science & Technology Agency, Singapore
ABSTRACT: Compared with the now world famous man-made cavern in Gjvik of Norway, the
even better conditions of rocks and stress state exist in Singapore. Therefore, this paper has proposed
an idea to construct the largest cavern in Singapore. The conditions of geology and rocks for the construction are analyzed and the numerical modeling of the proposed cavern was conducted. It has
proven that construction of this worlds largest cavern in Singapore is technically and economically
feasible.
1 INTRODUCTION
When Gjvik was chosen to host some of the hockey games during the 1994 winter Olympic Games in
Lilihammer, Norway, the city government decided to build a cavern in the mountain. The cavern
stands at 92 m long, 62 m wide, and 25 m high. The now world famous man-made cavern has become
a major tourist attraction in Gjvik, in addition to being a multi-purpose hall for all sorts of activities.
One of the key factors, from a technical point of view, is the high horizontal stress, which makes the
rock cavern self supporting, enabling the cavern to be constructed economically.
The same favourable rock conditions exist in the Bukit Timah granite of Singapore, only the rock mass
is of even better quality (Zhao, 1995,1999).
With the experience gained from the Gjvik stadium of Norway, and the local experience and expertise being developed during the construction of the Underground Ammunition Facility (UAF) by the
Defence Science & Technology Agency for the Ministry of Defence (Zhou, 2003), it is now possible
to consider building the worlds largest cavern in the granite rock of Singapore.
2 FAVOURABLE GEOLOGY AND ROCK QUALITY
Granite rock is a very strong material with strength approximately 4-5 times of the strength of a normal concrete. Assessed by rock mass quality classification system, its Q-value is in the order of 100,
which classifies the granite rock mass being very good to excellent. In addition, the granite is subjected to high horizontal stress. The horizontal stress measured is 2-4 times of the vertical overburden
stress. The rock mass is of very low seepage, groundwater is only able to leak through some fractures
and the quantity is limited and controllable.
In general, the granite rock mass is of very good quality with favourable stress conditions for the excavation of a very large span cavern with arch roof.
Main
38
3 THE PROPOSED CAVERN

The proposed cavern will be 120 m long, 75 m wide and 30 m high including the arch. It will be excavated approximately 50 m below the granite bedrock, in order to have sufficient rock cover to form a
reinforced rock arch above the opening.
In comparison, the Gjvik mountain hall in Norway is 92 m long, 62 m wide and 25 m high, and was
constructed about 40 m below surface (Figure 1).
Proposed World Largest Cavern

(120x75x30m)
Gjvic Cavern
(92x62x25m)
62 m
75 m
Fig. 1 Cross-sections of the proposed world largest cavern and the Gjvik cavern.
Comparisons between the proposed cavern and the Gjvik cavern, in terms of dimension and rock
mass quality, are summarised in Table 1.
It anticipated that two additional side caverns would be constructed for other purposes. Tunnels of
various lengths will be required for construction and access. It is also suggested the scheme would include some vertical shafts for ventilation and access from the surface.
4 TECHNICAL FEASIBILITY
The granite rock mass in Singapore is of very good to excellent quality. Their strength is about
180 MPa. As compared with the gneiss rock mass quality at Gjvik where the current largest cavern
is, the Singapore granite rock mass is much better in terms of quality and stress condition.
DSTA has been developing the Underground Ammunition Facility (UAF) in the Singapore granite
with large span size. In-situ monitoring indicate the arch roof has been displaced upward. Usually,
when an arch and beam is subjected to vertical loads, the arch and beam deform downward. However,
when the arch and beam are compressed horizontally, the vertical displacement can be reduced. This
design concept is often used in pre-stressed concrete beam. With large horizontal compressive stress,
arch roof can be pushed to deform vertically upward. The large horizontal stress in the granite rock
mass in Singapore helps significantly in stabilising openings of large spans.
Numerical analyses and modelling have been performed to confirm the technical feasibility of constructing the proposed large cavern. In the modelling, the surrounding rock mass has been treated as
being reinforced by steel cables and bolts and hence forms a continuous arch around the opening. The
modelling results show that the opening is stable and displacement of the opening is small. The
39
maximum displacement of the cavern roof is expected to be small in the order of a few mm while the
maximum displacement of the cavern high walls is in the order of 10 mm. The stress acting on the
surrounding rock mass is below the strength capacity of the reinforced rock mass with long steel cables and short rock bolts. Some preliminary modelling results are shown in Annex A.
Table 1 Summary of comparisons between the proposed cavern and the Gjvik cavern.
Gjvik Cavern
92x62x25 m
114,100 m3
5,700 m2
5,000
1~12
15~50 m
0.5~1.8 MPa
Limited
Cavern dimensions
Excavated volume
Floor area
Maximum seating capacity
Rock mass quality (Q-value)
Rock cover
Horizontal rock stress
Groundwater
Proposed Cavern
120x75x30 m
230,400 m3
9,900 m2
above 10,000
6~100
50~60 m
2.7~5.4 MPa
Limited
5 COST ESTIMATES
An accurate cost estimate depends on many factors and is beyond the scope of this conceptual proposal. However, in order to provide some insight into the economical feasibility of the proposed facility, a run-of-mill cost estimate has been made.
Estimated costs for cavern excavation and support are presented in Table 2. The estimates are based
on the latest unit cost of the UAF project in the same granite. Adjustment has been made to reflect the
increased requirements of rock support and reinforcement.
The cost estimates are only for the construction of underground cavern. No provision for construction
of access surface roads is included in the cost estimates.
Table 2 Cost estimates for the proposed world largest cavern.
Item
Cost ($x1000)
Remarks
16,210
Unit cost at $65/m3 & 230,400 m3 (based on UAF experience), plus $1,000k for long cables for extra support
Two side caverns
2,680
Cavern of 75 m long, 25 m wide, and 12.5 m high (volume of 20, 600 m3 each. Same rate as above)
Access tunnels
8,500
Span 8 m (50 m2), unit cost at $4,250/m, total length

2,000 m. Total volume 100,000 m3
Vertical shafts
3,400
Unit cost at $8,500/m, total length 400 m. (4 shafts at

100m each for access and ventilation). Volume 12,000
m3 (30 m2 shaft).
Portals works
1,000
Portal/quarry wall protection, etc
Sub-total
31,790
Main cavern
Site investigation
1,600
At 5% of construction cost
Engineering design
3,180
Contingencies
4,770
Total costs
41,340
Total Cost for rock excavation and support
40
Costs for mechanical and electrical works for the cavern usage are not included. They can vary with
the different type of usage. Based on experience from the Gjvik mountain hall, the cost for excavation and support was about 25% of the total cost. This would give a total cost of the entire facility at
about $165 million.
The Gjvik maintain hall was built at a total cost of about US$18 million in 1994, for a total excavated
volume of 114,100 m3. This works out to be about US$160/m3, all-inclusive. If we apply a similar
unit cost to the proposed cavern facility in Singapore, after adjusting for an annual cost inflation of
3%, adjusted unit cost would be about US$196/m3. For a total excavated volume of about 400,000,
this would give a total cost of US$78.4 million, or about S$145 million.
While conventional wisdom may suggest the cost of rock cavern construction can be expensive, we
believe the proposed cavern could be very competitive compared to a similar above ground facility,
only it uses less land and provides better energy efficiency.
From a structural point of view, construction of large span structures aboveground is a major challenge. The granite rock of Singapore, due to its good quality and favourable stress condition, lends itself a perfect condition to construct large-span caverns. As discussed earlier, only rock bolts and a
layer of shotcrete (sprayed concrete) will be sufficient to support the cavern of a 75 m span.
6 POTENTIAL USES AND BENEFITS

The cavern can be used as a multi-purpose hall for functions including sports, entertainment, exhibition and congress, and mass activities. It can also double up as a civil defence shelter for more than
10,000 people in wartime. Indeed, many other critical national functions or storage can also be placed
inside the cavern for protection.
As this will be the world largest cavern, it will be a tourist attraction and a showcase for underground
space utilisation and technology in Singapore.
Major benefits of the cavern include protection, better energy efficiency, more efficient land use, and
promotion of in-door sports, among others.
7 POTENTIAL LOCATIONS OF THE CAVERN

The large cavern should be located in the granite formation and with easy surface access. Some of the
potential locations can be:
Daily Farm / Upper Bukit Timah

Bukit Timah / Rifle Range
Bukit Gombak / Hillview
Locations in areas other than the granite formation can be considered, such as the Fort Canning Hill
and the Mount Faber. However, those rock formations may limit the size of caverns. Detailed geological investigation and rock engineering study must be conducted to evaluate the feasibility of constructing large caverns in any specific locations.
8 CONCLUSIONS
The Ministry of Defence, through its Underground Ammunition Facility (UAF), has demonstrated the
feasibility and benefits of underground storage. With the experience gained from the Gjvik stadium
of Norway, and the local experience and expertise being developed during the construction of the
41
UAF, it is now possible to consider building the worlds largest cavern in the granite rock of Singapore.
Many facilities require large-spans that may prove technically challenging in aboveground construction. The Bukit Timah granite, with its excellent rock quality and favourable horizontal stress, makes
construction of large-span caverns both technically and economically feasible. Long-term cost for
maintenance and operations will definitely be lower compared to a similar above-ground facility.
The construction of such a multi-purpose cavern will bring a multitude of benefits, including sports,
entertainment, exhibition and congress, and mass activities, and civil defence. Being the largest cavern
in the world, it will also be a major tourist attraction and a showcase for underground space utilisation
and technology in Singapore.
REFERENCES
Zhao J, Lee KW, Choa V, Liu Q, Cai JG.1999. Underground cavern development in the Jurong Formation of
sedimentary rocks. Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 100pp.
Zhao,J, Lee KW, Choa V.1995. Construction and Utilisation of rock caverns in the Bukit Timah granite of Singapore. Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 111pp.
Zhou Y, Zhao J, Cai JG, Zhang XH.2003. Behaviour of large-span rock tunnels and caverns under favourable
horizontal stress conditions. ISRM 2003-Technology Roadmap for Rock Mechanics, South African Institute of
Mining and Metallurgy. 1381-1386.
42
Annex A
Modelling results of the proposed world largest cavern by 3-D numerical model.
Displacement contour
Displacement at roof centre: 3.0 mm
Maximum displacement on roof side: 8.1 mm
Maximum displacement on side wall: 9.1 mm
Overall maximum displacement: 9.1 mm
on side wall.
Displacement vector on section
Plastic area on cavern walls
43
A Study on Stress Rock Arch around a Cavern

H. Song, C. Wang
China University of Mining & Technology, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
J. Zhao, X. Liang
ABSTRACT: This paper probes into the concept of a stress rock arch, proposes a parameter called as
the arch forming coefficient to locate the arch boundaries. Some numerical simulations were carried
out to study the main characteristics and related factors of a stress rock arch. The results show that
there is a close relationship between the formation of a stress rock arch and the embedding depth and
span of a cavern. Shape and thickness of a stress rock arch are significantly related to rock properties,
span, embedding depth of a cavern, and joints in the rock mass.
1 INTRODUCTION
It is recognized that there may have been one third of world population living underground by the end
of this century (Qian,1998). Underground projects have become more and more important in this century. It must be assured that such projects should be stable enough and not fail during their service
lives. Due to complexity of the problems, empirical methods have been used to design the support at
present. How to maintain stability of the surrounding rock is one of the most important subjects in
construction of underground projects. Especially for civil underground projects that require long service time and high stability, more theoretical guides are necessary for support design. Unlike mining
projects, selection of site location for most civil underground structures is possible. Thus, caverns are
usually built in good ground conditions of hard rock mass like granite and limestone with shallow embedding depths. In such good conditions, caverns could be supported by bolts and shotcrete or only by
shotcrete or even stable without any support if the cavern span is small. However, selection of supports for large-span caverns can not be easily decided. For instance, although site measurements in
Singapore showed that forces in bolts are only 10% of that designed for, the use of bolts of 6m long
spaced at 1.5 m centres remain a norm in caverns of spans of about 20 to 30 m in hard rocks at embedding depths of about 50 to 150m. In Norway, it is evident that only small bolt load occurred in a cavern of 61m wide with grouting bolts and fibre shotcrete supported for accommodating the Olympic
Games (Geng,1997). Therefore, for these large span underground projects, whether support is needed
or how to design support efficiently is still under study at present (Wang, 1988; Zhao, 1989; Stille,
1992; Kovari, 1994; Gu, 1994; Li, 1998; Li, 1999; Zhang, 1999; Huang, 2002).
Practice shows that the loads acted on supporting structures are smaller than overburden weight. This
means that the surrounding rock has some self-supporting ability. A self-supporting and load-bearing
structure is formed in the surrounding rock. Therefore, it is of great importance to study the selfstability. This paper will further study the concept and characteristics of the stress rock arch.
2 CONCEPT OF THE STRESS ROCK ARCH AROUND A CAVERN
When an opening is excavated in rock, the rock stresses within the opening shift to the surrounding
rock. This causes the tangent stress to increase and the radial stress to decrease (Figure 1) and a compressed ring around the excavation is formed. The rock ring has the loads bearing capacity like a structural arch. This load-bearing rock ring occurred around an opening is called a stress rock arch or a
stress arch in short.
Main
44
(a) Without a broken zone
(b) With a broken zone
Figure 1 the compressed ring or stress arch around a cavern

In cross section plane, a stress rock arch can be drawn out by two boundaries. The boundary close to
the opening is called inner boundary, A, and the one away from the opening called outer boundary, B
(See Figure 1).
There are some similarities between a stress rock arch and a bridge arch. The arch body is mostly in
compressed stress state, and there is less or even zero tension stress or bending force in the arch. Not
only can an arch bear loads, it can also transfer loads. The arch keeps a cavern in a stable state. One of
the main differences between a stress rock arch and an ordinary structural arch is that a stress rock
arch is able to change its size as the related factors change. Geological conditions and engineering
specifications affect the arch.
The tangent stress is concentrated around the opening; the radial stress is at its lowest or even zero at
the wall of the opening. However, these two stresses will reach to the original rock pressure at about 510 times of the radius. In order to describe the phenomena of the forming of a stress rock arch around
cavern after excavation, a parameter of k is defined as the following:
k=
P P0
P0
where k is the stress rock arch-forming coefficient; P0 is the original rock stress; P is the tangent stress
around cavern.
It can be seen from Equation 1 that a comparison of the stress concentration coefficient, k gives a better measure of the relative change in rock stress. Rock is in a compressed state or a stress rock arch if
k>0. The value k varies with distance away from the wall of a cavern.
1) P< P0 when k<0. It means that rock stress is lower than the original rock stress, and rock is in an
unloading state or unloading zone. This area is not within the rock arch (Figure 1(b)).
2) P> P0 when k>0. That indicates there is a stress concentrating and larger stress exists in rocks. This
area is within the arch body.
3) P= P0 when k=0. That means there is no change of stress in the rock. This area is not within the arch
body.
Arch boundaries can be easily defined by arch forming coefficient. Figure 2 shows typical curves of
arch forming coefficient vs. radial distance. After excavation, the value of the arch-forming coefficient
becomes negative when an unloading zone (Figure 2(a)) develops near the opening if there is a loosening zone (Dong, 1988,1994; Lu,1991; Song, 1994)or the contour of the opening is not curved. The
arch-forming coefficient will increase with increasing radial distance. The zero point on the curve is
45
Radial distance /m
103
93.22
82.87
72.51
104
93.2
82.9
72.5
62.1
51.8
41.4
31.1
20.7
10.4
-1
62.15
-0.8
0.2
51.79
-0.6
41.43
-0.4
0.4
31.07
-0.2
0.6
20.72
10.36
Arch-forming coefficient k
0.2
Arch-forming coefficient k
the point of inner boundary of the arch; the value of arch-forming coefficient reaches the peak at the
wall if there is no loosening zone (Figure 2(b)). Contour of the opening is the inner boundary of arch.
Arch-forming coefficient decreases to zero as the radial distance increases. Therefore, there is no clear
outer boundary. How to decide the outer boundary of an arch is a problem of limit. In this paper, the
limit is chosen to be 5% of the maximum k value.
Radial distance /m
(a)
(b)
Figure 2 Typical curves of arch forming coefficient vs. radial distance

Effects of stress rock arch on rock cavern stability have been recognized since long time ago. An
original equilibrium state is destroyed after excavating an opening in rocks. Then a tensile stress zone
occurs in the roof of a rectangular cross section. Tensile stress can easily be larger than the strength of
the rock and break the roof rock. The broken rocks easily fall into the opening. However, this process
of rock falling will cease upon the roof reaching a new equilibrium state at a certain distance. A curved
roof will form out of the rectangular opening. This curved roof was called as a natural equilibrium
arch. According to the definition of stress rock arch, this curve contour is approximately to be the inner boundary of the stress rock arch.
The stress rock arch has attracted many attentions (Bergman, 1983; Habenicht, 1983; Hui, 2000). A
group of Russian researchers had detected the ring layer structures within the surrounding rocks of an
opening. Hui (2000) had studied the concealed rock arch. However, the understanding on the concept
and properties of the stress rock arch are not thorough.
3 STUDY ON THE BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ROCK ARCH
The basic characteristics of a rock arch are:
(a) The stress rock arch has axial thrust under a radial load, which makes the value of moment smaller
than a simple beam of the same span or even zero. The arch is mainly under compressive stresses.
There is less tension stress in the arch. This stress state is favorable to rock materials that have higher
compressive strength.
(b) Stress distribution is more uniform on the stress rock arch than that on masonry. The stress rock
arch can bear more loads than masonry structures. This is because the stress rock arch is shed naturally in the surrounding rock mass and there is no gap between the arch structure and the surrounding
rock wall. Measurement shows (Song, 1994; Dong, 1994; Hui, 2000) that the failure of masonry structures was mostly due to non-uniform loads. This gap is unavoidable in a construction process. Stress
rock arch functions like a stone lining structure made of natural stone blocks. The rock material itself
is the block stone. This characteristic of stress rock arch is favorable to stability of surrounding rocks
and to reduce the construction costs.
Based on the properties of surrounding rocks, a continuous media model was chosen in the simulation
(Figure 3) of stress rock arch. The two-step simulation was input with rock properties listed in Table 1
and Table 2. Two steps were used in the simulation. The first step is to establish the original state of
rock pressure by applying weight load only; the second step is to excavate the opening and simulate
the situations of surrounding rocks. Some basic characteristics had been obtained by analyzing the
modeling results.
46
Table 1 Model design by orthogonal table
Figure 3 Meshing of the modeling
No.
1
Cross-section
Rocks
B
Depths
Table 2 Parameters of factors for the modeling at 3 levels

Factors
E
/Pa
Compressive
Strength
/Pa
Rocks
Tension
Strength
/Pa
Density
/ kg / m 3
Poissons
ratio
50
5.8e10
100e6
10e6
2610
0.26
20(16+6)
100
10.4e10
260e6
26e6
2610
0.24
30(24+9)
150
8.4e10
185.7e6
18.57e6
2610
0.25
Cross section
spanheight
/m
depths
/m
10(8+3)
Levels
3.1 Stress rock arch - the major bearing body of loads in surrounding rocks
According to the definition of the stress rock arch, almost all concentrating stresses fall into the stress
rock arch body. As shown in Figure 2, stress concentration is caused by excavation. This stress concentrating area is the stress rock arch body. Therefore, the opening maintains stable state as long as the
stress rock arch remains stable.
3.2 Shape and boundaries of a stress rock arch
The tangent stress on every paths of the model is calculated from x y and x obtained in the
simulation with Eq. (2), then the arch forming coefficient k is given by Eq. (1). By this way, k along
the path can be obtained.
Linking every point of the boundary on every path gives the stress rock arch profile (Figure 4). The
stress rock arch enveloping the cavern is approximately elliptical with its long axis pointing to the direction of weight load. That is, the long axis of the ellipse consistent with the direction of the principal
stress.
=
x y
sin 2 + x cos 2
2
x + y x y
=
+
cos 2 x cos 2
2
2
(2)
The vector graph of the principal stress (Figure 5) shows clearly that the principal stress lines have deflected and approximately assembled like an arch.
47
Figure 4 Arch on model4
Figure 5 Vector graph of principal stress
3.3 Relationship between stress rock arch and related factors

The analysis shows that the embedding depth is the most important factor, rock type is less significant,
and span is the least relevant (Table 3). R is the maximum difference among k1, k2 and k3.
Table 3 Analysis of the related factors
Factors
Cross section
k1
k2
k3
77
59
65
18
Embedding
depth
26
61
101
75
Rocks
54
86
67
32
3.4 Arch formation is remarkably affected by embedding depth and span

The simulation shows that a complete stress rock arch can not be obtained for all conditions after excavation. For example, a complete arch did not formed on Model 8 although there was a stress concentration zone around the opening. By comparison with other models, Model 8 had a shallow embedding
depth and larger span.
Table 4 simulation results of Model 8
Depth /m
60
70
80
Thickness of arch /m
28
36
In order to analyze the formation conditions further, other parameters were fixed and only changed the
embedding depth by 60, 70 and 80 m in the simulation. The results show (Table 4) that formation of a
stress rock arch is subject to the span and the embedding depth of the opening. Only when the ratio of
depth to span is more than about 2, can a complete stress rock arch form
3.5 Regression equation of roof stress rock arch thickness
In order to probe into the relationship of stress rock arch with its related factors of surrounding rock
properties, opening span and embedding depth, regression analysis was carried out based on the simulation results (Table 5). A regression equation was obtained as following:
t = 0.378
B 0.108 H 1.284
E 0.372
48
where t is the arch thickness above the roof; B is the opening span; E is elastic modulus of surrounding
rocks; H is the embedding depth.
Table 5 simulation results
Model no
B /m
10
10
10
20
20
20
30
30
30
E / 1010MPa
5.8
10.4
8.4
5.8
10.4
8.4
5.8
10
8.4
H /m
50
100
150
100
150
50
150
50
100
T /m
30
75
127
55
98
23
78
52
It can be known that from Equation 3 that the deeper the cavern is, the larger the arch thickness; the
larger the span of opening, the greater the arch thickness; the greater the elastic modulus of rock mass,
the smaller the arch thickness. It is remarkable that the arch thickness becomes large with big cavern
span. Therefore, when the embedding depth is fixed, the span can become larger enough to make the
arch thickness to overpass the depth. Under this situation, a complete arch can not be achieved. In fact,
the ground surface becomes part of the outer boundary of the arch then. As shown in Table 4, this coincides with the simulation results.
In order to check significance of the regression equation, a statistic analysis was carried out for the
factors of arch thickness, embedding depth, span and rock mass properties. The result is listed in Table
6.
Table 6 Analysis of variance of the arch thickness
Degree of freedom Mean deviation
Deviation square
Factors
Q
f
square / S 2
F test
1742
871
134
274
137
21.1
10421
5210
801.5
e(error)
13
6.5
total
12450
In this analysis, all F tests are larger than F0.052

2= 19 . Therefore, the three factors are significant to
the arch thickness at a level of = 0.05 .
3.6 Influence of joints on stress rock arch
By adding some joints into the models, the influence of joints on the stress rock arch was studied. Parameters of joints included dip angle, normal and shear stiffness, internal friction angle, and cohesion.
The simulations were carried out for single, two and three joints situations. The parameters used were
the same to Model 4. The parameters of joints are listed in Table 7.
Table 7 the parameters of joints on the model
Internal friction
Dip angle
Cohesion
angle
o
o
0
35
0
45
90
Normal stiffness
Shear stiffness
10 GPa/m
6 GPa/m
35
10 GPa/m
6 GPa/m
35
10 GPa/m
6 GPa/m
The results from the simulation (Figure 6) show that the dip angle of joint affects the stress rock arch
significantly. The shapes of the stress rock arch vary with the dip angle of the joint.
49
Reclined (45 )
Horizontal (0 )
Vertical(90 )
No joint
Figure 6 Shapes of stress rock arch on varying angle of the joints

The results from the simulation (Figure 7) show that the number of joints affects the shape of the stress
rock arch. The direction of thickest arch will rotate as number of joints increases. Although the arch
boundaries on some paths change greatly, the arch thickness on roof almost keeps unchanged. As the
number of the joints increases, the shape of stress rock arch is approximately the same as that without
joints.
1 Joint
2 Joints
3 Joints
No Joint
Figure 7 Shapes of rock stress arches with varying number of joints at reclined angle of 45
4 CONCLUSIONS
A compressed rock ring forms during excavation of an opening. This rock ring occurs in the surrounding rock with a certain thickness is called a compressed stress rock arch or a stress rock arch in short.
The rock ring takes on the load bearing capacity like an arch structure and similar to bridge arch.
There are mainly compressed stresses within the arch body, and there is less or even zero tension
stress and bending force in its cross section. It is a main load bearing body of rock stress in surrounding rocks.
The stress rock arch can be easily drawn out with the arch-forming coefficient proposed. The coefficient can be calculated by Eq. (1). If there is a loosening zone, a zero point on the curve is the point of
inner boundary of the arch; if there is no loosening zone, the contour of the opening is the inner
boundary of the arch. The arch-forming coefficient decreases to zero as the radial distance increases.
The outer boundary of the arch is chosen to be the point of 5% of the maximum of k. Linking every
point of the boundary on every path gives the stress rock arch profile.
The embedding depth is the most important factor, rock type is less significant, and span is the least
relevant. The thickness of stress rock arch on cavern roof can be determined from Eq. (3).
The formation of a stress rock arch is subjected to the span and the embedding depth of the opening. A
complete stress rock arch can be formed only when the ratio of depth to span is more than about 2.
The dip angle of joint affects the stress rock arch remarkably. The shapes of stress rock arch vary with
the dip angle of joint. As the number of joints increases, the shape of stress rock arch is approximately
the same as that without joints. The location of thickest arch rotates as number of joints increases.
50
REFERENCES
Bergman, S. G. and Bjurstrom, S. 1983. Swedish Experience of Rock Bolting A Keynote Lecture, Proceedings
of the International Symposium on Rock Bolting, Abiko, pp. 243-255.
Dong, F. T. and Song, H. W. 1994. Theory of roadway supporting based on broken rock zone. Coal Journal
Vol.19, No.1, pp.21-32. (Chinese)
Dong, F.T., Song, H. W., Guo, Z. H. 1988. The broken rock zone around tunnels and its support theory. Proceedings of 7th International Conference on Ground Control in Mining, Morgantown, WV, USA. pp. 336343, 1988.8.3-5
Gu,Z. Q.1994. Underground cavern engineering. Beijing: Publishing House of Tsinghua University. (Chinese)
Geng,Y. 1997. Supporting of large rock cavern in NorwayRail road construction. 971. (Chinese)
Hui, X. T.2000. Seft-table concealed rock arch. Mine Construction. (Chinese)
Hua, A. Z.1980. Fundamental rock mechanics. Beijing: Coal Industrial Publishing House. (Chinese)
Huang, Z. P. 2001. Stabilizing of Rock Cavern Roofs by Rockbolts, Ph.D. Thesis, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Norway
Huang, Z. P., Broch, E., Lu, M. 2002, Cavern Roof Stability-Mechanism of Arching and Stabilization by Rockbolting, Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, Vol. 17, pp. 249-261.
Habenicht, H. 1983, The Anchoring Effects Our Present Knowledge and Its Shortcomings A Keynote Lecture,
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Rock Bolting, Abiko, pp. 257-268.
Kovari, K. 1994. Erroneous concepts behind the New Austrian Tunnelling Method, Tunnels & Tunnelling, Nov.,
pp: 38-41
Li, F. Z. 1998. Simulation studies on the cross-section of roadway. Dissertation of Masters degree. (Chinese)
Li, S. H. 1998. New Study on tunnel design: theory and application of the typical comparison analysis. Beijing:
Science Publishing House.
Li, X. B. and Feng, T. 1999. Underground constructing engineering. Changsha: Publishing House of Central
South University. (Chinese)
Qian, Q. H. 1998. Welcome to high tide of development of underground space in our country. Geotechnical engineering.(Chinese)
Lu, S. M. and Song, H. W. 1991. Classification method based on broken rock zone around roadways. Proceedings of the 2nd Coal Mining Symposium of China University of Mining and technology.(Chinese)
Stille, H. 1992, Keynote Lecture: Rock Support in Theory and Practice, Rock Support in Mining and Underground Construction, Balkema and Rotterdam, pp. 421-437.
Song, H. W. and Guo, Z. H. 1994. Basic point of view of theory of broken rock zone. Mine Construction,Vol.66-67, pp. 3-9. (Chinese)
Wang, Y. C. 1988. Tunnelling engineering. Beijing: People Transportation Publishing House. (Chinese)
Zhao, Z. M. 1989. Application of Broken rock zone supporting theory on large cross section caverns: study on
relationship between span and the broken zone. Dissertation of Masters degree. (Chinese)
Zhang, Q. H. 1999. Underground and tunneling engineering. Beijing: China, Water and Electrical Publishing
House. (Chinese)
51
Permanent Corrosion-Protected Steel Strand

Reinforcement in Civil Rock Engineering Applications
I. Satola
Helsinki City Geotechnical Division, Finland
J. Aromaa
Helsinki University of Technology, Finland
P. Salminen
Sandvik Tamrock Corp., Finland
M. Mnttri
Sandvik Tamrock Corp., Finland
ABSTRACT: The interest in expanded use of steel strands also in civil rock engineering has been increasing due to the many benefits of the cable bolting method and the material properties of steel
strand. In order to get an approval for using steel strands as long-term reinforcement, the applicability
of different steel strands has been determined by a wide variety of mechanical tests and corrosion tests.
In this work we have reviewed methods of classifying corrosiveness of ground waters. Weight loss
and stress corrosion cracking (SCC) corrosion tests have been made for rebar and steel strand. No
clear indication of SCC was found. The application of tensile stress to 85 % of yield strength increased
general corrosion rate significantly in very corrosive waters. The effect of corrosion protection on the
axial behavior of steel strands was determined by double pipe axial tests with different embedment
lengths. The results showed a significant difference in behavior between epoxy-coated steel strands,
galvanized steel strands and plain steel strands. Sandvik Tamrock Corp. has a productive and safe solution for steel strand bolting. Tamrocks cable bolting machine, called Cabolt, is a fully mechanized
one-man-operated electro-hydraulic bolting unit for rock reinforcement in tunnels, caverns and other
underground as well as surface civil construction applica-tions. The Cabolt will handle of all parts of
the bolting cycle, i.e. drilling, grouting, and steel strand feeding. It is capable of installing up to 36 m
long cement grouted steel strands. The material used in cable bolting is normally 15.2 mm diameter
steel strand or bulb anchor with a breaking strength of 25 tons, and the cable is grouted with cement.
1 INTRODUCTION
Cable bolting has been used successfully in reinforcing slopes in Finnish mines since 1971. The most
used cable bolt material has been seven-wire steel strand. The interest in expanded use of cable bolting
also in civil rock engineering has been increasing due to the many benefits of the cable bolting method
and the material properties of steel strand. However, the uncertainty of the sensitivity to corrosion and
mechanical applicability have been the main problems to be solved before cable bolts can be accepted
to be used in longterm reinforcement.
Corrosion protected cable bolts in long-term reinforcement research projects were carried out at the
Helsinki University of Technology in 1999 - 2002. The object of the projects was to study the applicability of corrosion protected cable bolts in long-term reinforcement. The project was divided into two
parts. In the first part, the axial load-displacement behavior of test bolts was determined by double
pipe pull tests with different test configurations. The second part concentrated on corrosion of the test
bolts. The aim of the corrosion tests was to determine the main differences in sensitivity to corrosion,
rate of corrosion and effect of corrosion on the capacity of the bolt between each test bolt type. The
test bolt types were: rebar, hot-dip-galvanized rebar, standardized steel strand, hot-dip-galvanized steel
strand, epoxy-coated steel strand and bulbed strand. All the strands were seven-wired steel strands (
15.2 mm). The rebars ( 25 mm) were tested as a reference test bolt of the bolt type most used in civil
rock engineering.
Main
52
2 ROCK BOLTS AND CORROSION

2.1 The background
The purpose of this work was to find out the differences in corrosion resistance between rebar and different types of strand. Rock bolts are used in an environment where natural water can be present. The
major components having an effect on water corrosivity, in the type of waters examined here, are the
pH value, concentration of aggressive ions (Cl- and SO42-), concentration of hardness ions (Ca2+ and
Mg2+) and the alkalinity of water. The variation of the pH value in Finnish ground water is from 6.36.9 on the average to 2.6 found for example in the Pyhsalmi mine. The average chloride content is
about 20-30 mg/l, but values over 4000 mg/l are found in the area of the Litorina Sea. The large variation in the composition of natural water and the lack of information on the combined effects make it
hard to estimate the corrosivity of the bedrock ground water. The suitability of German standard DIN
50929 of water corrosivity was examined as a classification method for general corrosion.
Corrosion resistance is a relative term meaning the ability of a metal to perform its specified functions
without impairment due to corrosion in a given corrosion system. In case of rock bolts, the corrosion
resistance depends on the type of bolt and type of corrosion, e.g. general corrosion, pitting corrosion
and stress corrosion cracking. General corrosion proceeds over the whole surface of the metal exposed
to the corrosive environment. Localized corrosion is preferentially concentrated on discrete sites of the
metal surface exposed to the corrosive environment. Localized corrosion can result in, for example,
pits, cracks or grooves. Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is a failure resulted by combined effect of
specific corrosive environment and tensile stress. In these environments some protective film is present, but when damaged, the film rupture initiates localized corrosion. The purpose of bolting is to
support the rock and thus in this case, corrosion failure happens, when the bolt cannot stand the load
due to decreased area. The use of corrosion protection, such as galvanizing or epoxy coating, will delay the time when corrosion of the bolt material will begin.
2.2 Corrosion experiments
In this work we have reviewed methods of classifying corrosivity of ground waters. We have assumed
that during use, cracking of grout will happen. This means that the worst-case scenario is that the bolt
is fully exposed to flowing ground water. The experiments were made as immersion tests (Table 1).
Table 1 The composition and DIN value of test solutions. Solutions 1-8 and 10 are based on the Allard water.
pH
No.
Na+
mmol/l
Ca2+
mmol/l
Clmmol/l
Mg2+
HCO3-
mmol/l
mmol/l
SO42-
DIN value
mmol/l
W0
Wd
8.4
2.287
0.285
1.370
0.1
1.487
0.1
-2
5.5-6.0
2.287
0.285
1.370
0.1
1.487
0.1
-5
-2
8.4
15.18
0.285
14.30
0.1
1.487
0.1
-5
5.5-6.0
15.18
0.285
14.30
0.1
1.487
0.1
-8
-3
3.0-3.5
2.287
0.285
1.370
0.1
1.487
0.1
-6
-4
3.0-3.5
15.18
0.285
14.30
0.1
1.487
0.1
-9
-5
8.4
262.9
0.285
262.0
20
1.487
20
-11
-1
5.5-6.0
262.9
0.285
262.0
20
1.487
20
-14
-6
7.2
208.1
100.6
413.8
2.3
0.165
0.044
-14
10
8.4
2.287
0.285
1.37
5.2
1.487
5.2
-5
11
6.7-7.3
31.2
11.2
4.85
0.94
14.1
-11
12
2.6
40.5
12.7
0.8
34.2
0.8
93.6
-15
-5
Solutions 1-8 were variations of Allard water, which is used to simulate shallow ground water from
granitic terrain. Solution 9 was made to simulate the ground water on the Olkiluoto disposal level. Solutions 11 and 12 correspond to the Pyhsalmi mine 1410 and 600 m level. The DIN value is the calculated corrosivity ranking. The lower the number is, the more corrosive the water is. DIN valueW0
53
refers to steel and Wd to galvanized steel. Only solutions number 1, 6, 9 and 12 were used in the SCC
tests. Solutions 1 and 9 had low corrosivity, whereas solutions 6 and 12 had high corrosivity.
In the corrosivity classification experiments the test samples were steel rebar ( 20 mm), standard
steel strand ( 15.2 mm), galvanised rebar ( 25 mm), galvanised steel strand ( 17.7 mm) and epoxy-coated strand. Mean thickness of the galvanized layer was 155 m on rebar and 68 m on strand.
The polarization resistance and corrosion potential were monitored during immersion. Weight loss was
measured at the end of experiments. Epoxy coated samples were observed with impedance spectroscopy.
Samples used in stress corrosion cracking tests were steel rebar ( 6 mm), a king wire ( 5 mm) from
standard steel strand ( 15.2 mm) and from galvanised strand ( 17.7 mm). The SCC tests were made
using constant deflection tests with 2-point loading per ASTM G38, as seen in Figure 1. The stress
was calculated to 85% of the yield strength. Samples of strands were immersed along with the SCC
tests to find out, if there would be crevice corrosion between the wires.
Figure 1 SCC test samples in immersion after 7 weeks in solution 1.
2.3 Results of corrosion experiments

The classification of ground water was done by using standard DIN 50929. The standard classifies water corrosivity using water flow, the position of structure, concentration of chlorides and sulphides, alkalinity, calcium content and pH value. Every factor has specific levels described by a number and
corrosivity is calculated using these numbers. Water corrosivities are grouped into four levels with respect to pitting corrosion and general corrosion of steels and protectiveness of zinc coating. Of these
factors increasing alkalinity, calcium content and pH value decrease corrosivity whereas chlorides and
sulphides increase corrosivity. Figure 2 shows corrosion rates obtained from corrosivity classification
weight loss tests. The samples have not been under mechanical load.
The corrosion rates in Figure 2 show no regular difference between the rebars and the strands. The
general corrosion rate of uncoated rebar and strand is the same as that of galvanized rebar and strand.
The relation between corrosion rates and DIN values was not clear. When compared to solution variables, the corrosion rates of steel were found to be dependent on the ratio between aggressive ions and
hardness ions. With galvanised steel, the main factor affecting corrosion was the pH value.
The structure tests showed that in test solution No. 1 (Allard water) the steel strand was uniformly corroded. The king wire had corroded the same way as the outer strands. The galvanized strand had much
of the zinc layer left. Hardly any corrosion was seen. Calcium carbonate had formed in between the
strands. In test solution No. 6, the steel strand had corroded from outer surface. The king wire had not
corroded more than the outer wires, but some corrosion product had deposited on the king wire. The
outer surface of the galvanized strand had corroded. Hardly any zinc was left on the outer wires. The
king wire had still zinc left. A large amount of carbonate scale had formed in between the strands. In
test solution No. 9 (Olkiluoto end disposal level) the steel strand was uniformly corroded. A large
amount of corrosion products was seen also on the king wire. The galvanized strand had much of the
zinc left. Carbonate scale had formed on the outer surface and in between the strands. In test solution
12 (Pyhsalmi mine 600 m level) the steel strand was corroded all over. The king wire had corrosion
54
products in areas that had access to solution, i.e. areas between the wires. The outer surface of galvanized strand had corroded. Zinc was left on the king wire and in places where the wires had touched
each other.
The stress corrosion cracking tests were made with two lengths of immersion. The samples were inspected visually and their corrosion rates were estimated by measuring the diameter. Stress corrosion
was not detected in the samples. In solution 1, the samples had corroded the same way as the unstressed samples. In solution 6, with low pH and high chloride concentration, transverse cracks were
seen on both wires, but the samples had not failed. In solution 6, the stressed rebar had not corroded
more than unstressed. In solution 9, all samples showed slight general corrosion. In solution 12, which
is very corrosive due to low pH and high amount of dissolved salts, longitudinal grooves were seen in
all samples. These are due to texture caused by cold work. The application of tensile stress to 85 % of
yield strength increased general corrosion rate significantly in very corrosive water 12.
1.5
Corrosion rate, mm/year
Steel rebar
Steel strand
1.0
0.5
0.0
-16
-14
-12
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
DIN ranking W 0
Figure 2 Corrosion rates of steel rebar and steel strand from weight loss measurements.
2.4 Conclusions
The standard DIN 50929 can be used to estimate ground water corrosivity with caution. The correlation between corrosivity ranking and weight loss is acceptable, when the water can be considered as
normal ground water. With high level of dissolved solids, the corrosion rate decreases even if the value
of the corrosivity ranking is very low. Low pH or dissolved metal ions can increase corrosion rate
more than indicated by value of corrosivity ranking. Excluding the very corrosive solution 12, the corrosion rate of steel rebar varied from 0.02 to 0.21 mm/year and that of steel strand from 0.07 to 0.45
mm/year. The corrosion rates of galvanized rebar and strand were 0.01 to 0.22 mm/year and 0.01 to
0.23 mm/year, respectively. In solution 12, the corrosion rates were in the order 1.0-1.5 mm/year. The
corrosion rates should be multiplied by two to get the change in rebar or wire diameter. Mechanical
loading used in the SCC tests has doubled the corrosion rate in highly corrosive solution 12, but had
no effect on other solutions.
The structure tests indicate that crevice corrosion is not a problem of strands. In test solutions 1, 6 and
9, the carbonate deposit and corrosion products had filled areas between the wires. In solution 12, the
sample had corroded allover.
Stress corrosion was not detected in the samples. In solution 6, with low pH and high chloride concentration, transverse cracks were seen on both wires, but the samples had not failed. In solution 12, with
low pH and high amount of dissolved salts, longitudinal grooves were seen in all samples. These are
due to texture caused by cold work.
55
3 DOUBLE PIPE AXIAL TESTING

3.1 Test apparatus and test procedure
The laboratory double pipe axial tests of test bolts were conducted by grouting the test bolts inside
steel pipes, which provided a very practical, comparable and inexpensive test system. The same principle of double pipe test system has been used widely around the world in testing rock bolts and cable
bolts.
The test apparatus was modified from the basic universal test system and consisted of a pulling device
(hollow ram hydraulic jack), electric hydraulic pump, RHS- test frame, wedge system for the connection of test steel pipes, measuring instruments and a portable PC (Figure 3). Three inductive displacement transducers measured the displacements of the test bolts. The displacements were measured not
only from the middle (D1), the most important place, but also from both ends of the bolt (D2 & D3)
where the displacements between the end of the steel pipe and test bolt were measured. The measuring
data from transducers D2 and D3 were used to determine the general bond failure in every test.
WEDGE
WEDGE
PULLI NG DEVI CE
RHS -PI PE
D1
D3
STEEL PI PE
D2
STEEL PI PE
TEST BOLT
Figure 3 The double pipe test system (Satola & Hakala 2001).
After placing the test sample in the right position in the double pipe test machine, the test began, and
increasing the pressure from the hydraulic pump, the load steadily rose at a rate of 10 kN/min. The test
bolt was loaded until the failure of the test bolt occurred or the stroke was completed.
Most of the test bolts were tested with the embedment length of 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1.0 and 2.0. Cyclic axial tests were performed to determine the onset of non-elastic behavior and axial tests of pre-etched test
bolts were carried out to determine the effect of corrosion on capacity. All tests and their results are
fully reported in the references (Satola & Hakala 2001; Satola et. al 2003).
3.2 Test results and discussion
The corrosion protection treatment on the surface of the test strand improved the bond strength between the test bolt and grout resulting in a higher stiffness of the bolt. This was clearly seen from the
shapes of the curves of the epoxy-coated steel strands and the galvanized steel strands with every
tested embedment length: 2.0, 1.0, 0.75, 0.5 and 0.25 meter (Figure 4, Figure 5, Figure 6), meters (Satola et. al 2003).
The bulbed strand had a high stiffness because of its modified geometry. The bulbs in the strand
worked as anchors increasing the bond strength. The bulbed strand has two bulbs a meter.
The load-displacement curves of rebar (diameter of 25 mm) are presented in the figures as a reference
of the bolt type most used in rock reinforcement in Finland.
56
400
350
300
Load (kN)
250
200
150
Galvanized strand
Epoxy coated strand
Rebar, 1000mm
Bulbed strand
Steel strand
100
50
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Displacement (mm)
Figure 4 Double pipe test results. The average load-displacement curves for different types of cable bolts and
rebar with embedment length of 1 m.
350
300
Load (kN)
250
200
150
100
Galvanized strand
Epoxy coated strand
Rebar
Bulbed strand
50
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Displacement (mm)
rebar with embedment length of 0.75 m.
57
350
Galvanized strand
Epoxy coated strand
Rebar
300
Load (kN)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Displacement (mm)
rebar with embedment length of 0.25 m.
The epoxy coated steel strands had the highest ultimate bond strength (the ultimate load divided by the
bond area) of the all steel strand types with every tested embedment length (Figure 7). With the embedment length of 1 m, some of the test bolts of galvanized steel strands broke, but not all of them.
With the embedment length less than 1 m, slippage took place instead of failure of strand. The same
behavior occurred with epoxy coated steel strands indicating that the critical embedment length of both
the galvanized steel strand and epoxy-coated steel strand was around 1 m in this case. The corresponding value for the conventional cable was almost 2 m. Conventional cables were tested only with the
embedment length of 1 and 2 m.
18
Epoxy coated steel strand
Bond strength (N/mm^2)
16
Steel strand
14
Hot dip galvanized steel strand
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
500
1000
1500
Embedment length (mm)
2000
2500
Figure 7 The ultimate bond strength of conventional cable bolts and corrosion-protected cable bolts.
58
4 MECHANIZED STEEL STRAND BOLTING

4.1 General
Sandvik Tamrock Corp. has always worked to improve the safety of the excavation process by developing mechanized and automated drilling operations. One of the most dangerous working phases in
underground excavation today is ground support and particularly rock bolting. Since 1970s Tamrock
has manufactured mechanized rock bolting rigs, called Robolt, to install standard rock bolts. Today
more than 300 units are in operation throughout the world, and the Robolt is a proven and accepted
bolter for the mechanized installation of all common rock bolt types. Cable bolting has been used succesfully in mines for reinforcing production stopes and permanent openings, such as crushing stations
and workshops, since early 70s. Tamrock supplied its first fully mechanized cable bolting rig in 1985.
Today around 50 Cabolts are operating in Australia, Canada, Mexico, China, Japan, Russia, Sweden,
Italy, Ireland and Finland.
4.2 Mechanized bolting cycle
Sandvik Tamrock Corp. has a productive, economical and safe solution for steel-strand bolting. The
Cabolt is a fully mechanized one-man operated electro-hydraulic bolting unit for rock reinforcement in
tunnels, caverns and other underground as well as surface civil construction applications. When looking at the mechanization of bolting, the following main objectives must be met:
To improve safety during the installation phase

To ensure the quality of the installed bolt
To increase the bolting capacity compared to manual bolting
A cable bolting rig has all the equipment needed for mechanized drilling, grouting and steel strand
feeding. One operator handles the entire cycle from drilling of the bolt hole to fully installed bolt.
Mechanization eliminates the human error caused by manual work and provides a consistent high
quality of bolting.
The mechanized installation cycle with the Cabolt is the following:
Drilling is carried out like normal long hole drilling with mechanized rod handling and reliable drilling control system. The rod handling system has a capacity of 19 + 1 pieces of 4/5/6 long 1 extension rods. This allows 5164 mm hole diameter and drilling depth up to 36 m. The rod changer
consists of a magazine and its rotation mechanism, dividing plates and gripping arms.
Grouting commences directly after drilling of each hole or it may be done separately for multiple
holes. The grout hose, which is made of stiff nylon, is inserted into a hole by using a special feeding
device located on top of the bolting head. When the hole bottom is reached, the grouting mass is
pumped into the hole and simultaneously the hose is withdrawn. Grout pumping and hose removal are
synchronized to ensure complete filling. Normally 10 % overfilling is adjusted to secure that no air
pockets remain in the hole.
Grouting mass is a mixture of bulk cement and water. Low water-cement ratio (0.3) ensures high compressive strength of the hardened cement, good bondage between the cement and steel strand. The
grout mass can easily be mixed in 200 liter batches in the units mixing station. Also a bulk cement
system is available to further increase the productivity. In this system up to 1000 kg of dry cement is
stored in the container located at the back of the machine and transferred with screw conveyor to the
mixer.
Steel strand inserting is started after a fully grouted hole. One to three clean steel strands are installed
for each hole. The steel strand feeding system consists of a cable reel, feeding unit, bolt bending device and steel strand cutter. The steel strand is kept in a closed reel and it is fully protected with a nylon hose all the way from the back of the rig to the drilled hole. This guarantees the best bondage between the grout and the strand. When inserting the strand, the operator can create one or several bents
to prevent the strand from slipping from the upholes. After the steel strand has reached the hole bottom, it is cut with a hydraulic cable cutter.
59
The length of the cable bolt can vary for each hole and it is not limited by the dimensions of the tunnel. The capacity of a steel strand reel can be up to 1600 m. When the reel is empty, it is simply removed, refilled and installed back to the machine. The material used in cable bolting is normally
15.2 mm steel strand or bulb anchor (max. bulb size 28 mm) with a breaking strength of 250 kN.
The Tamrock TMS quality control system displays the exact drilling angle and depth of the hole during drilling. Additionally, feeding length of the cement hose and cable bolt are measured and shown to
the operator during grouting and inserting operations. This makes sure that the holes are located in the
planned positions, fully filled with cement, and the steel strands are fed to the bottom of the hole.
Figure 8 Sandvik Tamrock Cabolt - one-man-operated, fully mechanized steel strand bolting rig.
The fully mechanized one-man-operated, self-contained cable bolting unit is naturally the best option
for steel strand bolting operations. Advanced mechanization means improved working conditions and
increased safety for the operator, who can perform the whole operation remote controlled from the
safety cabin. This leads not only to state-of-the-art work safety, but also savings in labour costs, firstclass bolting quality and efficient / flexible ground support works.
However, Sandvik Tamrock has an alternative solution for mechanized steel strand installation works.
The Cable Installer will take care of the steel strand installation works without drilling, i.e. grouting
and steel strand feeding. The principle of the installation procedure is exactly the same as explained
above for the Cabolt machine. The cable installer can reach tunnels up to 13 m in height for cable bolting purposes.
Figure 9 Sandvik Tamrock Cable Installer - one-man-operated, fully mechanized steel strand installation rig.
60
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the Technology Development Centre, Sandvik Tamrock Corp.,
The Helsinki City Geotechnical Division, The Rescue Department of the City of Helsinki, YIT Corporation, Lemcon Oy, Posiva Oy, Outokumpu Mining Oy, Gridpoint Finland Oy, Dywidag Systems International and Miranet Oy for funding and supporting the projects.
REFERENCES
Satola, I. and Hakala, M. (2001): Corrosion-protected cable bolts in long-term reinforcement. KOVA Research
project, part I, Research Report, TKK-KAL-A-28. Helsinki University of Technology, Espoo. 42 p.
Satola, I., Aromaa, J., Leino, J. and Hakala, M. (2003, in prep.): Corrosion protected cable bolts in long-term reinforcement. Final Report. Espoo, Helsinki University of Technology.
61
Feasibility of Underground Hydrocarbon Storage Caverns

in Jurong Island
J. Zhao
School of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
W.L. Ng
Engineering Planning Group, Jurong Town Corporation, Singapore
J.G. Cai
presently Tritech Consultants Pte Ltd, Singapore
formerly School of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
X.H. Zhang
School of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
ABSTRACT: Jurong Island is located southwest of the main Singapore Island, separated by Selat Jurong Strait. A geological site investigation was conducted at the newly reclaimed part on the western
side of Jurong Island for potential development of underground hydrocarbon storage caverns. The site
investigation program included a surface seismic reflection survey, deep exploratory boreholes in association with downhole geophysical logging and field groundwater tests as well as laboratory tests.
The feasibility study based on the site investigation indicates that the rock mass underlying Jurong Island is generally of fair to very good quality siltstone, sandstone and other sedimentary rocks. It is
technically feasible to develop underground storage facilities for hydrocarbon products.
1 INTRODUCTION
Jurong Island is located southwest of the main Singapore Island, separated by Selat Jurong Strait. In
view of Singapores geology, Jurong Island sits above the sedimentary rock formation Jurong Formation, which is late Triassic to early Jurassic in geological age. Following the study on the feasibility
of underground cavern development in the Jurong Formation (Zhao et al. 1999), a feasibility study
with a focus on Jurong Island was been conducted between 2001 and 2002, particularly for the purpose of hydrocarbon storage cavern development.
Geological site investigation was concentrated at the newly reclaimed part on the western side of Jurong Island, for potential development of underground hydrocarbon storage caverns. The site, covering
approximately 11 km2 with a length of 3.5 km and width of 3.1 km, was originally an offshore area
and is now reclaimed with sand. The present ground level is at an elevation of 3.5-6.0 m above the
mean sea level. At present, there is no surface structure in the area. An existing oil and petrochemical
hub is located at the eastern part adjacent to the site investigation area. Site investigation has been carried out to examine the geological and stratigraphical features of the subsurface ground, the hydrogeological situation of the site, and the general rock mass quality below the ground for their suitability
of underground cavern development. These investigations included a total of 10 km surface seismic
reflection profiling survey, 8 exploratory boreholes to a depth of approximately 100 m and 2 deep exploratory boreholes to a depth of 200 m, together yielding a total drilled core length of 810 m, in association with a suite of downhole geophysical logging, as well as various site and laboratory tests. The
scope of the investigations provides a good coverage for potential underground cavern development in
the western part of Jurong Island.
This paper describes the geology of Jurong Island, its engineering characteristics and the feasibility for
development of underground storage caverns for hydrocarbon products.
2 GEOLOGY AND HYDROGEOLOGY
The geology of Jurong Formation has been reviewed and updated by Zhao et al. (1999). The majority
of the bedrock at Jurong Island site belongs to Tengah Facies (Jt) and Ayer Chawan Facies (Jac) of the
Main
62
Jurong Formation, which is considered to settle in shallow water in the Late Triassic times. It comprises a sequence of sedimentary rocks, mainly marine mudstone, muddy siltstone, sandstone, conglomerate and limestone (Table 1). These sedimentary rocks have been subjected to a low grade of
metamorphism. Due to chemical decomposition under a humid tropic climate, the sedimentary rocks
have often been deeply and strongly weathered and often overlaid by a thick layer of residual soil and
completely weathered rock.
In a previous study on the tectonic setting of the Jurong Formation, Redding (1999) constructed a theory stating that the basin of the Jurong Formation has been uniformly uplifted with little tilting, and
rock strata generally have not been deformed into major folds. Based on the evidence available from
site investigation at Jurong Island mainly from the bedding observed in the drilled cores and profiling obtained from the seismic reflection survey the original layer of the sedimentary rocks has not
been strongly disturbed and there are no significant folding structures. Reddings theory appears to
provide a reasonable geological model for the site geology.
Table 1 Summary of rock thickness in boreholes
Total thickness (m)
Bore-hole
Siltstone
Sandstone
Conglomerate
Mudstone
BH1
BH2
45.6
88.9
9.8
6.5
4.1
BH3
4.3
46.8
5.8
BH4
BH6
BH7
25.4
38.9
19.5
15.2
113
BH8
52.9
14.3
BH9
8.2
13.0
BH10
39.5
12.3
Lime-stone
4.5
25
2.3
23.5
25.8
Faulting is evidenced by the brecciated and weakness zones of cores and zones of drilled core loss, as
well as the uplifting of the rock layers interpreted in the seismic profiling. The investigation shows
that a series of faults exist dipping at high angles of 60-80. These faults strike along two main directions one is from northwest to southeast and another from northeast to southwest.
Faulting is more pervasive within the least competent material, and in particular the mudstone and siltstone. A secondary consequence of faulting is the brecciated and intensively fractured rock mass
along the fault planes, with a corresponding reduction in rock mass strength and quality.
Groundwater was found in all the exploratory boreholes. Water standpipes and piezometers were installed in the boreholes to monitor the groundwater table and pore water pressure. The monitoring indicated that the groundwater table is usually within the reclaimed sand, and often located at about 3.0
to 3.5 m below ground surface. The elevation of the groundwater table varies between 0 to 3.5 m, and
at an average of 2.0 m above the mean sea level. The groundwater table is very consistent and stable
across the site.
3 ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF ROCKS
3.1 Weathering
Due to chemical decomposition under a humid tropic climate, the sedimentary rocks at Jurong Island
site have been strongly weathered. The thickness of residual soil and completely weathering zone
ranges from 10 to 46 m, with an average of 24 m. Overlying the natural residual soil is a thick layer of
63
reclaimed sand with the thickness of 9 to 24 m, which generally makes the bedrock at even greater
depths and the ground surface very flat.
The weathering degree of sedimentary rocks at Jurong Island is mainly governed by rock type and
fracturing, and can be classified according to the classification system suggested by Guo and Zhao
(1988). Generally, rock weathering becomes less severe with depth, i.e., from completely weathered
to fresh. However, sometimes below the fresh or slightly weathered rocks the strongly or completely
weathered rocks are encountered. This is due to the existence of fracturing zones at depths.
3.2 Rock Strength
Laboratory tests indicate that the rock strength depends primarily on rock type and degree of rock
weathering. Table 2 summaries the point load index strength, uniaxial compressive strength, deformation modulus, Brazilian tensile strength and volume swelling index, for each rock type. It should be
noted that these results are obtained from limited test quantity. They should only be used as an indicator of a likely range of the rock properties.
Based on the testing results of point load index strength and uniaxial compression strength, siltstone
can be described as moderately strong to strong rock, sandstone as moderately strong to very strong
rock, conglomerate as moderately strong to strong rock, mudstone as moderately strong, and limestone
as strong to very strong rock (BS5930:1999).
Table 2 Rock strength and Youngs modulus
Rock type
Siltstone
Sandstone
Conglomerate
Mudstone
Limestone
2.3-3.0
4.0-9.9
Point load strength index

Is50 (MPa)
1.9-9.5
3.6-12.9
4.7-8.1
Uniaxial compressive
strength c (MPa)
30.0-66.5
46.4-161.9
31.1-62.5
Youngs modulus E (GPa)
20-35.0
14.5-98.0
23.5-46.1
Brazilian tensile strength

(MPa)
14.4-20.0
5.6-21.2
6.8-11.2
4.2-10.9
Volume swelling index (%)
0.32-2.09
0.44-0.91
0.72-1.86
3.3 Discontinuities in Rock Mass

Discontinuities in rock mass include fault zones and rock joints. Based on the exploratory borehole
logs in combination with borehole video logging and surface seismic surveys, it is estimated that there
are approximately 38 fault zones generally with dip angles between 55 and 75. Of the 790 m of exploratory borehole cores, the 38 fault zones cover about 105 linear meters. Discounting the residual
soil and completely weathered rocks, this represents approximately 13.3 % of the total rock cores. The
width of the fault zones varies between 0.2 and 16.8 m, averaging 2.1 m. The fault zones lead to the
rock core loss in borehole coring and the very low RQD values of rock mass.
The development of rock joints is related to the faulting structures. Faulting can result in joints within
and near the fault zones. Collectively, throughout the exploratory borehole core logs and video logging, a range of joint inclination has been identified relating to the faulting. The most prevalent joints
are steeply inclined sub-vertical 70 to 85, moderately to widely spaced joints, generally within the
strong and moderately strong rocks such as sandstone, conglomerate and siltstone. They were formed
mainly due to local faulting, and can be described as smooth and planar or rough and planar joints.
Other joint sets were inclined shear joints with dip angle between 40 and 65. The joint surface is
variously smooth and planar or rough and planar with little pervasive discolouration and staining. The
joints were sometimes filled with 1-3 mm of clay. In fault zones or within the highly to moderately
weathered materials near the ground surface, the joints are extremely closely to closely spaced. Within
64
the more slightly weathered to fresh rocks at greater depths, the joints are closely to moderately
sparsely spaced.
RQD values have been obtained from core logs for each meter of rock core. These values have been
averaged to derive a value for each 5 m length of rock core. In general the RQD values increase with
depths, but in some boreholes the reverse is the case. The RQD values generally range from 20 to 100
with a weighted average value of about 60. There is a notable variation in the average RQD values in
different boreholes.
3.4
Permeability of Rock Mass
The fracturing of rock mass has led to the permeability characteristic of the rock mass. The rock mass
permeability was measured from the rising/falling head permeability tests. The results of the permeability tests varied from 10-6 to 10-5 m/s, which can be assessed as intermediate permeability.
4 ROCK MASS QUALITY
4.1 Overall Assessment of Q-value
Through the core logs and through the laboratory tests of rocks, important information has been obtained on the types and characters of rocks, and on the characteristics of the rock joints/faults and the
rock mass encountered at Jurong Island site, all of which are essential for looking into the feasibility
for cavern development at Jurong Island site.
The Q-system has been adopted for rock mass quality classification (Barton et al. 1974 and 1992). The
rock mass quality index, Q-value, is estimated by:
RQD Jr Jw
Q=

Jn Ja SRF
(1)
Where RQD = rock quality designation, for degree of jointing,

Jn= number of joint sets,
Jr= joint roughness,
Ja= joint alteration or infilling,
Jw= water pressure or leakage,
SRF= stress reduction factor.
The six parameters, each of which has an important rating, can be estimated from site investigations
and verified during excavation. The Q-value ranges from 0.001 for exceptionally poor quality squeezing ground, up to 1000 for exceptionally good quality rock mass that is intact.
Assessments of the six parameters and the estimation of Q-value were carried out for the entire cores
in each of the boreholes, in 5 m length intervals of rock cores along the depth.
Figure 1 shows the overall assessment of the rock mass quality. As shown, about 40% of the total
logged cores from the 10 boreholes are classified as good (Q=1040) to extremely good (Q=100-400)
quality rock mass. And, 15% of the total logged cores are classified as fair (Q=410) quality rock
mass. On the other hand, about 45% are classified as exceptionally poor (Q < 0.01) to poor (Q=14)
quality rock mass.
4.2
Rock Mass Quality Distributions
Weighted mean Q-values within different ranges of elevation (depth) at the boreholes are statistically
calculated. Based on their distribution in area and depth, the suitability for cavern construction with
different location and depth options can be compared and evaluated.
65
Three ranges of elevation are selected. They are elevation -45-75 m (depth 5080 m), elevation 55-85 m (depth 6090 m), and elevation -65-90 m (depth 7095 m).
Pe r cen tag e o f lo g g ed len g th

0
Rock mass quality
ex trem ely go od
10
15
20
Q = 100 - 400
35
40
Q = 40 - 100
Q = 10 - 40
go od
fair
Q = 4 - 10
Q = 1- 4
po or
Q = 0 .1 - 1
ve ry po or
ex c ep tion ally po or
30
All b o re h o le s
ve ry go od
ex trem ely po or
25
Q = 0 .0 1 - 0 .1
Q- NG I Tu n n e lli n g
Qu a li ty In d e x
Q < 0 .0 1
Figure 1 Overall assessment of the rock mass quality.

Figure 2 presents the Q-value distribution at the elevation -55-85 m (depth 6090 m), with the Qvalue contour map. It is indicated that:
a) The investigated site on Jurong Island can be classified into two zones the Northeast Zone with
relatively high Q-value where BH2, BH3, BH4, BH9 and BH10 are located, and the Southwest
Zone with relatively low Q-value where BH1, BH6, BH7 and BH8 are located.
b) Within the Northeast Zone, the Q-value is 4.230 (rock mass quality fair to good) at elevation 45-75 m, is 4.765 (fair to very good) at elevation -55-85 m, and is 6.670 (fair to very good) at
elevation -65-90 m. This zone comprises mainly siltstone and sandstone with subordinate conglomerate and limestone.
c) Within the Southwest Zone, the Q-value is 0.1510 (rock mass quality very poor to fair) at elevation -45-75 m, between 6.020 (fair to good) at elevation -55-85 m, and is 1.825 (fair to good)
at elevation -65-90 m. This zone comprises mainly siltstone and sandstone with subordinate
mudstone and limestone.
Vertical distribution of weighted mean Q-value with depth for the whole area is shown in Figure 3. It
can be seen that the rock mass quality generally improves along the depth. This improvement is more
significant from elevation -45~-75 m to elevation -55~-85 m (an increase of Q from 9.8 to 20).
Whereas, from elevation -55~-85 m to elevation -65~-90 m the rock mass quality improvement is not
significant (a slight increase of Q from 20 to 24.8).
5 FEASIBILITY OF CAVERN CONSTRUCTION
5.1 Technical Feasibility
In general the rock mass quality at Jurong Island is between fair to very good. It is envisaged that caverns would be sited more than 45 m below the present ground surface, to ensure a rock cover not less
than 20 m thick. The average rock mass quality at depth is classified as good by the Q-system with an
average Q-value about 10-20, while the rock mass at cavern depth is of good quality with Q-value
above 20.
66
Figure 2 Q-value contour at depth 60-90 m

With the subsurface rock mass quality, caverns of a span up to 20 m can be constructed below Jurong
Island. In an area where the rock mass quality is high (e.g., around BH2, BH9 and BH10), less support measures will be required. While in an area where rock mass quality is low (e.g., BH1, BH7 and
BH5), more support will be required, which will lead to higher development cost.
67
W e ig h te d M e a n Q - v a lu e
0
E le v a t io n - 4 5 - 7 5 m
(D e p th 5 0 m )
10
15
20
25
35
40
Q - N G I T u n n e lin g
Q u a lit y I n d e x
F a ir ( Q = 9 . 8 )
E le v a t io n - 5 5 - 8 5 m
(D e p th 6 0 m )
30
G o o d (Q = 2 0 )
E le v a t io n - 6 5 - 9 0 m
(D e p th 7 0 m )
G o o d ( Q = 2 4 .8 )
Figure 3 Q-value distribution at different depths.

5.2 Cavern Locations
Although some locations apparently are of better quality of others, the variations are not extremely
significant. The locations of storage cavern site should therefore, be decided together with the operational requirements.
It is suggested that the locations of potential storage sites should be:
a) Close to the oil vessel jetty; or
b) Close to the refinery plants; or
c) Close to the user, e.g., power stations and petrochemical plants.
Figure 4 shows some selected preferred locations for cavern development, based on subsurface rock
mass quality and from a point of view of operation for oil vessel. Other locations, apart from the fault
zones which should be avoided, are still technically feasible for cavern development.
5.3 Cavern Depth
In order to achieve optimum stability and support, the rock mass are utilised as a structural material
and hence to achieve self-support through rock reinforcement. Therefore, the rock cover should be
sufficient to give adequate normal stresses on joints such that the roof and walls will be, as far as possible, self-supporting. The minimum rock cover is determined from as an assessment of many factors:
a)
Quality of the geological information,
b)
Rock properties,
c)
Thickness of superficial deposit,
d)
Depth of weathering,
e)
Cavern span, and
f)
Cost implications.
68
Preferred cavern
locations by geology
BH2
Preferred cavern
locations by geography
and operation
BH4
Fault zones
BH3
BH1
BH1
0
BH6
BH9
BH8
BH7
Newly Reclaimed
W est Jurong Island
1.0 km
Figure 4 Potential locations for hydrocarbon storage caverns in Jurong Island.

From rock mass quality assessment, it can be seen that the Q-value generally improves with depth.
This improvement is more significant from elevation -45~-75 m (depth 50-80 m) to elevation -55~ 85 m (depth 60-90 m), with an increase of Q from 9.8 to 20. Therefore, caverns located at 60-90 m
depth range are technically feasible.
On the other hand, as a general rule the minimum cover of strong rock should be not less than half the
cavern span. In general, reduced cover increases the amount and cost of ground investigation and rock
support work and this cost must be offset by advantages in adopting reduced cover. Reduced rock
cover is normally limited to small areas, such as the section of cavern closest to the portal. Design of
such low cover is only acceptable where the fresh rock surface is well defined by detailed site investigations.
For economic reasons, caverns should be sited in a rock mass with good quality and sufficient rock
cover of about 20 m (approximately equal to the span of the cavern), so the cavern stability can be
achieved with minimum rock support.
5.4 Rock Supports
Table 3 summaries the rock support requirement for caverns with a span of 20 m in various rock mass
quality (Barton et al., 1974 and 1992).
The rock mass found at Jurong Island at the investigation site is generally in the category of Class 5
and Class 4, with majority rock mass in Class 4. Therefore, large span caverns can be constructed
technically and the major support method will be rock bolts with shotcrete. Only in isolated locations
where rock mass quality is exceptional low, e.g., in the faulting zones, more extensive support will be
required. However, major faulting zones will generally be identified during the investigation and caverns shall be located away from those zones when possible.
69
With a Q-value of 10~25, the indicative rock support requirements will be:
a)
b)
c)
For tunnels with span or height less than 5 m, virtually no support is needed, however, a thin
layer of shotcrete is recommended;
For tunnels with a span or height less between 5 and 10 m, only shotcrete will be required, with
minor bolting;
For caverns and chambers with a span or height of 10~30 m, systematic bolting and shotcrete
will be used.
Table 3 Rock support categories for the cavern span of 20 m

Support category
Range of Q-value
Estimated support requirements
Class 2
40-300 (very good/extremely good) Spot bolting
Class 3
30-40 (good)
Systematic bolting
Class 4
10~30 (good)
System bolting with 40-100 mm

reinforced shotcrete
Class 5
4~10 (fair)
Fibre reinforced shotcrete, 50-90 mm

and bolting
Class 6
1.16~4 (poor)
Fibre reinforced shotcrete, 90-120 mm

and bolting
Class 7
0.33~1.16 (very poor)
Fibre reinforced shotcrete, 120-150

mm and bolting
Class 8
0.1~0.33 (very poor)
Fibre reinforced shotcrete, >150 mm

with reinforced ribs of shotcrete and
bolting
Class 9
0.025~0.1 (extremely poor)
Cast concrete lining
0.001~0.025 (exceptionally poor)
Considered unsupportable
Unsupportable
un-
6 CONCLUSIONS
The feasibility study indicates that the rock mass underlying Jurong Island is generally of fair to very
good quality siltstone, sandstone and other sedimentary rocks. With the good subsurface rock mass
quality (Q=10-20), caverns of span up to 20 m can be constructed below Jurong Island. The major
support method will be rock bolts with shotcrete. Only in isolated locations where rock mass quality is
exceptionally low, e.g., in the faulting zones, more extensive support will be required. However, major faulting zones will generally be identified during the investigation and caverns shall be located
away from those zones when possible. In areas where the rock mass quality is high (e.g., around BH2,
BH9 and BH10), less support measures will be required. While in areas where rock mass quality is
low (e.g., BH1, BH7 and BH5), more support will be required, which will lead to higher development
costs.
70
The depth of bedrock varies from borehole locations between 25 to 55 m (elevation -20 to -50 m), with
an average of 35 m (elevation -35 m), below the present ground surface. The rock mass quality is fair
to good in most cases 20 m below the bedrock surface. Caverns therefore could be located in general
20 m below the bedrock surface. The 20 m thick rock mass above the cavern crown maintains the
self-supported stability. The crown of the caverns therefore can be at the about 45 to 75 m below the
present ground, i.e., at elevation -40 to -70 m, depending on the actual location.
In summary, the rock mass underlying Jurong Island is generally of fair to very good quality siltstone,
sandstone and other sedimentary rocks. It is technically feasible to develop underground storage facilities for hydrocarbon products. The location of storage cavern sites needs to be decided according to
the technical feasibility and the operational requirements.
REFERENCES
Barton N. R., Grimstad E., Aas G., Opsahl O. A., Bakken A, Pedersen L. & Johansen E. D. 1992.
Norwegian method of tunnelling. World Tunnelling, June/August
Barton N. R., Lien R. & Lunde J. (1974) Engineering classification of rock masses for the design of
tunnel support. Rock Mechanics, (6):189-239.
Guo C. J. & Zhao J. 1998. Physical and mechanical properties of weathered carbonate rocks in Singapore. Regional Symposium on Sedimentary Rock Engineering, Taipei, Taiwan,
Redding J. 1999. Geotechnical Feasibility Study into Rock Cavern Construction in the Jurong Formation. Final Project Report by Ove Arup & Partners International Ltd and Norconsult International
A/S, submitted to Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.
Zhao J., Lee, K. W., Choa V., Liu Q. & Cai J. G. 1999. Underground Cavern Development in the Jurong Formation of Sedimentary Rocks. Nanyang Technological University.
71
SESSION 3
EXCAVATION 1
Main
Construction of Diaphragm Walls for Contract 825 with

Particular Reference to their Impact upon the Ground
N.H. Osborne, K.B. Chang, S.V. Ng
Land Transport Authority, Singapore
C. Daniel
WH-STEC-NCC JV, Singapore
ABSTRACT: The first phase of the circle line is Contract 825 lying in the heart of urban Singapore.
The Contract comprises four stations and 2.5 Km of twin bored tunnel, in varying and complex ground
conditions all within close proximity to a number of historically significant structures. An important
consideration within the Contract, particularly at the design phase, is risk mitigation with reduction of
ground movement a key consideration. One such mitigation measure was in the design of all the
stations and the cut and cover tunnels, the design utilized diaphragm walls as the retaining system and
top down construction as the most effective measures to minimize settlements. A review of the
diaphragm wall process and the construction techniques used to overcome the varied and difficult
ground conditions is undertaken together with a particular focus on the response of the ground to the
construction of the walls, and how this response manifests itself as ground movement.
1 INTRODUCTION
Contract 825 of the Circle Line Project (CCLP) is a Design and Build contract comprising four stations and the tunnels in between, of which 0.3 km are cut and cover (Figure 1), giving rise to over 2.2
km of diaphragm wall to be installed along the length of the project. The Contract was awarded to the
JV of WohHup- Shanghai Tunnel Engineering- NCC in August 2001. The installation of the diaphragm walls was sub contracted and split between China National Water Resources and Hydropower
Engineering Corporation (CHWEC) for Dhoby Ghaut (DBG) and Museum (MSM) stations and L&M
Geotechnic for Convention Centre (CVC) station, Millenia (MLN) station and the Cut and Cover Tunnel. The rationale for splitting the work was twofold, to minimize the program risk due to the large
amount of diaphragm walling and the ground conditions, which made for a convenient separation.
The diaphragm walls, which are used for both temporary and permanent works, play a significant role
in the project. They are installed in a number of different geological and environmental settings using
different plant and techniques to overcome the challenges presented by the project. Such challenges
include excavation within 7m of Singapore Arts Museum (SAM) a listed and historical structure notoriously intolerant to settlement and excavation within 4m of a running MRT line. The ground conditions were varied with 75% of Singapores strata encountered within the project, encompassing the full
strength range from soft clays to very strong boulders (Section 2). The design called for varying thickness of walls from 1.0 1.5m, excavated wall depths up to 49m and at all times minimizing settlement
was of paramount importance as the work was being carried out in close proximity to sensitive structures. Further complications were the large numbers of utilities that had to be dealt with as utility gaps
within the walls were required to be kept to a minimum to avoid problems during excavation, particularly in terms of stability in the soft ground, seepage and associated consolidation settlements.
Main
75
The diaphragm walling started in September 2002 and was complete by October 2003. This paper reviews that work discussing some of the problems encountered and the solutions used. Particular attention is paid to the interaction of the diaphragm walls and the ground. It is commonly stated that 10mm
of settlement during installation of diaphragm walls is achievable, but with little evidence presented,
this paper studies that assumption and the response of the ground to installation. Despite good construction control the ground responds to the excavation of the diaphragm walls, this inevitable response is summarized and expected ground movements for future consideration presented.
Figure 1 Contract 825 works
2 GEOLOGY
The range of geology encountered along the length of the contract adds to the construction challenges.
In the west the majority of the works for DBG will occur within the Jurong Formation, a variable
sedimentary formation ranging from strong to very strong quartzite and sandstones to weak mudstones. The strength ranges from less than 5 MPa to occasionally in excess of 200 MPa making excavation difficult. Moving east there is an interface with the Boulder Bed before MSM station, a colluvial deposit comprising of strong to very strong sandstone and quartzite boulders within a stiff clay
matrix (Shirlaw et al 1990). Both these strata are overlain by the Kallang Formation in the form of buried valleys of variable thickness. At MSM one such valley extends to 22m bgl and comprises of interbedded fluvial sands and clays, estuarine clay and Marine Clay. Before CVC station the underlying
strata changes again to Old Alluvium. This is a medium dense to very dense clayey coarse sand and
fine gravel, containing lenses of silt and clay, and delimited based upon SPT values. More recently the
Old Alluvium has been classified as a weak rock (Peart et al 2001) as it has undergone diagenesis with
a degree of cementation observable. Moving towards MLN station the Kallang Formation thickens
with Marine Clay dominating the geology.
The different types of strata encountered pose different problems. In the stronger formations excavation of the material is difficult and construction progress is a problem. This is combined with wear on
the cutter bits, particularly within the quartzite of the Jurong Formation and the boulder bed, where
due to low grade metamorphism, alteration and recrystallisation the quartz grains become more abrasive resulting a significantly more abrasive rock (Osborne et al 2001). At the other end of the strength
spectrum there are the problems inherent to excavation in weak sands and clays, that of stability.
Trench stability and minimizing ground movements was an important issue and is covered in greater
detail later in the paper.
76
3 TRENCH STABILITY
Trench stability is of paramount importance to the whole diaphragm wall process. It ensures that there
is no collapse during excavation and plays an important role in minimizing potential movements during the diaphragm wall excavation. With a significant proportion of the Circle Line Project under construction a large amount of diaphragm walling is occurring in Singapore and there has been a number
of minor collapses across the projects. C825 has contributed a small number to these collapses and investigation into underlying reasons has been carried out.
Although there is no industry standard for Factors of Safety for diaphragm wall calculations it appears
generally that 1.1 is used, for a trench to fail obviously that factor needs to drop below one and there
are a large number of potential contributory reasons for this. A good place to start is with the ground
ground parameters chosen need to be carefully considered to reflect the actual ground conditions and
its inherent variability. This is particularly so in the case of fill which on occasions in Singapore can
extend to 10m, through land reclamation, and in the fluvial and beach sands which are particularly
prone to instability in diaphragm wall trenches. An added complication comes with the mixed ground
scenario of Kallang overlying stronger deposits of Boulder Bed or Jurong. With excavation more difficult in the stronger ground the trench remains open longer in some cases up to thirty days allowing
degradation of the weaker material and increasing the chances of collapse.
A number of different approaches are used to calculate trench stability and apart from the low Factor
of Safety and the geotechnical parameters there are other important variables which trench stability
calculations are very sensitive to. Inappropriate surcharge can lead to problems as heavy plant is required for the construction process and this needs to be properly accounted for in the calculations. Calculations need to consider the actual site conditions properly, the highest insitu ground water level
needs to be used to ensure lateral loads are calculated correctly and the worst case on site bentonite
density used in the calculation. Once the calculations are completed the parameters used need to be
strictly adhered to onsite the minimum bentonite density and bentonite level assumed, within the
trench, cannot be exceeded or collapse is very likely to occur. Additional problems arise on site, particularly with desanding where the risk of collapse is increased as the bentoinite density is lowered to
ensure good quality concreting of the diaphragm wall panel. Careful use of plant is required during
this process, particularly with the use of a hydrofraise where rapid withdrawal of the rig can lead to the
creation of suction forces within the trench. In addition during removal attention must be paid to ensuring that the hydrofraise is extracted vertically, without hitting the trench walls and scraping off the
filter cake, which is crucial to providing stability in sands. A further complication is added through the
removal of stopends, which in deep trenches often require chiselling, having an adverse effect on stability.
There are other factors that can cause trench instability that cannot be considered in the calculations.
These are external factors that arise on a busy construction site and put additional loads on the trench
wall. Recharge systems, sheetpiling and jet grouting should not be carried concurrently and in close
proximity to an open trench as the likelihood of collapse is significantly increased. These activities
need to be considered and scheduled such that they do not have a negative impact on trench stability.
It is clear that there are a large number of different reasons why a trench may become unstable. Obviously bentonite density plays a key role, but the other factors need to be considered. It is suggested
that the Factor of Safety currently used is too low to account for all these factors and that the Factor of
Safety be increased. This could be easily done through upstands on guide walls or providing slightly
higher bentonite densities. A higher Factor of Safety has the additional advantage of providing added
stability to the trench consequently reducing ground movements during construction.
4 CONSTRUCTION COMPLICATIONS
As the ground conditions varied considerably along the site, different construction problems were encountered on site during installation of diaphragm walls and different plant and solutions were required to overcome these ensuring the success of the diaphragm wall process. The problems were not
77
insurmountable, but the solutions were often time consuming.

To the East End of C825 which was dominated by the Marine Clay and Old Alluvium excavation was
relatively easy and carried out by grabbing rigs and clamshells. Beyond the concerns of instability in
the soft clays, the main obstacle to smooth construction progress lay in the large number of undiverted utilities within the path of the diaphragm wall. The solution was to protect the utilities and excavate the trench using the clamshell at an angle, although this was successfully carried out problems
were encountered in excavating material directly under the trench and time lost. Similar problems were
encountered during the installation of the rebar cages, as they had to be installed at a similar angle. For
larger utility gaps this solution could not be utilized and the diaphragm wall was omitted with a combination of sheet piles and jet grouting used for the temporary works support and cast insitu wall for
the permanent wall. This solution came with its own problems particularly that of increased settlement
and integration, particularly in terms of waterproofing, during the permanent stage.
To the West End of the contract at DBG and MSM ground conditions were more challenging, particularly with the interface of soft Kallang and strong Jurong Formation and Boulder Bed. Machinery consisted of hydraulic grabs for the softer material and BC 40 and BC 32 hydrofraises for the stronger material, (Figure 2). A number of problems arose and were solved during the construction of the
diaphragm walls, the majority related to the interface between hard and soft ground. The first and most
obvious problem was strength of the ground, which only the more powerful BC 40 could excavate
slowly, but successfully. To enable this excavation to proceed wear of the cutter teeth was high due to
the abrasive nature of the ground resulting up to 400 teeth needing to be replaced per panel.
A problem prevalent at both DBG and MSM was clagging of the cutter wheel. While trying to excavate the interface of the completely weathered rock, basically a stiff clay, and the highly/moderately
weathered rock of the Jurong Formation or the stiff clay and boulders in the Boulder Bed the cutter
wheels became clogged with the clay, preventing excavation of the strong rock. The only solution was
to remove the cutter and clean the wheel using brushes and high pressure hoses. On occasion this procedure was required as frequently as every half a metre of excavated panel and took up to 2-3 hours. A
second interface problem was limited to MSM and the Boulder Bed. The hydrofraise had problems on
encountering boulders occupying a portion of the trench to be excavated, (Figure 3). The natural tendency of the BC40 was to tilt and try to excavate the stiff clay and not the boulder causing delay to
trench excavation. To overcome this problem skill and patience by the machine operator was required.
BC 40
BC40 incline towards the softer side

of the trench.
Figure 2 BC 40 Hydrofraise
Boulder
Figure 3 Problem of excavating Boulders
78
One further problem that was experienced across the stations was the time and difficulty in removing
the stopends, this problem was further enhanced by the deep diaphragm walls. A number of different
solutions were trialled including lime application to the stopend, ensuring the gap between the stopend
and trench was minimised and placing aggregate behind the stopend to prevent the concrete from flowing behind it. Despite these measures some chiselling was still required, with the potential negative effects on trench stability.
5 GROUND MOVEMENTS
The influence of the diaphragm wall installation on the ground is recorded through monitored results
on site. Three different scenarios are studied in detail, movement of the ground adjacent to a number of
excavated panels, movement of an existing MRT tunnel in close proximity to the excavation and the
localized impact of diaphragm wall panel excavation on piezometric pressures.
5.1 Ground Movements
There has been much debate about the magnitude of settlement induced through the installation of a
diaphragm wall, and within the urban environment how that impact can be accounted for in damage
assessments. A generally accepted maximum Figure for movements is 10mm, although there is little
hard evidence to back this up. As much of the diaphragm walls for C825 were to be installed close to
sensitive structures that could only tolerate small amounts of settlement, this was an important issue.
Four trial trenches were carried out at the commencement of diaphragm walling and monitored
closely, these gave rise to maximum settlements of 3mm. Although this was considered useful such a
trial trench cannot be truly representative of movements during actual construction. The cumulative effect of constructing a number of trenches combined with numerous potential site difficulties is likely to
give rise to larger settlements than any trial trench. With the obvious limitation that settlement monitoring in close proximity to large diaphragm wall rigs will be subject to damaged instruments, monitoring was carried out and Figure 4 summarizes the maximum monitored movements encountered
across the project.
1
0
Settlement (mm)
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Time (Days)
Typical settlement
D Wall excavation
Figure 4 Typical settlement during diaphragm wall excavation
This demonstrates that less than 10mm of settlement can easily be achieved through careful diaphragm
wall installation. It must be noted however that this is not the case in a collapse situation. From obser-
79
vation of the minor collapses it was evident that significant depressions adjacent to the wall developed
and these could cause up to 20mm of settlement over 5m from the collapsed panel. In terms of risk, a
collapse is an unusual occurrence but has a significant impact on the surrounding area. Through appropriate design and good construction control the likelihood of collapse can be completely eradicated
and movements kept to within 6mm.
5.2 Movement of an adjacent MRT Tunnel
To construct the crossover box at DBG diaphragm walls were installed within 4m of the existing NS
line. These panels were constructed as reduced size panels, 3m in length, with the diaphragm wall extending to 32.5m below ground. Typical ground conditions were Kallang deposits to 8m, underlain by
6m of completely weathered Jurong Formation that progressed into highly to moderately weathered
Jurong Formation. The existing MRT tunnels, 6m diameter tunnels had an axis level of approximately
14.5m bgl at the interface of the completely and highly weathered Jurong Formation. As the MRT was
a live railway, throughout the operation close monitoring was carried out on the structure through an
automated prism system at 3m centres on the crown, both axis and track slab of the tunnel and electrolevel monitoring of tilt of the track bed. The results of the monitoring of the tunnel lining movements are summarized, (Figure 5).
4.0
3.5
3.0
Movement (mm)
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
30-Dec-02
29-Jan-03
28-Feb-03
30-Mar-03
29-Apr-03
29-May-03
28-Jun-03
28-Jul-03
Time
Horizontal movement
Vertical movement
D wall excavation
Resolved movement
Figure 5 Movements of MRT during diaphragm wall installation
As can be seen from the above, the installation of the diaphragm walls clearly had an influence on the
structure. This manifests itself as a horizontal movement of the tunnel towards the excavation and
heave of the tunnel, although the movements are small the overall resolved maximum movement is
3.5mm. After the completion of diaphragm walling there is an elastic response to the movement in the
vertical direction, however this response is not seen in the horizontal movement, the overall impact of
the elastic rebound is to reduce the total movement to 2.5mm.
80
5.3 Impact upon Piezometric Pressures

The surface geology of much of downtown Singapore is dominated by the Kallang Formation and the
Marine Clay, causing consolidation settlement to be a particular concern. An advantage of using diaphragm walling is that during installation of the retaining system consolidation settlements are not an
issue, as the positive force within the trench allows no source for water drawdown. To ensure this is
the case piezometric pressures were monitored during excavation, and these are summarized in Figure
6.
103.0
Piezometric pressure (m)
102.0
101.0
100.0
99.0
98.0
Closest panel
97.0
21/09/02
16/10/02
10/11/02
05/12/02
8m away
6m away
30/12/02
24/01/03
18/02/03
15/03/03
09/04/03
Time
Piezometric pressure (m)
D wall excavation
Figure 6 Typical piezometric changes induced during diaphragm walling
The impact of diaphragm wall on piezometric presuure will obviously vary depending upon the ground
conditions, the more permeable the greater the response but the quicker the pore pressures dissipate.
Figure 6 demonstrates the changes induced in a piezometer installed with the Jurong formation with a
typical permeability of 10-6 - 10-7 m/sec (Zhao et al 1999), offset 5m away from the diaphragm wall
panel. Excavation of the closest panel shows a 3m rise in pore water pressure and a rapid fall to normal
levels once excavation is over. Excavation of the adjacent panels also shows an impact suggesting a
minimum zone of influence of 10m around the panel. Although this change is beneficial in-terms of
minimizing settlement there are possible detrimental impacts upon trench stability. This situation will
be worse on the inside face of the diaphragm wall, as walling draws to completion the pore water pressure cannot dissipate putting additional load on the trench walls, with the potential to cause trench instability.
6 CONCLUSION
Although diaphragm walls appear an ideal design solution for a retaining system within the urban environment there are a number of factors that need to be considered in their construction. It has been
demonstrated that they can be installed with very little settlement and minimal impact upon adjacent
structures if good construction control is practiced. However the likelihood of trench collapse remains
and this risk needs to be totally eradicated as the impact of any collapse is great. Higher Factors of
Safety combined with consideration of all the parameters that have an impact on trench stability and
the potential variation of these factors is one method of further reducing the risk of trench collapse.
81
In terms of construction difficulties the choice of diaphragm walls does not present additional problems to that of any other retaining system. The problems are generally related to the ground condition
and as such similar problems would be faced by other methods, these problems can be successfully
negotiated.
REFERNCES
Shirlaw, J.N., Poh, K.H., Hwang, R.N., 1990. Properties and origins of Singapore Boulder Bed. Tenth
South East Asia Geotechnical Conference.
Peart, M., Poh, J., Kho, C.M., 2001. A revised Interpretation of old Alluvium Formation based on
Ground investigations for Changi Airport Line. Proceedings of Underground Singapore.2001.
Osborne N.H., Lim, WB., Williams, O. I. 2001 The Jurong Formation, a variable ground condition,
Its Tunnelling Characteristics. Proceedings of Underground Singapore.2001.
Zhao, J., Lee K.W., Choa V., Liu Q., Cai J. G., 1999 Underground Cavern Development in the Jurong
Formation of Sedimentary rocks.
Shirlaw J.N., 2003 Personnel Communication.
82
Comparison of Results of Excavation Analysis using

WALLAP, SAGE CRISP and EXCAV97
K. W. Lim
Formerly Kiso Jiban (S) Pte Ltd, Singapore
K. S. Wong
K. Orihara
Kiso Jiban (S) Pte Ltd, Singapore
P. B. Ng
Kiso Jiban (S) Pte Ltd, Singapore
ABSTRACT: There are many commercial programs available in the market for the design of excavation works, some of those commonly used in Singapore are WALLAP, FREW, SAGE CRISP and
PLAXIS. Although these programs had been successfully applied in local excavation projects, there had
not been a study carried out to compare the results obtained from these programs. WALLAP, SAGE
CRISP (Mohr Coulomb and Duncan and Changs Hyperbolic models) and EXCAV 97 were chosen for
this study. Field measurements from four local projects, namely Ministry of Environment Building, Rochor Complex, Syed Alwi Project and Lavender MRT Station were chosen as the basis for comparison.
For each case, analyses were conducted using different Eu/cu or Ei/cu ratios until the computed wall deflections are in good agreement with the measured wall deflections. It was found that the hyperbolic
model in EXCAV97 and SAGE CRISP can generate good matches with a constant Ei/cu ratio. For the
elastic perfectly plastic models used by WALLAP and SAGE CRISP (Mohr Coulomb model), the Eu/cu
ratios required to generate good matches varied from case to case. The wall bending moments and the
strut forces generated by the different methods were also compared.
1 INTRODUCTION
There are many commercial programs available in the market, which have been used by engineers in
designing excavation works. These programs vary from using a simple beam-and-spring model to a
more sophisticated 2-D continuum finite element method. The programs that are commonly used in
Singapore are RIDO, FREW, WALLAP, EXCAV97, SAGE CRISP, and PLAXIS. Although these
programs had been successfully applied in many local excavation projects, there has not been a systematic study to compare the results generated by these programs. Hence, the objective of this paper is
to compare the results generated by some of these programs with the field measurements as well as
with each other. The programs covered in this study are WALLAP, SAGE CRISP and EXCAV97. For
SAGE CRISP, two soil models were considered. They are the linearly elastic perfectly plastic Mohr
Coulomb model and Duncan and Changs hyperbolic model.
2 PROGRAM OVERVIEW
2.1 WALLAP
This program models the wall and soil as beams and springs respectively. It has two spring models.
They are the subgrade reaction model and the 2-D finite element model. In this study, only the subgrade reaction model was used. This model adopts a bi-linear spring constant, i.e. linear elastic up to
failure and perfectly plastic after failure. This beams-and-spring model is an improved version over
the conventional 1-D model which had been criticised for its inability to take into consideration the
Main
83
excavation geometry and boundary conditions. With the built-in finite element analysis, the spring
constants are modified to account for the site dimensions and boundary conditions. In addition, the interface wall friction or adhesion can be considered in the analysis.
2.2 SAGE CRISP
SAGE CRISP is a result of continuing research work on Critical State Soil Mechanics through years at
Cambridge University. The element types available to form the finite element mesh are Linear Strain
Triangle (LST), Cubic Strain Triangle (CST), and Linear Strain Quadrilateral (LSQ). These elements
can be incorporated with pore pressure as an additional degree of freedom for consolidation analysis.
The structural elements such as walls, slabs and columns are modelled as 1-D, 3-noded beam element.
The bar elements are used to model tie-back, ground anchor and struts. The bar elements are 1-D, 3noded elements and capable of supporting only axial load in tension and compression.
There are many soil models available in SAGE CRISP. Only the elasticperfectly plastic Mohr Coulomb model and the nonlinear elastic hyperbolic (Duncan and Chang) model were used in this study.
The types of analyses that CRISP can handle are undrained, drained, consolidation analysis of 2-D or
3-D plane strain or axisymmetric (with axisymmetric loading) solid bodies. In this study, only
undrained (for clay) and drained (for sand) non-consolidating analyses were carried out.
2.3 EXCAV 97
This is a finite element program that analyses excavation problems in 2-dimensional continuum under
plane strain condition. It calculates the displacements around an excavation, the stress and strains in
soil elements, and the internal forces and bending moments in the structural elements. It is a modification of the program EXCAV originally developed at the University of California at Berkeley by
Y.Ozawa, J.Dickens, P. Byrne, K.S. Wong and C.C. Chang under the supervision of J.M. Duncan.
Subsequent modifications were carried out by K. S. Wong and Anthony Goh at Nanyang Technological University in Singapore.
A four-node isoparametric element is used to model the soil medium. The non-linear and stressdependent stress-strain properties of the soils are approximated by the hyperbolic model proposed by
Duncan, Bryne, Wong and Maybre (1981). Beam elements are used to model the wall and floor slabs.
Bar elements are used to model the struts and anchors.
The sequence of construction involving the excavation of a soil layer, the installation of struts or the
construction of the basement floor slabs and subsequent removal of the struts can readily be modeled
by the program. The excavation of a soil layer is simulated by applying forces to the bottom of excavation. The forces are calculated using four-point integration to determine the forces at the nodal points
of each excavated element and are applied in the reverse sense. Various soil treatment and construction
schemes, such as jet grouting, lime treatment and excavation under water, can be incorporated in the
analysis.
3 PROJECT OVERVIEW
3.1 Ministry of Environment (MOE) Building
The MOE Building is located along Scott Road and Carnhill Road. The excavation support system
comprised of a 24 m long YSP IV sheetpile wall braced by three levels of struts. The horizontal spacing of the struts is about 5 m. A typical cross-section of the excavation and the soil profile are shown
in Figure 1. The original ground water table was about 0.5 m below ground surface.
The structural properties of the wall and struts are summarised in Table 1. The construction sequence
is given in Table 2. Surcharge was not included in the analysis.
84
Fig. 1 Sectional view of excavation and soil profile at MOE Building. The field vane strengths were corrected
using Bjerrums correction factor.
Table 1 Summary of structural properties for MOE Building
Structural Members
Strut (at 0.8 m)
Strut (at 2.5 m)
Strut (at 4.5 m)
YSP IV Sheetpile
E (kN/m2)
2.07 x 108
2.07 x 108
2.07 x 108
2.07 x 108
I (m4/m)
0.000111
0.000111
0.000111
0.000319
A (m2/m)
0.00580
0.00580
0.00580
0.02425
Preload (kN/m)
66.2
66.2
66.2
-
Table 2 Excavation sequence for MOE Building
Stage
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Excavation Sequence
Excavate to 1.8 m
Install first level struts at 0.8 m and preload to 66.2 kN/m
Excavate to 3.7 m
Install second level struts at 2.5 m and preload to 66.2 kN/m
Excavate to 5.1m
Install third level struts at 4.5 m and preload to 66.2 kN/m
Excavate to 7.0 m
3.2 Rochor Complex

The Rochor Complex is bounded by Rochor Road, Ophir Road and Queen Street. The excavation support system consisted of a 24 m long sheet pile (FSP IIIA) braced at three levels. The first level of
struts were steel H-sections of designation HP 356 x 368 x 109 kg/m. The second and third levels were
double struts of the same section. The horizontal strut spacing is 4.0 m. A typical cross-section of the
excavation and the soil profile are shown in Figure 2. The original ground water table was about 1.5 m
below ground surface.
85
=30o
Fig. 2 Sectional view of excavation and soil profile at Rochor Complex

Table 3 Summary of structural properties for Rochor Complex
Structural Members
Strut (at 0.6 m)
Strut (at 1.5 m)
Strut (at 3.8 m)
FSP IIIA Sheetpile
E (kN/m2)
2.07 x 108
2.07 x 108
2.07 x 108
2.07 x 108
I (m4/m)
0.000680
0.001360
0.001360
0.000228
A (m2/m)
0.0040
0.0080
0.0080
0.0186
Preload (kN/m)
28.0
104.3
175.1
-
Table 4 Excavation sequence for Rochor Complex
Stage
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Excavation Sequence
Excavate to 1.5 m
Install first level struts at 0.6 m and preload to 28.0 kN/m
Excavate to 2.4 m
Install second level struts at 1.5 m and preload to 104.3 kN/m
Excavate to 4.2 m
Install third level struts at 3.8 m and preload to 175.1 kN/m
Excavate to 6.3 m
3.3 Syed Alwi Project

The Syed Alwi Project is located on Syed Alwi Road. A 20 m diaphragm wall braced at two levels
formed the framework of the excavation support system. The diaphragm wall was 0.6 m thick. The
horizontal strut spacing was 4.5 m. A cross-section of the excavation support system and the soil profile are shown in Figure 3. The original ground water table was about 1.0 m below ground surface.
86
Fig. 3 Sectional view of excavation and soil profile at Syed Alwi project.
Table 5 Summary of structural properties for Syed Alwi Project
Structural Members
Strut (at 2.0 m)
Strut (at 5.5 m)
0.6 m Diaphragm Wall
E (kN/m2)
2.07 x 108
2.07 x 108
2.50 x 107
I (m4/m)
0.000565
0.000565
0.018
A (m2/m)
0.004125
0.004125
0.600000
Preload (kN/m)
25
100
-
Table 6 Excavation sequence for Syed Alwi Project
Stage
1
2
3
4
5
Excavation Sequence
Excavate to 2.5 m
Install first level struts at 2.0 m and preload to 25 kN/m
Excavate to 6.0 m
Install second level struts at 5.5 m and preload to 100 kN/m
Excavate to 7.8 m
3.4 Lavender MRT Station

The Lavender MRT Station is located along Kallang Road. The excavation support system consisted
of a 28 m long diaphragm wall braced at six levels. The wall was 1 m thick. The horizontal strut spacing was 4 m. A typical cross-section of the excavation and the soil profile are shown in Figure 4. The
original ground water table was about 1.0 m below ground surface.
87
Fig. 4 Sectional view of excavation and soil profile at Lavender MRT Station.
Table 7 Summary of structural properties for Lavender MRT Station
Structural Members
Strut (at 1.0 m)
Strut (at 4.5 m)
Strut (at 7.0 m)
Strut (at 10.0 m)
Strut (at 12.0 m)
Strut (at 14.0 m)
Diaphragm Wall
E (kN/m2)
2.07 x 108
2.07 x 108
2.07 x 108
2.07 x 108
2.07 x 108
2.07 x 108
2.80 x 107
I (m4/m)
0.000680
0.000136
0.000233
0.000136
0.000136
0.000136
0.083000
A (m2/m)
0.0040
0.0058
0.0073
0.0058
0.0058
0.0058
1.0000
Table 8 Excavation sequence for Lavender MRT Station
Stage
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Excavation Sequence
Excavate to 1.5 m
Install first level struts at 1.0 m and preload to 190 kN/m
Excavate to 5.0 m
Install second level struts at 4.5 m and preload to 390 kN/m
Excavate to 7.5 m
Install third level struts at 7.0 m and preload to 327 kN/m
Excavate to 10.5 m
Install fourth level struts at 10.0 m and preload to 260 kN/m
Excavate to 12.5 m
Install fifth level struts at 12.0 m and preload to 233 kN/m
Excavate to 14.5 m
Install sixth level struts at 14.0 m and preload to 220 kN/m
Excavate to 15.7 m
88
Preload (kN/m)
190
390
327
260
233
220
-
4 WALL DEFLECTIONS
Analyses were carried out by varying the Eu/ cu ratios (WALLAP and SAGE CRISP Mohr Coulomb)
and Ei/cu ratios (SAGE CRISP Hyperbolic and EXCAV 97) until the results matched reasonably well
with the measured deflections at the final stage of excavation. A comparison of the wall deflections of
the four projects with field measurements at the final stage of excavation are plotted in Figures 5 to 8.
The Eu/cu and Ei/cu ratios that yielded good agreements with the field measurements are summarised in
Table 9. It should be noted that for the very stiff soils with cu>100 kPa, the Eu/cu or Ei/cu ratio was set
to 600. A comparison of the maximum wall deflection obtained from the analyses and the field measurements is shown in Table 10. The main reason for the different Ei/cu ratios for the two hyperbolic
methods is because of the difference in the finite element types adopted by the two programs.
Table 9 Summary of Eu/cu and Ei/cu ratios for the clayey soils
WALLAP, Mohr Coulomb, Eu/ cu

SAGE CRISP, Mohr Coulomb, Eu/cu
SAGE CRISP, Hyperbolic, Ei/cu
EXCAV97, Hyperbolic, Ei/cu
MOE
Building
250
100
300
200
Rochor
Complex
250
150
300
200
Syed Alwi
Project
300
300
300
200
Lavender
Station
300
300
300
200
Rochor
Complex
146
130
157
145
155
Syed Alwi
Project
48
51
51
57
47
Lavender
Station
31
41
33
42
35
Table 10 Comparison of maximum wall deflections (mm)
Measured
WALLAP, Mohr Coulomb, Eu/cu
SAGE CRISP, Mohr Coulomb, Eu/cu
SAGE CRISP, Hyperbolic, Ei/cu
EXCAV97, Hyperbolic, Ei/cu
MOE
Building
305
290
326
287
330
Wall Deflection (mm)

-200
-100
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
-100
-50
0
Depth (m)
10
12
16
22
150
200
250
300
10
12
16
Measured
18
WALLAP
Eu/Cu = 250
Measured
20
100
14
14
18
50
Depth (m)
WALLAP
Eu/Cu = 250
20
SAGE CRISP (M-C)

Eu/Cu = 100
SAGE CRISP (Hyp)

Ei/Cu = 300
22
EXCAV 97 (Hyp)
Ei/Cu = 200
24
SAGE CRISP (M-C)

Eu/Cu = 150
SAGE CRISP (Hyp)

Ei/Cu = 300
EXCAV 97 (Hyp)
Ei/Cu = 200
24
Fig. 5 Wall deflections at MOE Building
Fig. 6 Wall deflections at Rochor Complex
89

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70

80
90
100
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
4
4
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
10
12
16
12
14
20
Measured 1
Measured
Measured 2
16
WALLAP
Eu/Cu = 300
18
WALLAP
Eu/Cu = 300
24
SAGE CRISP (M-C)

Eu/Cu = 300
SAGE CRISP (M-C)

Eu/Cu = 300
SAGE CRISP (Hyp)

Ei/Cu = 300
SAGE CRISP (Hyp)

Ei/Cu = 300
EXCAV97 (Hyp)
Ei/Cu = 200
EXCAV97 (Hyp)
Ei/Cu = 200
28
20
Fig. 7 Wall deflections at Syed Alwi Project
Fig. 8 Wall deflections at Lavender Station
5 BENDING MOMENT
Based on the measured deflection, the bending moments of the four retaining walls were obtained by
taking the second derivative of the deflection profile. The bending moments obtained from the finite
element analyses and those back-analysed are shown in Figures 9 to 12. A comparison of the maximum bending moments obtained from the analyses and those back-analysed is summarised in Table
11. All four methods generate similar results. It is not surprising that they are in good agreement with
the back-analysed moments because they all have very similar wall deflection profiles.
Table 11 Comparison of maximum bending moment (kNm/m)
"Measured" (back-analysed)
WALLAP
SAGE CRISP, Mohr Coulomb
SAGE CRISP, Hyperbolic
EXCAV97, Hyperbolic
MOE
Building
214
254
255
253
238
Rochor
Complex
354
243
237
237
278
Syed Alwi
Project
944
747
737
882
869
Lavender
MRT Station
1978
2171
1731
2044
1830
6 STRUT FORCES
Only the strut forces measured at the MOE Building were available in this study. Nevertheless, the
strut forces obtained from the analyses serve as a comparison between the different programs. The
strut forces were also converted to earth pressures and compared with the values according to Peck
(1969). The apparent pressure diagrams for the MOE Building, Rochor Complex, Syed Alwi Project
and Lavender MRT Station are shown in Figures 13 to 16. Results are summaries and compared in
Tables 12 to 15. The sum of the total strut forces for the various analyses is shown in Table 16.
90
Bending Moment (kNm)

-400.0
-200.0
0.0
200.0
B e n d in g M o m e n t (k N m /m )
400.0
-6 0 0 .0
600.0
-4 0 0 .0
-2 0 0 .0
0 .0
SAGE CRISP (M-C)

Eu/Cu = 100
12
SAGE CRISP (Hyp)

Ei/Cu = 300
14
6 0 0 .0
B a c k -c a lc u la te d
W ALLAP
E u /C u = 2 5 0
S A G E C R IS P ( M -C )
E u /C u = 1 5 0
10
WALLAP
Eu/Cu = 250
10
4 0 0 .0
Back-calculated
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
2 0 0 .0
S A G E C R IS P ( H y p )
E i/C u = 3 0 0
E X C A V 9 7 (H y p )
E i/C u = 2 0 0
12
14
EXCAV 97 (Hyp)
Ei/Cu = 200
16
16
18
18
20
20
22
22
24
24
Fig. 9 Bending moments at MOE Building
Fig. 10 Bending moments at Rochor Complex
Bending Moment (kNm/m)
Bending Moment (kNm/m)

-1500
-1000
-500
500
1000
1500
2000
-4000
-3000
-2000
-1000
1000
2000
2
4
Back-calculated
10
10
SAGE CRISP (M-C)

Eu/Cu = 300
12
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
WALLAP
Eu/Cu = 300
SAGE CRISP (Hyp)

Ei/Cu = 300
EXCAV97 (Hyp)
Ei/Cu = 200
14
16
12
18
14
20
22
16
Measured 1
Measured 2
WALLAP Eu/Cu = 300
18
24
SAGE CRISP (M-C) Eu/Cu = 300
SAGE CRISP (Hyp) Ei/Cu = 300
26
EXCAV97 (Hyp) Ei/Cu = 200
20
28
Fig. 11 Bending moments at Syed Alwi project
Fig. 12 Bending moments at Lavender Station
91
Table 12 Comparison of strut forces at MOE Building
Top Strut
S1 (kN/m)
Measured
WALLAP
EXCAV97, Hyperbolic
S2 (kN/m)
112
107
138
141
154
Bottom Strut
S3 (kN/m)
263
184
282
271
237
312
369
397
419
312
Table 13 Comparison of strut forces at Rochor Complex
Top Strut
S1 (kN/m)
WALLAP
EXCAV97, Hyperbolic
S2 (kN/m)
30
70
58
74
Bottom Strut
S3 (kN/m)
164
199
182
242
282
298
344
362
Table 14 Comparison of strut forces at Syed Alwi Project
Top Strut
S1 (kN/m)
WALLAP
EXCAV97, Hyperbolic
Bottom Strut
S2 (kN/m)
342
211
201
257
Table 15 Comparison of strut forces at Lavender MRT Station

Top
S1
S2
S3
(kN/m) (kN/m) (kN/m)
WALLAP
383
660
642
415
651
612
440
724
693
EXCAV97, Hyperbolic
450
688
631
265
229
344
333
S4
(kN/m)
449
427
484
427
S5
(kN/m)
421
388
454
390
Bottom
S6
(kN/m)
321
308
340
351
Table 16 Comparison of the sum of strut forces
Measured
WALLAP, Mohr Coulomb
EXCAV97, Hyperbolic
Peck (m=1)
Peck (m=0.4)
MOE
Building
687
660
817
831
687
396
584
Rochor
Complex
476
567
584
678
267
501
Syed Alwi
Project
607
461
550
589
393
588
Lavender
MRT Station
2876
2801
3135
2937
1661
2996
It is difficult to draw any definite conclusions on the computed strut forces. In general, the hyperbolic
models (SAGE CRISP and EXCAV97) yielded similar results. The Mohr-Coulomb model (SAGE
CRISP) yielded slightly low strut forces than those from the hyperbolic model. Values obtained from
WALLAP do not show any particular trend when compared with those from the other methods.
92
Apparent Pressure (kPa)

50
100
150
200
250
300
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
4
WALLAP
Eu/Cu = 250
SAGE CRISP (M-C)
Eu/Cu = 100
40
80
120
WALLAP
Eu/Cu = 250
SAGE CRISP (M-C)
Eu/Cu = 150
SAGE CRISP (Hyp)
Ei/Cu = 300
EXCAV97 (Hyp)
Ei/Cu = 200
Peck (m = 1)
EXCAV97 (Hyp)
Ei/Cu = 200
Peck (m = 1)
Peck (m = 0.4)
Peck (m = 0.4)
Measured
Fig. 13 Apparent pressure at MOE Building
Fig. 14 Apparent pressure at Rochor Complex

0
200
SAGE CRISP (Hyp)

Ei/Cu = 300
160
40
80
120

160
200
100
200
300
400
500
1
2
3
4
5
6
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
SAGE CRISP (Hyp)

Ei/Cu = 300
11
WALLAP
Eu/Cu =300
12
SAGE CRISP (M-C)

Eu/Cu = 300
13
EXCAV97 (Hyp)
Ei/Cu = 200
10
WALLAP
Eu/Cu =300
SAGE CRISP (M-C)

Eu/Cu = 300
14
Peck (m = 1)
15
Peck (m = 0.4)
SAGE CRISP (Hyp)

Ei/Cu = 300
EXCAV97 (Hyp)
Ei/Cu = 200
Peck (m = 1)
Peck (m = 0.4)
16
Fig. 15 Apparent pressure at Syed Alwi project
Fig. 16 Apparent pressure at Lavender Station
93
7 CONCLUSIONS
All three programs can produce reliable results provided appropriate modules and shear strengths are
used. The conclusions here are drawn from the studies of the four case records and may not be universally applicable to other problems. For WALLAP, a Eu/cu ratio of 250 to 300 yielded good agreements
with measured wall deflections of the four projects. For SAGE CRISP (Mohr Coulomb model), the
Eu/cu ratios from the back-analyses varied from 100 to 300. An appropriate Eu/cu ratio must be chosen
in order to obtain reasonable estimation of the wall deflection, bending moment and strut forces. For
the hyperbolic model, a constant Ei/cu ratio of 300 for SAGE CRISP (Hyperbolic model) and 200 for
EXCAV97 should be able to generate very good results. This makes the hyperbolic model attractive
and easy to use. All four methods yielded very similar bending moments. The computed strut forces
are more varied. The hyperbolic models yielded slightly higher forces than the Mohr-Coulomb model.
WALLAP seems to have a larger variation in strut forces when compared with the other methods.
REFERENCES
Peck, R.B., 1969. Deep excavations and tunnelling in soft ground. Proc. 7th ICSMFE, State-of-the-art volume,
Mexico City, Mexico, 225-290.
94
Behaviour of an Embedded Improved Soil Layer in an

Excavation
T.S. Tan, K.Y. Yong
Centre for Soft Ground Engineering,
National University of Singapore
T.L. Goh
Giken Seisakusho Asia
Thanadol Kongsomboon
ABSTRACT: In highly built up areas, an excavation in soft ground invariably will require some form
of soil improvement, in addition to the provision of a stiff retaining wall combined with appropriate
bracing, to control wall deflection. This is especially so when a thick soft deposit exists beneath the
final excavation level, and where the maximum deflection is expected to occur below this level. However, understanding of the behaviour of such an improved soil layer in an excavation is still rudimentary, mainly because of the dearth of relevant data from field studies or controlled physical modelling.
In this paper, results from careful centrifuge studies are discussed and an overall picture is presented of
the behaviour of various configurations of such soil improvement.
1
INTRODUCTION
In congested areas, excavation works often have to be carried out near to important structures such as
skyscrapers, subway tunnels, underground utilities and poorly supported old monuments. In the design for such excavations, the primary concern is to avoid potentially damaging effects caused to these
structures as a result of ground movement induced by the excavation. Many cities, especially those
developed around river mouths, usually have a ground profile consisting of a thick stratum of soft
clay. In such soft condition, an excavation will usually need a stiff retaining system coupled with an
appropriate bracing system to control the deflection of the retaining wall and limit ground movement.
When a thick layer of soft soil exists well below the final excavation level, such provisions are often
inadequate as the maximum deflection usually occurs below the exposed excavated level, where it is
impossible to install conventional bracing such as struts and ground anchors. In such situations, to
control movement, one approach is to improve the soil where the maximum deflection is expected as
shown in Fig. 1. Jet grouting and deep cement mixing have proven to be effective ground improvement techniques in such situations to control the deflection of retaining wall and the ground movements induced (Tanaka, 1993, Liao and Tsai, 1993, and Sugiwara et al., 1996). These techniques rely
on improving a layer of soil below the final excavation level to a required stiffness to provide the lateral restraint against wall deflection and vertical restraint against base heave in the passive side. Effectively, an embedded strut, in the form of an improved soil layer, is provided prior to the excavation.
Today, this has become a widely used technique in many excavations in Singapore, clearly indicating
its effectiveness. However, a detailed understanding of this technique is still not available, especially,
the mechanisms the improved soil layer would mobilise to restrain the movements. This is mainly due
to two practical constraints. In the field, it is difficult to obtain detailed data, especially in the interior
of the soil. Even if this were to be available, the data would be difficult to interpret as the actual mobilised composite behaviour of an improved soil layer is still not well understood. In practice, the soil is
improved in the form of overlapping short vertical circular columns, whereas when used as embedded
improved soil strut in an excavation, it is the lateral stiffness that is important. This difficulty is further exacerbated by other inherent constraints in a field study such as complex soil profiles based on
very limited soil investigations, estimated initial conditions and imprecise construction sequences.
Main
95
Figure 1
Effect of soil improvement works in Bugis Junction Project, Singapore [after Sugiwara et al.
(1996)]
The only other alternative is to instrumented field test is to conduct correctly scaled physical model
tests in the laboratory. In view of the shortcomings of using field data for detailed mechanistic study,
correctly scaled physical modelling, though highly challenging, is still preferred. In geotechnical engineering, it is now recognised that for processes where geostatic stresses play an important role, centrifuge provides a coherent way to carry out such physical model tests (Taylor, 1995). A centrifuge is
used to create a high acceleration field to ensure correct scaling of stress and strain in a small model.
However, for realistic simulation, it is important to ensure that key construction activities are simulated in-flight. This necessitates the development of relevant robotics, available to only a handful of
centrifuge research centres.
In this study, the results of a series of excavation tests on excavations stabilised with different configurations of improved soil layer that had been carried out on the National University of Singapores centrifuge will be reported. Issues to be examined include the problem where an improved soil strut is
provided, where a small gap exists between the soil strut and the retaining wall and where an embedded improved soil berm is used. The latter term needs an explanation. If the excavation area is too
big, often it is economically not feasible to improve an entire layer of soil from wall to wall inside the
excavation. Instead, a berm is provided with the expectation that if it is sufficiently long, this is the
same as improving the entire layer. The term embedded improved soil berm is used to emphasize the
fact that it is not acting like a strut, that is in contact from wall to wall, but more like a berm and it is
below final excavation level and will not be exposed.
2 CENTRIFUGE TESTS
The centrifuge is used to provide an acceleration field greater than gravity, so as to ensure that gravity
dependent processes in a small-scaled model are correctly simulated to satisfy scaling requirements.
This is important in geotechnical engineering as soil is a highly non-linear and history dependent material. Scaling relations for centrifuge model testing are well established (Taylor, 1995). Details of the
NUS centrifuge, which has a radius of 2-m and a payload capacity of 40g-tonnes, have been reported
many times, for example, by Lee et al. (1991). The container box used in the tests has an internal
width of 150 mm, length of 400 mm and a depth of 480 mm and is designed for plane strain tests. The
front of the box is fixed with a viewing window to facilitate the use of a digital camera. The tests described in this research were carried out at a scale of 1:100.
The model retaining wall was an aluminum alloy with thickness of 4 mm, having an equivalent bending stiffness (EI) at prototype scale of approximately 384 x 103 kNm2/m. This could represent a con-
96
crete diaphragm wall with thickness of about 0.6 m in the field. This model wall was embedded 160
mm into the original ground level, representing 16 m at prototype scale. The in-flight excavator provides the key technology to study correctly an excavation in soft soil in a centrifuge experiment and
this has been extensively reported by Loh et al. (1998).
Figure 2 Location of soil instrumentation for centrifuge tests conducted
To ensure collection of adequate information from such a complicated test, a detailed instrumentation
plan is necessary, and this is given in Figure 2 above. Three types of transducers were used, namely
six pore pressure transducers (PPTs) on both the active and passive side as shown in the figure, five total stress transducers (TPTs) along the retaining wall and improved layer and nine potentiometers to
measure wall deflection and surface ground settlement. In using total stress transducers, there is often
a concern about effect of arching, but this is deemed to be not serious as all the transducers were installed onto a stiff surface, namely the retaining wall or the improved soil layer.
2.1 Sample preparation
Kaolin clay was chosen in this study, because of its higher permeability, which reduced consolidation
time considerably, and its physical properties are similar to soft clay. The properties of kaolin clay
used are given in Table 1. The method of preparing the model follows that adopted by Kimura et al.
(1993) and Loh et al. (1998). Kaolin was first mixed to a water content of about 1.5 times of its liquid
limit and the slurry was then de-aired in a vacuum chamber for 1-2 days to ensure full saturation.
Prior to pouring the clay slurry, coarse sand was laid down and wrapped by geotextile to form a 20
mm drainage at the bottom. Then the inner walls of the container were greased before the clay slurry
was poured under water into the container so as to prevent the trapping of air pockets.
At 1g, the model was loaded with a pressure of 20 kPa on the surface, applied in small steps until the
degree of consolidation achieved is more than 90%, thereby producing a model ground with an effective vertical overburden of about 20 kPa throughout its depth. Then the model was consolidated in the
centrifuge under 100 g, again until the degree of consolidation is more than 90%. This procedure produces a profile consisting of a thin layer of over-consolidated clay overlying a normally consolidated
clay.
97
Table 1 Properties of Malaysian Kaolin clay.

Properties
Specific Gravity (GS)
Liquid Limit (WL)
Plastic Limit (WP)
Compression Index (Cc)
Swelling Index (Cs)
Permeability at 100 kPa on NC Clay
Value
2.60
79.8
35.1
0.5528
0.1405
3.2 x 10-8 m/sec
To characterize the model prepared, the miniature T-bar, developed by Stewart and Randolph (1991),
was used to measure the strength profile in-flight. Moreover, immediately after spinning down, laboratory vane shear tests were conducted, and specimens at various depths were also taken for water content measurement. The last two must be conducted very rapidly as the clay will start to swell immediately after spinning down. Comparison of undrained shear strengths as determined by the two
methods is shown in Fig. 3. As expected, vane shear test results are generally lower than that of the Tbar, suggesting that swelling has started in spite of the precautions. The undrained shear strength profile indicates an overconsolidated layer up to a depth of 40mm, below which the shear strength increases nearly linearly with depth, and is consistent with that for normally consolidated clay. The
properties of the improved soil have been reported elsewhere (Tan et al. 2002). The unconfined compression strength of the soil-cement mix used in this research ranges from 990 kPa to 1030 kPa and the
secant Youngs modulus, E50, is from 430 MPa to 457 MPa at 7 days curing.
Figure 3 Shear strength of the soil model measured in-flight (T-bar) and after spin down (vane shear)
3 BEHAVIOR OF AN EXCAVATION STABILIZED BY USING IMPROVED SOIL

First, the general behaviour of an excavation stabilised with an improved soil layer will be described to
arrive at a better insight of the effectiveness of this method and the mechanisms used. For this description, results from 3 tests with totally different configuration of soil improvements had provided,
namely, no soil improvement (Test TW/O), provision of an improved soil strut (Test TST) and an improved soil berm (TB-L100) will be compared and discussed. The results in this paper are reported in
model scale, and as the scale used in the prototype is 1:100, a 1mm movement in the model is equivalent to 100mm in the prototype.
98
The lateral displacement of the wall measured at a point 30mm above the ground level and the surface
settlement of the ground at a distance 50mm behind the wall are shown in Fig. 4, for excavation up to
a depth of 60mm, or 6m in prototype scale. In Test TW/O, where no soil improvement is provided, the
wall deflection and ground settlement become excessive very shortly after excavation has reached a
depth of about 10mm. In contrast, in the test where an embedded improved soil strut is provided (Test
TST), the wall displacement is very well controlled and is about 1mm when the excavation reaches
60mm, while the surface settlement is slightly less than 1mm. Clearly, this set of results has demonstrated the effectiveness of providing an embedded improved soil layer in an excavation. The provision of a berm is also very effective, especially at the early stages of excavation. However, what is
really interesting is that beyond an excavation of 3.5m, the behaviour of the excavation with an improved soil berm looks very similar to that without an improved soil layer. This must means that the
improved soil layer has lost its effectiveness. But, before that stage arrives, this set of results also
shows the effectiveness of an improved soil berm,
Surface Settlement (mm)

2
4
6
8
10
12
0
Depth of excavation (mm
Depth of excavation (mm)
lateral wall deflection (mm)

0
5
10
15
20
25
10
20
30
40
50
10
20
30
40
50
60
60
TW/O
TST
Tw/o
TB-L100
Tst
Tb-L100
Figure 4 Comparison of surface settlement and wall deflection at the top for no soil improvement, with an improved soil strut and a soil berm
TST
0.5
D ep th o f e x ca va tio n (m )
D e p th o f E xc a va tio n (m )
TST_Gap400
1
TST_Gap800
1.5
2
2.5
0.5
TST
TST_Gap400
TST_Gap800
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
50
100
150
200
Lateral Wall Movement (mm)
250
20
40
60
80
100
120
300
Surface settlement (mm)
Figure 5 Comparison of surface settlement and wall deflection at the top for no soil improvement, with an
improved soil strut and a soil berm
The problem of the presence of a gap is a common, but seldom examined issue in the use of soil improvement method in deep excavation. This arose mainly from contractors reluctance to improve the
soil immediately next to the wall, and also the difficulty to position accurately the equipment for accurate construction of the improved soil layer, at some depth below the soil surface. However, because
of the nature of this type of soil improvement, the presence of such small gap can have a major impact
99
on the behaviour and this needs to be understood. Two tests were conducted to examine the behaviour
where a gap of 400mm and a gap of 800 mm, in prototype scale, were created. This means gaps of
4mm and 8mm in the model tests respectively, and gaps smaller than that was very difficult to install
in the centrifuge.
The results are shown in Fig. 5 and this shows that the presence of a gap has a tremendous effect on
the performance of the improved soil strut. However, this set of results also show that if the gap is
small, the effect is less pronounced. For example, with a 400mm gap, the excabvation behaviour is
very similar to the case for a fully in-contact strut for the first 1.0m of excavation, and differences appear only after that.
3.1 Evaluation of the performance of the composite passive ground
In almost all the literature on excavation, cumulative parameters are reported, for example, the settlement at a point up to a particular depth of excavation. It is often difficult to interpret such cumulative
parameters, as the induced behaviour is due to two aspects, namely the reaction of the system due to
load imbalance as a result of the removal of soil on the passive side and the deterioration of the overall
stiffness of the composite system, also as a result of the removal of soil on the passive side. Incremental changes to parameter during a lift of excavation is something hard to obtain in an instrumented
filed test but is feasible from centrifuge tests, thereby demonstrating advantages of conducting centrifuge tests.
Distance of scraper from the wall (mm)
For the centrifuge tests conducted, the in-flight excavator developed will systematically scrape a distance of 150mm starting from the retaining wall in about 10-11 seconds and this will remove a 5 mm
thick layer at a fairly constant rate. In prototype terms, this simulates the removal of a 0.5m thick
layer of soil in about 1.2 days, values considered reasonably representative of that in the field. The incremental lateral wall deflection during this removal can be precisely monitored. In controlled experiments using identical procedures, this parameter provides an effective indicator on the composite
overall systems stiffness of different configurations at the same excavation depth, as the response to
the next excavation is mainly a function of the composite overall systems stiffness at that instance.
Such a parameter is not possible to obtain when field data is used.
Exc to 5mm
Exc to 10mm
Exc to 20mm
30
Exc to 30mm
Exc to 40mm
60
Exc to 50mm
90
120
150
0.00
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
Incremental lateral wall movement(mm)
Figure 6 Incremental lateral wall movement for the case with an improved soil strut
In Test TST where an embedded improved soil strut has been provided, Fig. 6 shows that the incremental lateral wall movements at different depths of excavation. In this case, very little movement is
induced when the first 60mm of a soil layer is removed, and movement is mobilized mostly after that.
This means that the overall system stiffness is not significantly reduced during the removal of soil
from the wall, and only when a significant length of soil above the strut is removed, and the strut is allowed to arch a little is movement mobilized.
100
The next case to be examined is that when an improved soil berm is used. The incremental wall
movements are now shown in Figure 7 and this shows a completely pattern from that when a strut is
used. The movements are now mobilized almost immediately after the start of scraping, and become
negligible only after the scraper has past the end of the berm at 100mm length. This is clearly observed right from the beginning. Earlier, it was observed that during the early stage of excavation, the
overall behaviour of the excavation with an improved soil strut or an improved soil berm looks indistinguishable. However, what Figure 7 has shown is that though the overall net effectiveness is nearly
the same, the mechanisms mobilized are completely different. In the case of a berm, it seems that the
removal of soil immediately above the berm has a very major impact on the overall response, and that
once the scraper moves past the berm, there is very little additional soil movement. Clearly, this suggests that the removal of the load above the berm is having a significant impact on the overall stiffness.
When an improved soil berm is used, its end away from the wall is no longer restrained, and is free to
displace. This means that besides the end bearing capacity, the interface shear mobilized by the berm
is another major contributor to the overall stiffness. Viewed in this light, it is clear that the removal of
soil above the berm will reduce the normal load acting on the berm and hence the mobilized shear
there. This is consistent with the movement observed and discussed above.
Distance of scraper from the wall(mm)
Exc to 5mm
Exc to 10mm
30
Exc to 20mm
Exc to 30mm
Exc to 40mm
60
Exc to 50mm
90
End of Berm
120
150
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
Incremental lateral wall movement(mm)
Figure 7 Incremental lateral wall movement for the case with an improved soil berm
Distance of scraper from wall (mm)
Gap400-Exc-1m
Gap400-Exc-3m
30
Gap400-Exc-5m
Gap800-Exc-1m
Gap800-Exc-3m
60
Gap800-Exc-5m
90
120
150
0
0.5
1.5
Incremental lateral wall movement (mm)
Figure 8 Incremental lateral wall movement for the case with an improved soil strut with gaps
In the last two cases to be examined, where gaps of 4mm and 8mm (in prototype scale) are allowed to
exist between the berm and the wall, the incremental movements are shown in Fig. 8. The overall behaviour is similar to that for the case with a berm, that is, the movement is induced during the early
101
stage of scraping and not the later stage. Though the gap is small, this has completely changed the
way the strut is restraining the wall movement. As the gap gets bigger, in this case to 800mm, the
overall system stiffness deteriorates very rapidly. Thus, this shows that the existence of a gap has
enormous impact on the overall behaviour and should be avoided, if possible.
4 CONCLUSIONS
For an excavation in a ground with a thick soft clay deposit below the final excavation level, the
maximum deflection would often occur below the final excavation level, even when a stiff retaining
wall with appropriate bracing is used. For such cases, it is found that an effective method to control
movements in surrounding areas due to such an excavation is to improve a layer of soil at the level
where the maximum deflection is expected.
In this paper, results from centrifuge tests on the behaviour of an excavation stabilized by provision of
such an embedded improved soil layer are being examined. The different conditions that are being examined include the case where the entire layer is being improved and the layer behaves like a strut, in
cases where a gap exists between the strut and the wall, and when only a berm is being improved. The
effectiveness of using this method to control soil movement as a result of an excavation in soft soil is
clearly demonstrated in the test results. However, the mechanisms in the different cases are very different. In the case where an entire soil layer is improved, the improved layer acts effectively as a strut,
and the stiffness of the improved layer is the important parameter. However, if only a part of the soil
is improved, then the improved layer effectively acts a berm, and the resistance to the wall is provided
by the interfacial resistance and bearing capacity. For such an embedded improved soil berm, the removal of soil above the berm will reduce the overburden, and this has an immediate impact on the interfacial resistance mobilized. Thus movement of the wall is most significant when the soil above the
berm is removed. For an improved soil strut with a gap, the size of the gap has an enormous impact.
Also, even with a small gap of 400mm (in prototype scale), the way the strut restrainedthe wall
changed completely. Clearly, extra care has to be exercised to ensure that such gaps do not exist when
an improved soil strut is used.
REFERENCES
Kimura, T., Takemura, J., Hiro-Oka,A., Suemasa, N. and Kouda, N. (1993). Stability of unsupported
and supported vertical cuts in soft clay. 11th Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conference, 4-8 May,
Singapore.
Lee, F.H., Tan, T.S., Yong, K.Y., Karunaratne, G.P. and Lee, S.L. (1991). Development of geotechnical centrifuge facility at the National University of Singapore. Proc. Int. Conf. Centrifuge 1991,
Colorado, USA, A. A Balkema, Rotterdam, 11-17.
Liao, H.J. and Tsai, T.L. (1993). Passive resistance of partially improved soft clayey soil. 7th Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conference, Singapore, 751-756.
Loh, C.K., Tan, T.S. and Lee, F.H. (1998). Three dimensional excavation tests in the centrifuge.
Proc. of the Int. Conference Centrifuge98, Tokyo, A. A Balkema, Rotterdam, 649-654.
Stewart, D.P. and Randolph, M.F. (1991). A new site investigation tool for the centrifuge. Proc. Int.
Conf. Centrifuge 1991, Colorado, USA, A. A Balkema, Rotterdam, 531-538
Sugiwara, S., Shigenawa, S., Gotoh, H. and Hosoi, T. (1996). Large- Scale Jet Grouting for PreStrutting in Soft Clay. Proc. of IS-Tokyo 96/2nd Int. Conf. On Ground Improvement Geosystems,
Tokyo, vol.1, 353-356.
Tan, T.S., Goh, T.C. and Yong, K.Y. (2002), Properties of Singapore marine clay improved by cement mixing. Geotechnical Testing Journal, ASTM.
Tanaka, H. (1993). Behavior of braced excavations stabilized by deep mixing method. Japanese Society of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Soil and Foundations, Vol.33, No.2, 105-115.
Taylor, R.N. (1995). Centrifuge in modelling: principles and scale effects. Geotechnical Centrifuge
Technology edited by R.N. Taylor, London: Blackie Academic & Professional.
102
Full-Scale Pile Response to Lateral Soil Movements from

Nearby Soil Excavation
A.T.C. Goh, K.S. Wong, C.I. Teh
D. Wen
ABSTRACT: The construction of deep excavations systems for basement construction and cut-andcover tunnels inevitably leads to ground movements in the vicinity of the excavation. This paper
focuses on the excavation-induced lateral soil movements associated with soil excavation. The lateral
loads imposed by the soil movements induce bending moments and deflections which may lead to
structural distress and failure of existing nearby piles. The paper reports the results of an actual fullscale instrumented study that was carried out to examine the behaviour of an existing pile resulting
from the construction of a 16 m deep cut-and-cover tunnel. The pile was located 3 m behind a 0.8 m
thick diaphragm wall. A simplified numerical procedure based on the finite element method was used
to back-analyse the pile response. Generally the computed predictions were in reasonable agreement
with the measured results.
1 INTRODUCTION
The construction of deep excavations systems for basement construction and cut-and-cover tunnels
inevitably leads to ground movements in the vicinity of the excavation. Since many of these
excavations are carried out close to existing buildings, there is a concern that lateral ground
movements resulting from the soil excavation may adversely affect the nearby pile foundation
systems supporting these buildings. The lateral loads imposed by these soil movements induce
bending moments and deflections in the pile, which may lead to structural distress and failure.
Various researchers have demonstrated that lateral soil movements from excavation activities can be
detrimental to nearby existing piles (Finno et al., 1991; Poulos and Chen, 1997; Leung et al., 2000).
Several theoretical methods have been developed (e.g. Poulos and Chen, 1997) to evaluate the pile
response to these movements. However, as Leung et al. (2000) have pointed out, very limited field
data are available to verify these theoretical methods as it is practically impossible to instrument
existing piles in the field.
This paper presents the results of an actual full-scale instrumented study that was carried out to
examine the behaviour of an existing pile due to nearby deep excavation activities. The construction
of a cut-and-cover tunnel as part of a new Mass Rapid Transit line (Krishnan et al. 1999) in Singapore
to augment the existing line presented a unique opportunity to carry out a full-scale study. Backanalysis using a simplified numerical approach was also carried out and described in this paper.
2 PROJECT DETAILS
This section of the cut-and-cover tunnel is 127.5 m long and 20.0 m wide, with an excavation depth of
16.0 m. The excavation was supported by 31 m long and 0.8 m thick diaphragm walls with 6 levels of
struts. The vertical strut arrangement for the cut-and-cover tunnel is shown in Figure 1. The
horizontal strut spacing is 9 m.
Main
103
Part of the requirement by the Urban Redevelopment Authority was for the construction of a row of 1
m diameter and 46 m long bored piles (Grade 40 concrete with 1.6% reinforcement) about 3 m behind
a section of this cut-and-cover tunnel for future development works. The plan layout of the piles is
shown in Figure 2. In order to monitor the pile behaviour during excavation, an in-pile inclinometer
was installed in one pile (pile 17A). In addition, an in-soil inclinometer was installed about 6 m away
as shown in Figure 2. This enabled the soil and pile lateral deformations to be progressively
monitored during the excavation process.
depth (m)
0
1.0
4.0
strut
6.5
9.0
11.5
13.5
16.0
0.8 m thick
diaphragm wall
31.0
Not to scale
Fig. 1 Cross-section of the excavation.

3 GROUND CONDITIONS
The site consisted of sand fill over soft marine clay underlain by the geological formation known as
Old Alluvium. The soil at this section of cut-and-cover tunnel is highly variable with a number of
buried valleys infilled with marine clay and fluvial sand. The ground water level was about 4 m below
the ground surface. The soil profile and soil parameters inferred from the nearby boreholes are shown
in Figure 3. The soft marine clay layer has a Liquid Limit of about 75% and a plasticity index of about
40%. The Old Alluvium can be divided into two zones. Old Alluvium I is made up of a weathered
zone of residual soil consisting of sandy clay and silty fine to medium sand. Old Alluvium II is a
cemented zone of hard and very dense clayey sand and silty sand. It was found that the SPT increased
rapidly to more than 100 blows within a short distance.
4 OBSERVED BEHAVIOUR
The piles were installed after the construction of the diaphragm wall. Excavation activities in the
vicinity of these piles only commenced about a month after the installation of the inclinometers. The
inclinometer readings were taken at two stages of excavation: stage A - when the excavation had
reached the 3rd strut level (approximately 3 months after the commencement of excavation activities)
and stage B - when the excavation had reached the formation level (approximately 5 months after the
commencement of excavation activities). Unfortunately, an inclinometer installed about 20 m away in
the diaphragm wall was damaged, so no comparisons could be made between the pile and wall
behaviour.
The measured pile movements are shown in Figure 4. The shape of the curves is similar to the shape
observed in many multi-strutted diaphragm walls. The pile movement increased with increasing depth
of excavation. The maximum lateral pile deflections were 15 mm and 28 mm at Stage A and Stage B,
104
respectively, and occurred in the soft marine clay. The pile movements were minimal in the Old
Alluvium II formation, approximately 30 m below the ground surface.
3m
3m
6m
(Not to scale)
PLAN VIEW
bored pile
in-soil
inclinomet
pile
3m
0.8 m thick diaphragm

Fig. 2 Plan layout of the piles and inclinometers.
Not to scale
Depth z
0m
Sand fill
= 17 kN/m3, SPT N = 4 at z = 3 m
(py = 300 kPa, Gi = 3000 kPa)
3m
Loose sand
= 17 kN/m3, SPT N = 7 at z = 6 m
(py = 1013 kPa, Gi = 3000 kPa)
8m
Soft Marine Clay
= 16 kN/m3, cu = 10 kPa (assumed constant in analysis)

(py = 90 kPa, Gi = 1000 kPa)
18 m
Old Alluvium I
= 19 kN/m3, SPT N = 9 at z = 22 m,
SPT N = 10 at z = 25 m, SPT N = 41 at z = 28 m
( py = 1300 kPa, Gi = 20 MPa)
30 m
Old Alluvium II
= 19 kN/m , SPT N >100

(py = 5400 kPa, Gi = 72 MPa)
Fig. 3 Site geotechnical characteristics with assumed average py and Gi values shown in parenthesis.
The measured in-soil inclinometer readings are also shown in Figure 4. The soil movements are seen
to be not as "smooth" as the pile movements. The maximum lateral soil deflections were 24 mm and
39 mm at Stage A and Stage B, respectively, and occurred in the soft marine clay. Generally, in the
top 17 m, the soil movements were larger than the pile movements.
105
5 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
A rigorous numerical solution of the response of the pile is computationally expensive because of the
three-dimensional nature and non-linearity of the problem. The program BCPILE (Teh, 1995 and Goh
et al. 1997) uses a simplified (approximate) approach that can account for complex conditions such as
non-homogeneous soil strength conditions, pile stiffness, and pile-head fixity. A brief description of
the finite element methodology is presented in this section.
The problem of a pile located in a layered soil is depicted in Figure 5. The interaction between the soil
and the pile is modelled by a series of nonlinear horizontal springs. The pile is discretised into a finite
number of discrete (linear elastic) beam elements. The load deformation behaviour of the pile can be
expressed in terms of the nodal displacement and nodal loads as
[Kp]{yp} = {P}
(1)
in which [Kp] = pile stiffness matrix; {yp} = nodal displacement vector; and {P} = nodal load vector.
The load-displacement relationship of the soil spring is represented by a hyperbolic equation
Pj =
yj
(2)
(1 / k sj + y j / Puj )
in which the subscript j = node number; Pj = nodal force; ksj = initial tangent of the hyperbolic curve;
and yj = relative (differential) pile-soil movement. As illustrated in Figure 5, yj is computed from
yj = ysj - ypj
(3)
in which ysi = free-field (lateral) soil movement; and ypj is the pile node movement.
For the horizontal soil spring, Puj is the maximum allowable lateral nodal load given by
Puj = pyjAsj
(4)
in which pyj = limiting lateral soil pressure; and Asj = projected shaft area normal to the pile axis at
node j. By defining two dimensionless parameters P*j and y*j, (2) may be written in a more compact,
dimensionless form as
y =
*
j
Pj*
(5)
(1 Pj* )
Pj
P*j =
Puj
yj
y*j =
yuj
yuj =
Puj
ksj
(6a-c)
The stiffness of the spring at any given load level may be computed as the tangent to the hyperbolic
curve and may be written as
dP j
dy j
k sj
(7)
(1 + y *j ) 2
As the load-displacement relationship of the soil spring is nonlinear, (1) has to be solved
incrementally. At each step, the incremental nodal displacement and nodal load is updated. A
reasonably accurate approximation to the hyperbolic load-displacement curve can be obtained by
using small incremental steps. The details have been described in Teh (1995) and Goh et al. (1997).
106
Displacement (m)
-0.01
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
10
Depth (m)
20
pile (Stage A)
pile (Stage B)
soil (Stage A)
soil (Stage B)
30
40
50
Fig. 4 Measured pile and soil lateral movements.

pile
l
t
Pj
soil layer 1
Pj = f(yj)
node
soil layer 2
soil layer 3
yj
pile
horizontal springs
(a)
Fig. 5
(b)
(c)
(a) Pile in layered soil; (b) Discretisation of problem;

(c) Load-displacement relationship of soil spring
As indicated in (2), a hyperbolic relationship is used to represent the soil spring. Various correlations
between the subgrade modulus have been proposed. In this study, the simplified correlation based on
Broms (1964) has been adopted for the initial lateral soil spring stiffness khi
k hi =
3.34 E50
d
(8)
in which E50 = secant modulus at half ultimate stress; and d = width of the pile. From elastic theory,
the shear modulus Gi is related to the elastic modulus Ei and the Poissons ratio s by the following
expression
107
Gi =
Ei
2(1 + s )
(9)
For a perfect hyperbola, Ei can be related to the secant modulus at 50% failure level E50 as
Ei = 2E50
(10)
The analysis requires input on the pile radius, the pile flexural rigidity EpIp, the distribution of the
initial shear modulus Gi, the Poissons ratio, the limiting lateral soil pressure py with depth, and the
free-field lateral soil movements. Guidelines for determining the soil parameters have been outlined in
Goh et al. (1997). The average py and Gi values used in the analyses are shown in Figure 3. The
measured soil movements shown in Fig. 4 were used as input for the free-field lateral soil movement.
The measured and predicted pile deflection profiles are shown in Figure 6. The "measured" and
predicted pile bending moment profiles are shown in Figure 7. The "measured" pile bending moments
were obtained by differentiating the pile deflection profile twice. The shape of the measured and
predicted deflection profiles are in good agreement. For both stage A and stage B, the predicted pile
deflections overestimate the pile deflection in the top 12 m. The shape and magnitude of the predicted
and measured pile bending moments are in reasonable agreement. The predicted maximum bending
moments in the lower half of the pile are larger than the measured values. There is also reasonable
agreement between the measured and predicted results with respect to the location of the maximum
deflection and maximum bending moment.
6 SUMMARY
This paper presents an actual full-scale instrumented study carried out to examine the behaviour of an
existing pile due to nearby excavation activities resulting from the construction of a cut-and-cover
tunnel. The pile was located 3 m behind a 0.8 m thick diaphragm wall. Excavation to the formation
level that was 16 m below the ground surface resulted in a maximum lateral pile movement of 28 mm.
A simplified numerical procedure based on the finite element method was used to back-analyse the
pile response. Generally the computed predictions were in reasonable agreement with the measured
results.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank the following Land Transport Authority engineers, Simon Young,
Nick Shirlaw, and James Kimmance for their invaluable assistance in overseeing the instrumentation
for this project.
REFERENCES
Broms, B. B. (1964). Lateral resistance of piles in cohesive soils. Journal of Soil Mech. & Found. Division,
ASCE, 90(2), 27-63.
Finno, R. J., Lawrence, S. A., Allawah, N. F., and Harahap, I. S. (1991)."Analysis of performance of pile groups
adjacent to deep excavations. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, 117(6), 934-955.
Goh, A. T. C., Teh, C. I., and Wong, K. S. (1997). Analysis of piles subjected to embankment induced lateral soil
movements. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, 123(9), 792-801.
Krishnan, R., Copsey, J. P., Algeo, R. G., and Shirlaw, J. N. (1999). Design of the civil works for Singapore's
North East line. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, Elsevier Science, 14(4), 433-448.
Leung, C. F., Chow, Y. K., and Shen, R. F. (2000). Behaviour of pile subject to excavation-induced soil
movement. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, 126(11), 947-954.
Poulos, H. G., and Chen, L. F. (1997). Pile response due to excavation-induced soil movement. Journal of
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, 123(2), 94-99.
Teh, C. I. (1995). BCPILE - A computer program for the analysis of lateral pile behaviour. Geotech. Res. Rep.
No. GT/95/05, School of Civil and Struct. Engrg., Nanyang Technologicl University, Singapore.
108
Stage A
Displacement (m)
-0.01
0.01
0.02
0.03
Depth (m)
10
20
measured
soil movement
BCPILE
30
40
50
Stage B
Displacement (m)
-0.02
0.02
0.04
0.06
Depth (m)
10
20
measured
soil movement
BCPILE
30
40
50
Fig. 6. Measured and predicted pile movements.
109
Stage A
Bending moment (kNm)
-500
-250
250
500
Depth (m)
10
20
30
measured
BCPILE
40
50
Stage B
Bending moment (kNm)
-500
500
1000
Depth (m)
10
20
measured
BCPILE
30
40
50
Fig. 7. Measured and predicted pile bending moments.
110
The Effect of Excavation on Some Buildings on Mixed

Foundations in Singapore
J.N. Shirlaw, D. Wen
R.G. Algeo
CJ Associates, United Kingdom (formerly Land Transport Authority, Singapore)
K.J. Patterson-Kane
Murray-North (SEA) Pte Ltd / Sinclair Knight Merz, Singapore
ABSTRACT: Buildings on mixed foundations can be extremely sensitive to settlement, particularly

where parts of the building are founded on soft clay while the remainder of the building is founded on
good bearing strata. Buildings of this type are quite common in Singapore, particularly old shophouses that have been subject to major renovation. Three buildings, which were significantly damaged
during the construction of the North East Line, are discussed. The three were all on mixed foundations
although the nature of the foundations varied. Two of the buildings were founded partially on piles
and partially on shallow foundations. The other building was on shallow foundations, but effectively
supported on one side by an adjoining building on piles. One of the buildings was demolished, one
underpinned and one extensively restored, after being damaged. The need to identify buildings on
mixed foundations at an early stage in the design of excavations is highlighted. Possible mitigation
measures are discussed.
1 INTRODUCTION
As part of the design of excavations and tunnels, the effect of the work on adjacent buildings has to be
considered. The effects of both excavations and tunnels can be separated into two major components:
an immediate settlement due to excavation, and consolidation settlements due to changes in pore water pressure. For excavations the immediate settlements include the effects of wall installation, excavation and strut removal/backfilling stages. For shield tunnelling the immediate settlements include
those due to movement at the face, overcutting and tail void losses. Once the total settlement has been
estimated, the effects of the settlement and associated horizontal movement on adjacent buildings can
be assessed using methods such as those outlined in Mair, Taylor and Burland (1996). It is normal
practice for an initial assessment to be carried out using green field settlements, and assuming that
the building is flexible. Consolidation settlements are normally ignored in the assessment, as these settlements are generally widespread, and normally do not induce significant horizontal strain in buildings. This approach is generally conservative, as the stiffness of the building will help to reduce the effects of the work. However, such an approach is not conservative if the building has mixed
foundations. Buildings of this type can be very sensitive to settlement, whether caused by wall deflection, tunnelling or consolidation.
Many of the older parts of Singapore are built over deep deposits of near normally consolidated marine
clay. Up to the 1930s buildings were typically founded on shallow footings supported on a dense
mass of bakau piles. The bakau piles were typically 3 to 6 m in length, and were used to provide a
uniform mat under the footings. They were not generally taken to firm bearing strata. The typical two
to four storey, terraced, shop-houses of Singapore, built on such foundations, settle only slightly less
than the ground surface.
Conservation of large areas of Chinatown and Little India has involved the renovation of many of
these shophouses, while outside the conservation areas newer structures have been inserted into rows
of older buildings. To meet modern design codes, renovated buildings often have an interior or extension that are founded on deep piles taken to competent bearing strata, while the conserved faade re-
Main
111
Little India Station
Cut & cover tunnel

Rotan
Farrer Park Station

148 Race Course Road
N
Kerbau Road
Race Course
Lane
Foochow Methodist
Church
Kinta Road
Robert Lane
Fig. 1 Race Course Road area, showing the location of the Foochow Methodist Church and No. 148,
Race Course Road
mains on the old, shallow foundations. As a result many of the buildings in these areas are on mixed
foundations.
The construction of the North East line involved deep excavation and tunnelling through the Little India and Chinatown conservation areas. There was relatively little damage relating to bored tunnelling
through these areas, as the bored tunnelling was carried out using Earth Pressure Balance machines.
However, a number of buildings suffered significant damage as a result of cut-and-cover work for station and tunnel construction. In this paper three cases of significant building damage are discussed.
Struts for cut & cover
Race Course Road

17.6m
3-storey sanctuary
on pad footings
Addition to the sanctuary

on H-steel piles
Kindergarten on
H-steel piles
Rotan
Sunday
School
Chander Lane
Fig. 2 Foochow Methodist church, showing the location relative to the cut-and-cover
tunnels and the various foundation systems within the building
112
2 CASE 1 - FOOCHOW METHODIST CHURCH

The Foochow Methodist Church is located along Race Course Road (Figure 1). Cut-and-cover tunnels
were excavated to a depth of 17.5 m on the far side of Race Course Road from the church (see Figure
2). The excavation was carried out within diaphragm walls 0.8 m in thickness, supported by 5 levels of
struts and a jet grouted slab placed just below final excavation level. Further details of the excavation
are given in Wen et al. (2001).
The church proper has three floors, on all of which services are held each Sunday. To one side of the
church was a four storey building used as a kindergarten, and beyond that a three storey building used
mainly as a Sunday School.
The first signs of damage occurred before excavation of the North East Line even started. Bored piling
was carried out for a private development adjacent to the Sunday School block. Although excavation
work for the North East line had not yet commenced, instrumentation had been installed in readiness
for diaphragm wall construction. A settlement of up to 15 mm was measured on the Sunday School
block, with a differential settlement of 6mm across the frontage. This settlement caused a significant
crack to open up at the junction between the Sunday School and the kindergarten. This crack was
wider at the top of the building than the bottom; the crack was negligible at ground floor level, while at
the top of the building the width was about 12mm. The pattern of cracking indicated that the Sunday
School block was rotating away from the rest of the building, with the rotation about the junction at
ground floor level.
The degree of damage was remarkable for the amount of settlement recorded. Mair, Taylor and Burland, for example, suggest that there is generally a negligible risk of damage to buildings at settlements
of less than 10 mm. Based on the degree and pattern of damage observed it was suggested that the
building was likely to be on mixed foundations, and a thorough assessment of the foundations and
building structure was immediately instigated.
The church complex was found to be a mix of structures that had evolved over many years. The original church proper was a two storey structure that had been built in the 1930s, on shallow foundations.
Sunday
School
New kindergarten
section
Old Church,
wrapped in
extension
Fig. 3 Foochow Methodist Church during the early stages of the construction of the cut-andcover tunnel excavation. The faade has been propped, as discussed in the text.
The Sunday School block had originally been built as an apartment building in the 1950s, and was
founded on bakau piles. In the mid 1990s the church and Sunday School were integrated. This was
done by constructing a linking section, used as a kindergarten school in the week. At the same time the
113
church was extended upwards, to provide the third storey, and sideways, on the side opposite to the
kindergarten. All of the newer structures, that is the linking kindergarten and the extensions to the
church proper (sanctuary area), were founded on piles taken through the marine clay and into the Old
Alluvium. No underpinning of the old structure was carried out; in effect, the old church building, on
shallow foundations, was wrapped within the new structure on deep foundations.
After reviewing the design of the structure, there were three aspects of particular concern:
The junction between the old church building and the new parts. A limited provision for differential movement had been allowed for in the design and detailing. Movement in excess of that provided for would result in the two structures becoming locked together. At this point further differential settlement would cause large stresses to develop in the elements connecting the two
structures.
The front faade of the church. The faade of the old church had been extended upward from the
second storey level to several metres above the third storey level and had been structurally separated from the new structure of the church. Some accidental restraint had been provided by brickwork that crossed between the facade and the main structure. Differential settlement would lead to
this restraint being broken, with a risk that further differential settlement would cause the faade to
tilt forward and perhaps collapse.
The junction between the Sunday School block and the new structure (kindergarten area). Although some movement joints had been provided at the junctions of structural elements, these
joints were only partial. Internal walls and ceilings passed across such movement joints as there
were, without any provision for movement. A computer room had been constructed on the flat roof
of the Sunday School block, but with its roof cantilevering out from the newly built section. By
early September 1998, before excavation for the cut and cover tunnel extended in front of the
church, large cracks had appeared in the walls of the computer room and in other walls which
crossed the joints between the old and new structures. This occurred because the roof of the computer room stayed with the newly built section, while the rest of the old building rotated away.
The planned excavation was 17.5 m in depth, in soft marine clay of the Kallang Formation. Significant
settlement, in excess of 100 mm, was anticipated, despite the provision of a jet-grouted slab at the base
of the excavation. The building was clearly exceptionally sensitive to settlement, whether induced by
diaphragm wall movement or consolidation. It was decided that it would not be possible to restrict set-
Fig. 4 Foochow Methodist Church during the underpinning of the old part of
the church (sanctuary area)
tlement to a level that would allow the safety of the public to be assured. The primary concerns were
with the main church structure, including the faade, rather than the kindergarten block where damage
114
was first observed. It was decided to underpin the old church, including the faade, so that it was on
uniform foundations. Due to the disruption involved in underpinning, the congregation was provided
with alternative premises during the period of the underpinning. The alternative premises had sufficient space to house the kindergarten and Sunday School classes. The Sunday School block was not
underpinned. It was planned to allow this block to move during excavation, and repair the damage that
occurred. In the end, the church committee decided to demolish the Sunday School block soon after
the excavation was complete, and build a larger structure in its place.
Excavation of the cut and cover tunnel in front of the church took place between October 1998 and
May 1999 The maximum wall deflection opposite the Sunday school area was only 43 mm, significantly less than the approximately 100 mm predicted, based on the design. However, the maximum
measured settlement on the Sunday School block was exactly 100 mm. Based on Nicholson (1987),
the maximum settlement should be approximately equal to the maximum wall deflection, excluding
consolidation and installation effects. This would imply that there was about 43mm of settlement due
to wall movement, with the remaining 57 mm mainly due to consolidation. Pore pressures in the Old
Alluvium underlying the marine clay dropped by up to 8 m, which would be consistent with the excavation causing under drainage of the marine clay.
Although the maximum settlement of the Sunday school block was 100 mm, the side nearest the kindergarten settled by only 14 mm, leading to a differential settlement of 86 mm. The Sunday School
block tilted by 1:130 away from the rest of the church complex. This led to massive cracks developing
at the junction between the kindergarten block and the Sunday School area. The cracks were repaired
on a number of occasions, but overall were up to 50 mm in total width. Internally, ceiling tiles fell and
a number of partition walls were severely damaged.
Fig. 5 Cracking at the junction of

the old sanctuary area and the
new building, on the inside of the
facade
Fig. 6 Cracking at the junction of

the Sunday School (old) and
Kindergarten section (new)
Fig. 7 Cracking at the computer

room. The roof is cantilevered off
the new structure, the floor is part
of the older Sunday School area
Figures 5, 6 and 7 show some of the cracking that had developed by August 1999, three months after
the excavation in front of the church was completed. The photographs were taken in areas at the junctions between the old and new sections of the building, where the cracking was most severe.
3 CASE 2 No. 148, RACE COURSE ROAD
No. 148 Race Course Road is located about 130 m from the Foochow Methodist church. The excavation depth, wall type and general excavation arrangement were the same as that at the church.
115
No 146
No 148 Race
Course Road
Fig. 8 Jet grouting in progress opposite No. 148 Race Course Road. At this time,
no significant settlement had been recorded on the building.
No. 148, Race Course road is a two storey shophouse that is used by the Tong San clan association
(Figure 8). The structure dates from 1953, and is founded on bakau piles. At some point in the 1990s
the building was renovated. Included in the renovation was replacement of the 2nd storey floor with
new concrete slabs. A series of steel frames was inserted into the masonry building to carry these new
floor slabs. However, there was no record of any strengthening of the foundations. In the mid 1990s
the adjacent shop-house at No. 146 Race Course Road was demolished, and a new four storey concrete
structure erected, founded on piles taken through the marine clay and into the Old Alluvium. In the
construction of the adjacent building, half of the old brick party wall was removed. A thin separating
membrane was applied, against which the new building was cast. However, the roughness of the old
brick wall meant that there was a significant degree of interlock between the two buildings.
The maximum settlement of No. 148 due to excavation was 107 mm. This settlement was measured on
the corner of the building facing the excavation and adjacent to Race Course Lane. The opposite side
of the building was held up due to the rough interface with No. 146. Although the settlement on this
side of the building was not measured, it can be assumed that there was little or no settlement, due to
the support of the adjacent, piled building. As a result there was a differential settlement of about 100
mm across the front face of a building with a width of about 5 m, giving a differential settlement of
about 1:50. The maximum settlement at the rear of the building was 58 mm. The depth of the building
was approximately 30 m. The differential settlement between the front and back of the building was 49
mm or about 1:612. Across the building, at the back, the differential settlement was about 50 mm, with
or 1:100.
The effect on the building of the differential settlement was severe damage. Figure 9 shows the front
face of the building, with significant separation cracking at the junction between No. 148, and the
neighbouring No. 146. Figures 10 and 11 are close ups of the lower part of the front faade, showing
severe cracking of the blockwork over the doors due to racking of the building. There was similar, but
less severe, separation and racking cracking in the other cross walls.
The excavation in front of 148 Race Course Road was carried out through 3 m of fill, 4 m of an upper
fluvial sand layer, 8 m of upper marine clay, extending into a 4 m thick intermediate fluvial sand layer.
Below the excavation was 11 m of lower marine clay, overlying the Old Alluvium. The total depth of
116
Fig. 11
detail
Fig. 9 N0. 148, showing the severe

cracking at the junction with No.
146, Race Course Road.
Fig. 10 Cracking of the front of the

building due to racking.
Fig. 11 More details of the cracking of the front of the building.
soft deposits was 30 m. The diaphragm wall deflection was 65 mm. This deflection, which was relatively low for the ground conditions, was achieved through the use of a jet grout slab placed at the
level of the base of the excavation. The wall deflection would have caused about 60% of the total settlement experienced, with the remainder mainly due to consolidation. There was a gap in the diaphragm wall at the intersection of Race Course Road and Race Course Lane, due to a major utility at
this point. Excavation through the upper sand layer, and, particularly, into the intermediate sand layer
resulted in both leakage and loss of ground.
Several other shophouses along Race Course Road experienced almost as much settlement as No. 148,
in the range of 70 to 100 mm. Shophouses that were on their original, bakau pile, foundations suffered
little damage as a result of the settlement. The extensive damage at No. 148 was mainly due to the
large differential settlement across the face of the building. Even though the building itself was on
consistent foundations, the way that the next door building had been constructed resulted in one side of
the building being rigidly supported while the other side was free to move.
4 CASE 3 No. 7 CANTONMENT ROAD.
No. 7 Cantonment Road was the end unit in a row of shophouses (Figure 7). The row of shophouses
runs up the incline of Cantonment Road; No. 7 was at the lowest point in the row.
No. 7 was about 70 m from the 27 m deep excavation for Outram Park Station, and about 50 m from
the 22.5 m deep excavation for Entrance 4 of that station. The excavation for the station and the entrance was mostly through residual soil and weathered rock of the Jurong Formation. The main support
system involved soldier piles supported by struts or (for the entrance) ground anchors. Borehole ND1,
positioned between Entrance 4 and No. 7, Cantonment Road indicated that the ground conditions consisted of 1.5 m of fill, 2.5 m of soft organic clay (Estuarine deposits), and 2.5 m of soft to stiff sandy
silt (Fluvial deposits), overlying residual soil (Jurong Formation).
117
Eu Tong Sen St./ New

Bridge Road
Entrance 4 excavation to be located in

area of temporary
traffic diversion
No. 7
Cantonment
Road
Fig. 12 No. 7 Cantonment Road during the early stages of the construction of the NEL Outram Park Station
During soldier piling for the entrance, it was found that the soft, organic estuarine clay extended to as
much as 8 m below ground level. Such materials are typically reasonably stable, for short exposure,
down to 4 or 5 m below ground level. However, previous experience indicated that there was a major
risk of rapid squeezing at depths of between 6 and 8 m below ground level. A sheetpile wall was therefore installed, though the soft deposits, on the side of the entrance 4 excavation facing the Cantonment
Road shop houses. In no other area of the station was there any significant depth of soft soils, and the
entrance was the only area where sheetpiles were used.
Fig. 13 The gable end wall of No. 7 Cantonment Road. The photograph
shows the propping installed as a result of concern over settlement induced
by the excavation of he NEL Station.
During excavation for the entrance and station, it was found that a number of buildings in the Cantonment Road and Bukit Pasoh areas were settling. All of the buildings were separated from the excavations by a distance equal to or greater than twice the depth of excavation. It was concluded that the settlement must be due to consolidation, and a grout curtain was installed between the buildings and the
excavations. A line of recharge wells was then installed between the grout curtain and the buildings.
118
Further investigations revealed that No. 7 and (partially) No. 9 Cantonment Road were constructed on
shallow foundations underlain by soft organic clay (Estuarine clay). However, recent additions and alterations, in the main part of No, 7, were founded on micropiles. The gable end wall, party wall, front
facade and the rear part of the building remained on their original shallow footings. Mezzanine, 2nd
storey and attic level floors of timber construction were supported partly on pile supported structures
and partly on the original walls. The maximum thickness of soft clay was at the end wall of No. 7. The
soft, organic clay extended from 3 to 7 m below ground level. The soft clay pinched out half way under No. 9, and the remaining shop-houses were founded on weathered rock of the Jurong Formation.
Although the grout curtain and recharge system slowed the rate of settlement, settlement at No. 7 continued through the main period of excavation. The maximum, final, settlement was 136 mm on the gable end wall.
Damage to No. 7 was severe. The damage included:
Differential settlement and differential tilting between the original walls and the newer pile supported structures with resulting severe separation cracking and partial withdrawal of timber joists
from walls (Figures 15 and 16).
Tilting of the gable end wall and the party wall, with the gable end wall tilting furthest. This resulted in partial withdrawal of timber joists from these walls by up to about 30 mm (Figure 16).
Severe cracking within both the gable end wall and the party wall due to differential settlement
and tilting within these walls.
Cracking in the front facade wall, which was caused by both tilting and racking deformations
(Figure 14).
Fig. 14 Cracking on the inside of

the front faade of No. 7.
Fig. 15 Separation of a cross wall

from the party wall with No 9.
Fig. 16 Pulling out of joists, leading to a loss of bearing. The steel

angle has been installed to provide
additional bearing.
Some of the damage observed at No. 7 was due to fact that this unit was settling, while most of the rest
of the row was not. The settlement pulled No. 7 down and away from the rest of the row. As the terrace of shophouses were all linked, this resulted high local stresses, and extensive cracking.
Other damage in the rear part of the building was caused by differential settlement between the original parts of the building on shallow foundations and the additions and alterations on micropiles.
Due to the damage experienced at No. 7, the unit was subsequently demolished.
119
5 DISCUSSION
The three buildings discussed here were those most severely damaged during the construction of the
North East line. The line passed close to, or in the case of some tunnelled sections directly under, hundreds of buildings. Generally, the damage to the buildings was kept to negligible or very slight levels.
The three selected buildings settled significantly during excavation for the North East line. However,
there were other buildings which settled by a similar magnitude and which showed little or no signs of
damage. The magnitude of the damage at these buildings was due to the varying foundation conditions
for the buildings. The way that the Foochow Methodist church had developed resulted in a complex
system of foundations, partly shallow and partly deep. The building was not constructed in a way that
would tolerate differential movement between the sections on different foundation systems. No. 148
Race Course Road had a consistent foundation system, but the way that the building next door had
been designed and constructed resulted in one wall being fixed, and effectively supported on deep
foundations, while the opposite wall was free to settle with the ground. No. 7 Cantonment Road had
mixed foundations and there were soft, compressible soils whose thickness varied significantly under
the building. The building was also linked to a long terrace of shophouses that were founded on soils
not prone to consolidation.
Shophouses founded on bakau piles over deep soft clay deposits are a common feature of the older urban areas of Singapore. Historically, many of these shophouses must have experienced settlements
much greater than those recorded on the three buildings damaged by NEL construction. In areas of
deep soft clay every small change to the surface loading will create significant settlement. This can be
seen by visual inspection of buildings on deep foundations in the Kallang Basin area; settlements of up
to several hundred millimetres on original apron slabs can be observed. Even the self weight of a
shophouse would cause several hundred millimetres of long term settlement. The original masonry or
reinforced concrete framed shophouses are relatively flexible. The use of closely spaced bakau piles
provides a mat under the building that helps to minimise differential settlement. As a result the buildings have, generally, been very tolerant to even very large amounts of settlement. However, as soon as
mixed foundations are introduced, the buildings become exceptionally sensitive to quite small movements, unless provision is made for the differently founded parts to settle independently.
The three buildings were all exhibiting some damage prior to the construction of the NEL. It is common for such buildings to require exceptionally frequent repair and renovation, due to the cumulative
settlements that inevitably occur in urban areas underlain by soft clay.
Unless the founding conditions of such buildings are known, the standard methods of predicting damage to buildings will greatly underestimate the potential for damage. Methods such as those proposed
by Mair, Burland and Taylor (1996) consider that it is inherently conservative to assume that a building is on shallow foundations. It is assumed that deep foundations will modify the behaviour of a
building beneficially. This is not the case with a building on mixed foundations, which will be much
more sensitive to settlement than a building on shallow foundations. Consolidation settlements generally occur over a wide area. Methods of assessment which are based on the assumption of consistent
shallow foundations would generally not indicate significant damage as a result of this type of settlement. Again, however, a building on mixed foundations is unusually sensitive to consolidation settlements. Buildings, such as No. 7 Cantonment Road, where there was a highly variable depth of soft
clay under the foundations, are also particularly sensitive to this type of settlement.
The identification of buildings with mixed foundations or founding conditions is thus very important
when planning excavations in areas where soft clays are present. As consolidation settlements can be
quite widespread this does not just apply to buildings immediately adjacent to the excavation. As-built
records for each building, and, in particular, any subsequent alterations, are a primary source of such
information. However, records are often not comprehensive. A brief inspection of the buildings is often enough to identify pre-existing damage and assess whether the pattern of damage could be related
to a mixed foundations or founding conditions. Buildings on mixed foundations are generally extremely sensitive to settlement. In areas underlain by deep deposits of soft clay, almost any construction activity will induce some settlement of the ground surface. Such construction activities would include laying of utilities, drainage improvement and raising of road levels, as well as deep excavations
and tunnels. As a result of regular improvement of the urban areas, settlement of varying degrees will
120
occur in most years. Buildings on mixed foundations therefore often exhibit some degree of preexisting damage. Because of their sensitivity to settlement, such buildings are also likely to have a history of abnormally frequent repair and renovation.
Where buildings are suspected as being on mixed foundations, test pits can be used to inspect the
foundations, and confirm the foundation type(s) present.
Generally, the simplest and most effective ways of controlling building damage, for excavations, are to
reduce the wall movement, and minimise changes in pore water pressure in soft clay. However, where
the excavation is carried out in deep soft clay, there is a practical limit to what can be achieved. Even
with the use of stiff diaphragm walls, extensive jet grouting within the excavation and pre-loaded
struts, significant wall movement and settlement can still be anticipated. With all of these measures it
may be possible to restrict settlements to the range 0.3% to 0.5% of excavation depth. For a 20 m deep
excavation this represents 60 to 100 mm of settlement. As is shown by case 1, buildings on mixed
foundations can suffer severe damage at values much lower than this.
Various measures are available to reduce or mitigate the effects of settlement on buildings with mixed
founding conditions. A possible solution, applicable in some cases, is to cut apart the sections on different foundations, so that the sections are free to move independently. This solution is likely to require temporary weatherproofing measures, and a check on the structural stability of each section.
Where buildings are far enough from the excavation to be subject to consolidation settlements only,
then measures to cut-off groundwater flow and provide recharge can be effective. As the case of Cantonment Road shows, such measures are only partially effective if implemented after the groundwater
level has already been lowered. Ideally, where it is needed, recharge should be implemented in the
early stages of excavation.
For particularly sensitive and critical buildings near to a deep excavation, underpinning may be the
only viable option, as was the case at the Foochow Methodist church. However, underpinning can be
highly disruptive to the occupants of the building.
6 CONCLUSIONS
The traditional shop-houses, that are still quite common in Singapore, are generally remarkably tolerant of settlement. Such shop-houses, where founded on deep deposits of soft clay, are likely to have
settled over time by several hundred millimetres, due to the combined effects of self-weight and urban
development. However, many such buildings have now been partially underpinned, or given partial
support on deep foundations by the construction of abutting structures. As a result, the buildings
change from being very tolerant of settlement to being exceptionally intolerant. The identification of
buildings on mixed foundations within a wide zone around excavations and tunnels is recommended,
at an early stage in design.
Even with the use of very stiff support systems for excavations, it may not be possible to restrict
movements sufficiently to control damage to buildings on mixed foundations. Some of the protection
measures that may be considered include separating the differently founded parts of the building, underpinning, and groundwater recharge.
REFERENCES
Mair R.J., Taylor R.N. and Burland J.B. 1996. Prediction of ground movements and assessment of risk of building damage due to bored tunnelling. Int. Symp. on Geotechnical Aspects of Underground Construction in
Soft Ground, London, Mair & Taylor (eds), Balkema, Rotterdam, 623-628.
Nicholson, D.P. 1987. The design and performance of the retaining walls at Newton Station. Proc. Singapore
Mass Rapid Transit Conference, April, Singpaore. 147 154.
Wen, D., Ow, C.N. and Yoon, S.I. 2003. The monitoring of Cut and Cover tunnel construction at Race Course
Road next to Foochow Methodist Church. Proceeding of Underground Singapore 2001, 261-271.
121
SESSION 4
MICROTUNNELLING,
GROUNDWATER
&
WATERPROOFING
Main
Microtunnelling in Singapore - Past and Present

H.P. Yeo
Construction and Piling Equipment Ltd, Singapore
P.Nicholas
Wirth Service Inc. USA
ABSTRACT: With all the recent new microtunnelling projects in Singapore the paper will cover a
brief history of the industry in Singapore including the bidding of a project and how the choice of
microtunnelling equipment changed the bid parameters for an experienced microtunnelling
contractor. The paper will also discuss whether the higher cost of state-of-the-art equipment is
justified by better performance on the project.
1 INTRODUCTION
In 1910, the colonial government started the first sewerage scheme. Intensive program in Sewerage
Development began in 1960. The Ministry of Environment Sewerage Department was the first
Government Department to assist contractors to purchase microtunnelling equipment.
In order to cope with the fast expanding requirement to treat wastewater in Singapore, the Ministry of
Environment is adopting a three-pronged approach to improve the sanitation system. They are:(a) Rehabilitation of old sewers
(b) Improve over the existing sewerage treatment plants
(c) Construction of an improved collection system
These projects have a budget of about S$2 billion and will continue to the end of the decade.
The advantages of these projects will be:(a) Improved economical operation per cubic metre;
(b) The possibility to recycle the wastewater to Newater;
(c) The possibility to release about 290 ha of land surrounding the treatment plants
for housing and industrial use.
To cater for the needs of Singapore through the 21st Century, the Ministry of Environment Singapore
(now known as PUB) is implementing the Deep Tunnel Sewerage System (DTSS) that consists of two
large, deep tunnels criss-crossing the island. A network of Link Sewers will intercept sewage flows
from the existing sewerage reticulation system to two centralized water reclamation plants to be
located at Changi East and Jurong Island reclamation areas.
Main
125
2 DEEP TUNNEL SEWERAGE SYSTEM (DTSS)

DTSS is being implemented in two phases (Figure 1). Phase 1 is the north tunnel. It consists of the
construction of a Deep Tunnel Sewerage System in the North, Influent Pumping Station and the
outfall system at Changi East. The North Tunnel with diameters of 6.5 metres will be built to depths
ranging from 20 to 60 metres below ground. The lengths of the tunnels are about 48 kilometers from
Kranji to Changi. This system is expected to be in operation by the end of 2005. Effluent from 3 of
the existing sewerage treatment plants will be diverted into the North DTSS, Changi East Water
Reclamation Plant and discharge into the Straits of Singapore via a 5 kilometers long sea outfall. Once
the Changi East Water Reclamation plant is completed and operational in 2007, the sewage from the
existing sewerage treatment plant will progressively divert into the North DTSS and be conveyed to
the Changi East Water Reclamation for treatment. At the present moment the DTSS Phase I is under
construction. Altogether there are 6 contracts for the design and construction of the DTSS tunnel.
Meanwhile the link sewer contracts have been released and most of them awarded. Link sewers are
pipelines that connect the existing treatment plants or pumping stations to the DTSS. Local
contractors using microtunnelling methods will construct most of the link sewers. In addition to the
link sewers in TuasJurong, seven additional contracts were awarded. These contracts involve mainly
micro-tunneling works. The sizes of pipes range from 1.2 to 2 m in diameter. These contracts links the
new reclaimed land fill to the existing Jurong Treatment Plants.
Phase Two will consist of a deep tunnel to Tuas, a water reclamation plants and an outfall into the
Straits of Singapore. The firm date for this phase is to be fixed at a later date.
DTSS - SINGAPORE
Fig. 1 Layout of the DTSS (courtesy: PUB website)
126
3 MICROTUNNELLING IN SINGAPORE
Singapore was an early user of microtunnelling with its expanding infrastructure in the 80s. Early on,
the authorities took a trenchless view due to congestion and not wanting to excavate roads recently
built.
With closeness to Japan and the booming Japanese market, it was natural that the Japanese equipment
was used in Singapore. The main supplier was Iseki, the world leader in slurry microtunnelling
technology in the 80s. They started with the Tele-mole and crunching mole and later the unclemole.
The unclemole became the industry leader and by the mid 80s Isekis equipment was in use
worldwide. Other important suppliers were Rasa Industries competing in the slurry market in Asia
with Iseki. In addition, Sanwa Kizai supplied the auger type jacking equipment. These three suppliers
provided about 90% of the equipment to Singapore in the 80s and early 90s.
4 EQUIPMENT
The Japanese had a very large demand for equipment in their home market and the international
market was never more than 20%. For this reason all the equipment was designed for the home
market that consisted primarily of soft to medium clay, silt and sand. The machines were generally
developed for specific ground types: one machine for clay another for sand and yet another for sand
and gravel, the development of the unclmole allowed gravels and small cobbles and a certain amount
of mixed ground to be handled. The Iseki unclemole was by far the most successful microtunnelling
machine in the early 80s with several thousand units manufactured primarily for the Japanese market.
The Japanese slurry systems generally had similar technical specifications, which were based on:
(a) Electric fixed speed cutter rotation ( fixed 1-4 Rpm range)
(b) Video camera / non active target guidance
(c) Analog controls
(d) Small fixed speed slurry pumps 9 15 Kw
(e) Long single stroke jacking cylinders (requires large shaft)
Today 20 years later many of these machines are still operating successfully worldwide including
many in Singapore. However the technology has changed greatly and therefore this older equipment
has some limitations in todays more demanding market. Typically this equipment has limits relating
to ground type and distance, and generally requires larger shafts and production is slower in some
ground types.
The Japanese started microtunnelling in Europe in the early 80s and at the same time Dr Soltau in
Luneburg Germany was developing the first European built MT system, which was first used in
Berlin , followed by Martin Herrenknecht with the first European slurry shields.
The first European systems differed from the Japanese technically and generally included the
following features.
(a) Hydraulic variable speed cutter (variable 0- 40 rpm)
(b) Active electronic laser target systems with automatic steering
(c) Microprocessor digital controls
(d) Larger pumps with variable speed controls (VFD) (22 55 Kw)
(e) Short stroke cylinders with Indexing jacking frame (small shafts)
The first machines were of the auger type but German slurry systems with the above specifications
were used in Berlin in the mid 80s.
127
Today the German systems supplied by Herrenknecht, Wirth Soltau and MTS are the most technically
advanced and have very few limitations in use.
The longest Microtunnelling single drive is 2525 m long (DN3000)
Used for most ground types from soft mud to granite including mixed faces.
Completed curved drives
The equipment has increased in power and sophistication over the years but the concept is basically
unchanged; to provide one machine system that with a change of cutter can be used in all ground
types. This is achieved by designing flexibility and the ability to adjust all functions during operation.
5 LINK SEWERS
In Singapore, during the design phase of the link sewers, the government showed interest in
supporting contractors to upgrade their old microtunnelling equipment to newer higher powered and
more flexible and modern systems. Unfortunately this has not happened. As at the same time as the
link sewers were being bid there was a shortage of work in Singapore for existing equipment. Also the
design guideline advising long drives with curves and the use of small diameter shafts was not
implemented fully. Therefore the majority of projects were bid by contractors with no allowance for
new equipment and in many cases due to the shortage of work the prices bid were very low.
Some of the projects are very deep with mixed face rock ground conditions. There is very little
experience in Singapore of work of this nature. These projects will be completed with new style
equipment by international companies.
One or two contracts were designed with long drives and were bid based on the use of new
equipment.
6 PROJECT REPORT
One of these projects was Hockey Stick V awarded to L&M Geotechnic Pte. Ltd, (L&M
Geotechnic Pte Ltd offered a new machine from Wirth Soltau). Because of a constraint of
space on the site, the length between manholes was stretched beyond 300 m. The project has
several drives of over 300 m and is fairly deep with some mixed face ground conditions. The
long drives and mixed face conditions were not normal in Singapore and there were real
doubts about completing drives of over 300 m. With the planning for future projects and with
the intention of upgrading its fleet of microtunnelling equipment, L&M made a commitment
and purchased a new state of the art system.
Hockey Stick V consists of 2650 m of DN1800 PVC lined RCP pipe in the TUAS area of Singapore,
there are 11 drives with about 5 drives above 299 m. The longest is 366m.
At the time of bidding L&M owned a modified DN1800 Iseki Crunching Mole and the experience of
this equipment in the hard silty clay, marine clay, and weak sandstone. Average production rate for 12
working hour is 6 m per day. The maximum production rate per day was 12 m. The longest drive
completed to date with this machine was 250 metres
128
The technical specifications for the two equipments are as follows: (Modified machine)
ISEKI CRUNCHING MOLE
WIRTH SOLTAU RVS 800
Power Supply Cutter
2 x 15 kw (electric)
250 kw (Hydraulic)
Cutter Torque
9.8-11.8 ton-m
41.5 ton-m @ 3 rpm
Max RPM
1.75
Steering jacks
4 x 65 ton
3 x 100 ton
High Pressure Water
none
6HP jet to head / chamber
Slurry Jets to head
Diverted
Hyd. variable
Gas Detector
none
Factory Installed
Slurry Pumps
45 kw
75 kw
Slurry pipes
100 mm
150 mm
Access to face
None
Yes
Data Logging
Not available
Yes
rd
For CURVE Drive
3 party
Yes
Ventilating System
Air Blower from

Surface
Vacuum Extractor
extracting air from inside the shield
An estimate was done based on the existing equipment and the new equipment from Germany
The following assumption was taken during the tender stage: Total jacking length of
Production rate using existing equipment
Total time required to complete jacking only
2650 m
6 m per day
442 days
Using German equipment production rate

Total time required to complete jacking
20 m per day
133 days
The German equipment has a saving of
309 days
Daily expenses,
Engineer on site
Operators
Pipe jacking Workers 6nos
Craneage
Excavator
Slurry Treatment Plant
Jacking Equipment
S$ 180
S$ 200
S$ 450
S$ 320
S$ 250
S$ 300
S$2000
Total amount for the above per day
S$3700 x 309
Estimated amount saved using the German Equipment
S$1,143,300
129
The contract calls for 2 sets of jacking equipments. However based on the jacking production rate of
the German machine, only one machine would be required for the completion of the project.
The design also required several drives of over 300 m and the existing crunching mole had never been
used on long 300 m drives. For the long drives additional equipment for the use of intermediate
jacking stations and larger pumps would have been required. It was also expected that the estimated
average production of 6 m may be lower and with greater risk.
The reality of the first two drives with the new equipment showed some issues that need to be
discussed. In the supply of the new system from Germany a new style indexing jacking system was
not supplied. The contractor decided to use an existing set of 4 x 300 ton telescopic cylinders this
system is suitable but requires a larger shaft and longer set up time. However the cylinders only had
2.8 m of extension therefore a spacer has to be used for each 2.9 m long pipe.
The slurry circulation system is very large with over 200 m3 per hr and the separation equipment first
used could not handle the flow rates.
The Commissioning and learning curve for everyone was quite steep. Many of the equipment
problems had to be resolved. The operators had to learn the operation of this new technically
advanced system.
The ground conditions were far more variable than expected with hard silt and clay to some weak
rock in a mixed face conditions.
The excavation of this material for the very powerful machine was never a problem. However the
production was slowed considerably with the silt and clay becoming very sticky when mixed with
water and plugging the machine and slurry system. This is a known problem issue in some ground
conditions with the periphery drive systems that have a tendency to develop a rotating ball of material
in the machine. Generally slurry jets and high-pressure water jets clear the plugging. But once
developed it is difficult to clear. This is indicated by jacking times for pipes as low as 30mins and as
high as 3 hrs. In a shift 3 to 4 pipes were installed.
Future modifications of the slurry and HP. jet system are required to improve the performance of the
system in these ground conditions.
7 CONCLUSIONS
At the present time after the third drive on Hockey stick V the production has not reached the
anticipated 20 m per day (double shift) and the average is closer to 12 m per long shift.
As with many tunneling projects the earlier drives are part of a learning process. It has been seen that
it is possible to jack a pipe in 30 to 45 mins but the connection time will remain at about 1 hr.
Therefore it is possible to complete 20 m in a 16 hr. working day.
The material tunneled so far on Hockey Stick V has been tighter and stickier than anticipated.
In
fact it is ideally suited to an EPB (non slurry) type of microtunnelling system as is commonly used in
Bangkok Thailand. These closed face EPB microtunnelling systems had not been used in Singapore
before. Therefore it was difficult to convince those involved of their effectiveness when used deep
below the water table. There has now been an EPB system working in another part of Tuas. Its
production rate to date has exceeded that of the slurry systems.
However the equipment on Hockey Stick V will be moving into more typical ground including mixed
face with rock. With some slurry and jet modifications, it is believed the modern high power
technically advanced system will prove their worth in Singapore as they have done worldwide.
130
Small but Important Gaskets for Tunnel Segments

M. Schurch and M. Joos
Basler & Hofmann Singapore Pte Ltd
ABSTRACT: Most of the tunnels in Singapore are TBM-driven single shell tunnels. With no inner
lining applied, a proper and reliable segment lining is crucial. A single shell segment construction
combined with elastomer gaskets was first time applied in Germany 30 years ago. The first gasket
generation could only withstand a maximum water pressure of 3 bar. With the progressive
development of shield TBMs the requirements for the gaskets were continually growing. For the
Hallandsas Tunnel in Sweden, the specification asks for a gasket that can stand a test water pressure up
to 45 bar. To achieve the required performance, sealing gaskets have become a sophisticated technical
product small but important! The present paper highlights the most important factors for design and
application of tunnel sealing gaskets.
1 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
1.1 Project specific requirements
A tunnel has to be waterproof to ensure minimum maintenance and operating safety as well as to protect the expensive electro-mechanical installations housed in the tubes. Already in planning stage, designer and client have to formulate the necessary requirements for their specific tunnel project. The
technical solutions to achieve these watertightness requirements vary depending on project specific
circumstances.
The most important parameter is the water pressure. Depending on the expected height of the water
pressure in the tunnel, the specifications have to define the watertightness performance of a sealing
gasket and thereby include a safety factor that takes rubber relaxation effects into account. To get a
long-term post construction performance, the rubber compound needs to uphold a certain load deflection force to withstand the applied water pressure even years after its application. This can only be
achieved with a specific rubber mixture that further may also need to be resistant against aggressive
water, oil affected soil or even fire-retardant.
It is the task of a specialized gasket manufacturer to prove that the proposed gasket meets all these requirements.
On the other hand, designer and contractor have to ensure that the segmental lining is properly designed so that a precise erection of the segmental lining can be achieved throughout the tunnel. Focusing on the segmental lining, the most important parameters to achieve watertightness are:
to define the maximum allowed gap and off-set between two segments,
to limit the distortion in the radial joints (ring build tolerances) and
to limit segment tolerances for profile and groove.
Main
131
1.2 Material behavior

The applied rubber gasket has to fulfill high material requirements to be able to guarantee a life span
of often more than 100 years. To meet all the requirements and to achieve the expected technical performance, the use of rubber compound EPDM (Ethylen-Probylen-Dien-Kautschuk) is favorable and it
has replaced the formerly used Chloroprene. EPDM is the economically and technically most suitable
material to withstand climate and groundwater with varying water composition and is enough stable
not to react with the environment or deteriorate in contact with other materials, such as concrete,
grease or injection material.
Fig. 1 EPDM raw material (left) and mixture granules
1.3 Load deflection

Every gasket has a characteristic elasticity. The elasticity of a gasket is defined through the loaddeflection curve. This curve shows the force that is required to compress the gasket. It is called compressive force or reaction force.
40
Force (kN/m ')
30
20
10
0
0
10
12
Ga p A (m m )
Fig. 2 Load deflection curve of a sealing gasket
The load-deflection behavior depends on the compound, the shape of the gasket and also whether the
two gaskets are pressed together in line or with an offset (Figure 4).
From a designers point of view, the following has to be kept in mind: To bridge a wide joint opening
the gasket needs a higher load deflection force. To be able to withstand the water pressure on a longterm perspective, the profile manufacturer has to ensure that the profile doesnt loose all the compression force with the years (relaxation). However, is the deflection force too high, a strong erector has to
be provided to properly compress the segments and with a high compression force there is a risk to get
cracks in the concrete groove that leads to a water circulation underneath the gasket.
132
Therefore, it is a delicate challenge to design a gasket cross section that can fulfill all these requirements and to exclude unwanted side effects. Gasket manufacturers have realized this and found appropriate solutions (see Section 3).
1.4 Relaxation
Relaxation is the reduction of tension in a certain time on a deformed gasket body. This means that the
sealing gasket looses its reaction force over the years. It is crucial that also the reduced compression
force is still sufficient to tighten the tunnel. The majority of the relaxation occurs in the first days after
installation.
The relaxation can be tested with so called accelerated aging tests. This aging test is using an accelerated procedure with elevated temperatures to get results within a reasonable timeframe (Figure 3). The
LTA specifications for the Circle Line MRT projects in Singapore ask for a residual compressive
stress of 65% after 120 years.
100.0
95.0
residual stress (%)
90.0
85.0
80.0
20 C-m astercurve
75.0
Log. (kalk)
70.0
Log. (25)
65.0
60.0
55.0
50.0
0.1
10
100
1000
10000
100000
1000000
10000000
120 years
time (h)
Fig. 3 Mastercurve of compressive stress relaxation (aging)
As the relaxation behaviour of a sealing gasket is mainly influenced by the geometry of the profile,
such aging tests have to be carried out independently for every profile.
2 RECOMMENDATION FOR SPECS
In South East Asia, the most tenders for TBM excavated tunnels call for a single-shell segment construction method. Generally, a dry tunnel is expected and required for a reliable operation and minimum maintenance. To assure a high quality standard, specifications for tunnel segments and sealing
gaskets must cover at least the following aspects:
Tunnel segment: The tolerances for the erection of the tunnel lining have to be limited, as the watertightness performance of a gasket depends on gap opening and offset (Figure 4). With a gap
opening of more than 6 mm and an offset of more than 10 mm the gasket performance is not optimum anymore. Hence, by limiting the tunnel segment tolerances, the effectiveness of the gasket
can indirectly be improved.
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GAP A
GAP A
Off-Set
Fig. 4 Illustration of gap opening and off-set
Water pressure: The maximum water pressure further defines the design of the sealing gasket.
Considering the relaxation effects of rubber, a safety factor of two is advisable to ensure that the
gasket is able to withstand the design pressure in the long term. The watertightness of the gaskets
under the defined water pressure shall be tested according to an official test procedure, given an unfavorable combination of maximum gap and off-set between the segments. Section 4 emphasizes on
this topic.
Groove design: The watertightness further depends on the groove geometry. Angle and groove
depth has to be in line with the chosen gasket. To avoid spalling of concrete, it is crucial that the
net volume of the rubber can be housed within the groove when the tunnel segments are fully
closed (gap=0). Therefore, it is only possible to finalize the groove design, once a specific gasket
has been selected. Section 3.2 further elaborates this issue.
Load deflection: The manufacturer has to measure the compressive stress of the proposed gasket
and to provide load-deflection curves to ensure that the gasket resistance does not exceed the design erector force.
Durability: As elaborated before, a service life of 100-120 years is standard for most of the newly
built tunnels and the gasket performance shall be proven by respective aging tests. In the same
time, also residual compressive stress after aging has to be proven (Figure 3).
Depending on the project requirements, these basic recommendations can be supplemented with other
specifications to achieve a high-quality standard for the watertightness of a tunnel. In Singapore, the
Land Transport Authority (LTA) has laid down extremely sophisticated specifications for the new
MRT-Lines. The specifications touch the above points but in addition also ask for hydrophilic features
of the gasket. The groundwater contains a relatively high amount of salt on account of the insular location and the gasket supplier had to prove the aging resistance and swelling capacity in salty groundwater.
To comply with the high standards, a new gasket type was developed and introduced to the market.
This novel gasket combines the two systems of compression gasket and hydrophilic seal into one. It is
designed as a co-extruded gasket with an EPDM core and a hydro-swelling layer.
The following Section looks into the latest development of profiles and emphasizes on the most important criteria for profile design.
3 PROFILE DESIGN
As elaborated before, decisive factors for the functioning of a gasket are shape and admixture of a profile but also gap opening, groove design, the influences of the linking system, TBM-forces and erector
capacity. These parameters make it highly difficult and complex to design a gasket, define its optimum
shape and to judge its behaviour performance in a tunnel.
Nonetheless, there are some facts and factors that make a gasket design predictable.
134
First off all, a good rubber quality is essential. Then according to the individual project requirements
a technically suitable profile has to be designed (Figure 6). Once a new gasket is designed, prototypes are produced (Figure 5) and its behaviour is tested in respective compressive stress and watertightness tests. This procedure is an interactive process and a lot of experience is necessary as the exact
rubber behavior can not be calculated but only tested.
Fig. 5 Extrusion machine
Fig. 6 Profile design
Standard gaskets are mono-extrusion gaskets (Figure 7) with only one rubber extruder forming the required gasket shape. Recent development and particularly the clients need to achieve higher performance has changed this and the latest gasket generation is designed as co-extruded profiles, consisting of
a swelling mix and EPDM mixture (Figure 8). In a so-called co-extrusion process, the two rubber materials are simultaneously extruded and jointly vulcanized. Such a type of co-extruded gaskets with
hydrophilic layer is used in Singapore for the Circle Line Projects.
Fig. 7 EPDM gasket
Fig. 8 Co-extruded gaskets (EPDM body with hydroswelling layer)
In this connection, the EPDM takes over the function of directional orientation of the swelling pressure
at the core of the seal. Therefore a proper gasket skeleton is compelling.
Another application for co-extruded profiles has been developed to cater for a smooth installation of
the key stone. To reduce the friction between keystone and counter-keystones during the installation, a
co-extruded slip plane is applied as a top layer of the gasket. With a moistened hydro-swelling layer
the equal effect can be achieved.
3.1 Frame corner
Experiences gained from former tunnel construction have shown that leakage is most commonly occurring in corner areas of gasket frames, e.g. at T-joints of the tunnel segments. This leads to the conclusion that the corner design needs a major focus in the design. A main reason for this phenomenon
lies in the manufacturing process of the corners. If the pre-cut gasket strips are just vulcanized together
to form a frame, there is proportionally more rubber in the corner area than on the segment sides (Figure 9). This leads to the fact that the corners are stiffer than the regular profile along the sides of the
tunnel segment. These stiffer areas hinder a proper load distribution and lead to potential leakage, especially when as it happens in the tunnel - two such stiff corners are compressed onto each other.
To avoid this uneven load distribution and to minimize, the goal for gasket manufacturing has to be to
produce a frame with equivalent material behavior all around, e.g. to guarantee a constant load deflection force along the whole segment frame. This can be achieved by volume balanced corner
vulcanization (Figure 10).
135
Fig. 9 Monoblock corner
Fig. 10 Volume balanced corner
This process technology for producing vulcanized corners with internally located cavities was further
developed in the last years. Beside leakage prevention, such soft corners also efficiently avoid concrete spalling at corner areas.
3.2 Concrete Spalling
As mentioned in Section 2, a proper groove design can avoid concrete spalling problems. To achieve
that, the net profile volume (seen in a cross section) should be some percentages smaller than the
groove cross section. In that way, even in case of very high forces applied onto the segment joints (e.g.
TBM jacks) there is enough space for the gasket to fit into the groove.
But, practical experiences in tunnels with segments with narrow grooves and high TBM jack forces
have shown that the concrete segment corners show cracks or concrete spalling even when the above
criteria of volume ratio is fulfilled.
There is a wide spread attempt to explain this observation. This theory bases on the fact that EPDM
rubber is an incompressible material. When compressed, the applied force R will strongly deform the
gasket profile and close the hollow body. When reaching its full compression (no voids), the applied
force R will be evenly spread onto the groove flanks (p) and the groove bottom analogue to hydrostatic pressure. Basing on this, one comes to realize that the summarized spalling force P at the flanks
is directly depending on groove depth (Figure 11). In the same time, this increase in lateral force impact can only partly compensated by the slightly longer shear area (ab). This leads to the conclusion
that the danger of spalling increases with a deeper gasket groove.
R
P1 < P2
P1
P2
p
a
p
Fig. 11 Hydrostatic Distribution of impact force R in a gasket groove
With regard to concrete spalling, a flat profile design is more favorable than a stocky profile requiring
a deeper groove.
The real impact of the superimposed factors (e.g. shear, torsion, jack pressure) can only roughly be determined. And a successful application without spalling also depends on the experience of the involved
parties, especially on the skills of the worker guiding the TBM-erector.
136
4 WATER TIGHTNESS TEST

4.1 In general
Until a few years ago, all gasket manufacturers had their own testing procedure. Comparison of the results of these gasket tests was misleading and in some cases incorrect.
Thats why the leading gasket supplier in Europe agreed on a standard test procedure that is now stateof-the-art and established in the DIN-specification (Germany). In comparison with former test methods, the standardized testing equipment allows to simulate the delicate corner areas as they appear in
the real tunnel.
4.2 Preparation of Test rack
The three-piece steel test rack replicates a T-joint with the 90 gasket frame corners that exist in the
real tunnel. The steel pieces with the interior test gasket are tensed up with the help of screw bolts. The
off-set is adjusted by moving the steel plates counterpart (Figure 12). The test rack is then closed and
fed with water that is in accordance with the actual groundwater composition of the project. The design water pressure is applied in steps of 1 bar (Figure 13).
Fig. 12 Open test rig with gasket
Fig. 13 Water pressure test equipment
4.3 Test procedure

Water tightness tests shall normally be carried out in research laboratories. Some of the more technically oriented gasket manufacturers test their new profiles in their own R&D department and on-site
tests can be avoided.
To test the efficiency of the gasket profile against leakage in a comprehensive way, it is necessary to
run the watertightness test with different gaps and off-sets. For every off-set setting (0 20 mm) the
test has to run through a range of different gaps. For every gap, the water pressure is built up in steps
of 1 bar and is hold there for 5 minutes. In that manner, every setting has to be tested until the profile
shows leakage. The recording of all failure points leads to the required Watertightness-Gap diagram (Figure 14).
Watertightness [bar]
20
15
offset 0
10
offset 5
offset 10
offset 15
0
0
10
Gap A [mm]
Fig. 14 Typical water tightness curve
137
11
12
The tests have are normally carried out at room temperature (23 2 C). For project specific tests it
has again to be highlighted that:
the maximum gap between the faces of the test rig pieces has to be greater than the theoretical
value calculated from the joint surfaces plus the maximum thickness of any packing.
The test pressure has to be twice the hydrostatic pressure (safety factor: 2) to consider relaxation
effects and to guarantee the long-term performance of the gasket.
Tests with co-extruded gaskets do not influence the test results in a short term, as the hydro-swelling
top layer of a co-extruded gasket takes longer than 24 hours to react. About 50% of the swelling occur
within 7 days, nearly 100% of swelling occurs within 30 days. To measure the positive influence of
hydro-swelling layers long-term watertightness tests have to be carried out.
In reality, a proper application on site is even more important than test results because only a careful
and professionally applied gasket can guarantee the tested gasket performance.
5 MOUNTING AND INSTALLATION PROCESS
The gaskets are delivered on site as prefabricated frames. The frame sizes are tailor-made and stay in
accordance with the segment design. Once the tunnel segment design is known, gasket manufacturers
will calculate and define the necessary pretension to guarantee a tight fitting of the gasket on the segments. To prevent water circulation between groove and gasket, the gasket frame is glued into the
groove of the segments.
A safe application requires a clean groove surface. Before mounting the gasket, it further has to be
checked, whether there are cracks ore chipping damages in the segment groove. Such damages have to
be repaired as otherwise they could lead to unwanted and uncontrollable waterways.
All gasket suppliers demand to apply their gaskets with an adhesive into the segment groove. Firstly,
all four corners are pressed into the groove and aligned. It is important, that they are not distorted. As
the gasket frames have a pretension, i.e. they are smaller than the segment groove length. The proposed of the pretension is to reach a tight fit in the groove.
Fig. 15 Mounting of a gasket frame
Fig. 16 Segments ready to lift down the shaft
After mounting the gasket, the tunnel segment can be stored outdoor. EPDM is not susceptible to normal weather influences such as sun and rain. But in case of co-extruded profiles with hydrophilic
layer, the gasket should be covered with a plastic to avoid swelling before installation of the segments.
Most contractors in Singapore pile segments for a whole ring and protect this set with a plastic cover
from possible rain.
It is a valid rule for the whole construction industry that most system failures are caused due to mistakes during installation. The proper mounting is only guaranteed with well-instructed workers and
alert site supervisions.
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6 FIRE SAFETY ASPECTS

The stepped-up occurrence of serious and even fatal fire accidents in traffic tunnels in recent years has
led to an increasing focus on safety aspects in tunnels. The extent of the damage caused to the concrete
in the case of fire is mainly on the inner side of the tunnel segment, the side nearer to the source of the
fire.
A sealing gasket is normally located on the outer side of the segment. It is therefore not exposed to
open flames but questions might arise concerning its heat exposure and resistance in the case of a fire.
Temperature [C]
Radiation
Segment thickness [m]

Fig. 17 Heat processing in the segment concrete in the case of a goods train in fire
Figure 17 shows that the gasket is exposed to a heat of only about max. 140 C, what is not enough to
catch fire for EPDM. As long as the gasket is not exposed to open fire, it will not scorch. A complete
failure of the gaskets causes before major damages to the concrete structure (e.g. reinforcement failure,
thermal expansion, chemical conversion and concrete spalling due to steam).
EPDM is flammable, but unlike chloroprene, EPDM rubber does not release toxic gases when burning.
Up to a temperature of approx. 130 C EPDM is stable. It will only ignite for a temperature of more
than 170 C.
Based on the findings shown in Figure 17 it is very unlikely that the sealing gasket will catch fire during a fire in a tunnel. With a tunnel segment thickness of more than 25 cm and a positioning of the
gasket on the outer side of the segment there is enough concrete to stop the heat radiation and to prevent an ignition of the rubber.
Even in case of a very thin shell (d=25 cm) or a gasket position on a more interior side, the retarding
effect of the concrete mass is sufficient to allow passengers to escape.
7 CONCLUSIONS
Through an early and careful planning a watertight TBM-tunnel can be guaranteed and satisfying
long-term behavior can be achieved. A careful selection of the material with a professionally designed
profile and a respectively adjusted groove allows achieving a high performance of sealing gaskets.
139
Today, where tunnelling techniques can limit the maximum offset to 15 mm, it has become possible to
achieve durable water tightness of up to 10 bar with a standard EPDM-profile. For higher requirements
and higher water pressure the application of co-extruded gaskets with hydrophilic layer is recommended.
The co-extrusion technology also allows dealing with project specific needs, as for instance the integration of sliding liners for key stones or the integration of a oil-resistant protection layers around the
gasket-core.
Summarized, the prerequisite to achieve satisfactory sealing results is to elaborate a system solution
involving segment-, gasket- and groove design.
REFERENCES
Krebs, Christian 1989. Einfhrung in die Elastomertechnik. Maag Technic AG. Switzerland: Dbendorf
Tan, Hong Choon 2002. Test Report Ref.: F2141/RS. SETSCO Services Pte Ltd. Singapore
Prof. Dr rer. Nat. Mang, Thomas 2001. Stellungnahme zur Altersbestndigkeit. Germany
Bodmer, Martin 2003. Seals for Tunnels in Singapore. Tunnel (02/2003). Germany
Dr. Schreyer, Jrg. Abdichtungen von einschaligen Tbbingauskleidungen mit Dichtungsprofilen. STUVAtec
GmbH. Germany: Kln
Lea, Phillip 2003. The bursting point Arrowhead Tunnels. Tunnels & Tunnelling International (May 2003):
25-28. England: London
140
A Sprayed Membrane for Tunnel Water Proofing

K. F. Lee
Degussa Construction Chemicals -MBT( Singapore) Pte Ltd
ABSTRACT: Sprayed membranes for Tunnel water-proofing is an innovative system approach solution
to the needs of todays requirements for water proofing in underground construction. The waterproof
membrane is applied very much like that of sprayed concrete and the advantages as compared to
conventional sheet membranes are namely; speed of installation, easily adaptable to complicated
geometries, works well with fibre reinforced sprayed concrete, bolts can be drilled through and high bond
strength prevents the development of water path between membrane. This paper explores the properties
and uses of a sprayed membrane for water-proofing.
1 INTRODUCTION
The protection of underground structures from the active ingress of water is of great technical and
economic importance. In view of present day usage of tunnels, the requirements regarding tunnel
waterproofing are high. Therefore, there is a need for waterproofing tunnels as using high quality
concrete alone does not necessary guarantee water tightness. In addition, the presence of joints in
segmental tunnel linings as well as other construction joints further fuels the need for tunnel
waterproofing. For an underground structure or tunnel to be protected from ingress of water, there is
a need to reduce the hydrostatic pressure acting on the structural concrete and this is where the use of
conventional PVC membranes could be employed.
1.1 Conventional PVC membrane
Sprayed concrete
Sheet Membrane
Inner Concrete lining
Water may pass through

possible flaw in sheet
membrane and migrate
an unlimited extent behind
inner concrete lining
Water migrates
through sprayed
concrete joint
Water will find path

to inner surface of
tunnel
Water migrates an unlimited

extent through geotextile fleece
behind sheet membrane (to
drainage pipe)
Figure 1 PVC Membrane
Main
141
A typical conventional PVC membrane is installed as illustrated in Figure1. However, some issues
can be noted from this system of waterproofing:
They are point fixed, so sprayed inner linings will not be in full contact with first shell, and
sprayed concrete quality will probably be poor.
They do not bond to concrete on any side making then unsuitable for economic single shell
linings.
As there is no bond, should there be a local failure on the PVC membrane, the leakage may travel
behind the lining and the actual point of leakage through the membrane may be difficult to locate.
The usual method of remedial waterproofing (drilling and grouting) is unattractive because of the
difficulty of avoiding puncturing the membrane and compounding the leakage when doing so.
Relatively slow to install.
Specialist applicators needed.
Complex tunnel geometries cause major problems for fixing and welding.
2 SPRAYED MEMBRANES
An alternative to using conventional PVC membranes to add significant security against water ingress
in tunnels is the use of sprayable membranes. Sprayable membranes have been introduced since the
early 1990s. The membranes may be applied using sprayed concrete machine.
2.1 A System Approach - Masterseal 340 series
Masterseal 340 series from MBT, discussed in this paper is used as a sprayable membrane for the
waterproofing of concrete structures. The membrane is best spray applied in a sandwich construction
between layers of sprayed or cast concrete. It demonstrates good bond strength characteristics to the
substrates on both sides of the membrane and has elasticity of 80% 140%.
As a fully bonded system, this promotes execellent watertightness characteristics to the underground
structure, preventing the development of water migration on both concrete-membrane interfaces.
Single shell
linings
Permanent design thickness
1st layer permanent sprayed concrete (fibre reinforced)

Masterseal 340 series
2nd layer permanent sprayed
or in-situ cast concrete
Figure 2 Monolithic Structure with fully bonded Masterseal 340 series
142
The fully bond properties exhibited by Masterseal 340 series on both sides enables the formation of a
monolithic structure with the Masterseal 340 series sandwiched between layer of sprayed concrete and
final layer of sprayed concrete or cast in-situ concrete.
The above system can be employed in situations where the tunnels are constructed above the water
table. As such, this application does not take into account of water drainage.
2.2 Properties of Masterseal 340 series
The sprayable membrane is produced in Europe. It is formulated based on an acrylic polymer.
Masterseal membrane has been tested for water-tightness under a pressure of 20 bar for a continuous
period of 3 months. The results show that Masterseal 340 series demonstrates watertight performance
characteristics under adverse conditions.
Masterseal 340 series exhibits good bond strength to concrete greater than 1.0MPa after 28 days. As
for mechanical performance, Masterseal 340 series exhibits a shore hardness of 80. Failure stress at
28 days is 1.5 3.5MPa and failure strain is greater than 100% at 28days.
Masterseal being a water based dispersion with no hazardous components, it is safe to handle and
apply in confined spaces.
2.3 Durability
Durability is an important aspect of a polymer-based waterproofing membrane. Therefore, a relevant
question for a polymer-based membrane is the durability of the material under given expected
conditions.
Presence of UV radiation could degrade a polymeric material. However, for the case of underground
structures or Tunnels, UV radiation is not present and should not have any effect on the membrane.
The effects of pH as well as chemical attacks on the membrane are factors that have been studied.
Tests using 0.1% sulphuric acid (pH < 3) and cement lime (pH >10) were carried out on the
Masterseal membrane. After 4 months, neither the acidic nor the alkaline attack showed any
significant change in the material properties.
Further tests were carried out to find the effect of sea water in Masterseal 340 series membrane. Sea
water is typically a solution consisting of sodium, potassium, iron, calcium and magnesium cations
and chloride, sulphate, phosphate, nitrate and carbonate anions. The results demonstrated that there
were no detrimental effects to the material.
2.4 Fully bonded system
With a fully Bonded System, we are able to identify and isolate the area of leakage if any and repair
the affected area effectively. Using Masterseal 340 series membrane, it is possible to pinpoint the
location of leakage and the necessary repairs can be carried out. The development of a water path
behind the lining is almost not possible since it is a fully bonded system.
143
1st layer of permanent

sprayed concrete lining
Layer of Masterseal
340 series
membrane
2nd layer of permanent sprayed or
cast concrete lining
Figure 3 Single Shell Lining with Masterseal 340 series
No joints are needed on the overlap or at any complicated junctions like the interface between the
shaft and the tunnel, interface between main running tunnel and cross passages. Therefore, with the
fully sprayed and bonded system waterproofing membrane the areas of possible weakness in the
waterproofing system is greatly minimized. This makes the Masterseal membrane applicable to areas
of complex geometries.
2.5
Drained solution
Provided that lowering of the water table can be accepted, the use of external drains maybe
considered. Such drains will substantially reduce the ground water pressure acting on the lining.
Figure 4 Drained solution approach
144
Masterseal is not able to seal against active water ingress through the substrate. However, damp
sections of the substrate where there is no visible active ingress of water, may be sprayed over with
Masterseal 340 series. Active water should be pre-sealed, or managed by a drainage system as
indicated in Figure 5 below:
Water
Figure 5 Installation detail of half-round drainage pipes
The half-round drainage pipes may be placed at 5m intervals or if leakage is high, DR1 geotextile
which features a hydrophobic / hydroscopic combination can be applied at 5m intervals.
2.6
Rehabilitation of existing Tunnels
Sprayed concrete may be used in the rehabilitation of existing tunnels. In such cases, Masterseal can
be applied to enhance the resistance of the structure to water ingress and increase the durability of the
area.
Masterseal may be applied to the existing structure directly or with the application of a regulating
layer of sprayed concrete (shotpatch) if necessary as illustrated in the Figure below. After the layer of
Masterseal, the permanent steel fibre reinforced sprayed concrete layer can be applied and the desired
surface finish can be applied as the final layer.
Figure 6 Masterseal applied to an existing structure
Masterseal sprayed membrane can be used in several systems of rehabilitation of tunnels. Besides
using sprayed concrete as the final layer, normal concrete can be used as well. In other cases, where
there is a need for fire protection, Masterseal sprayed membrane can be used together with MBTs
lastest mortar product Fireshield 1350. The fireshield which is a cementitious sprayed thermal barrier
145
exhibits excellent mechanical properties and durability. The fireshield layer can be applied onto the
Masterseal layer to give the resulting structure waterproofing as well as fire resistance properties.
3 METHODOLOGY FOR APPLICATION
3.1 Preparation of substrate
A smoothing layer of sprayed concrete (shotpatch) is recommended for surface roughness greater than
16mm. Strips of DR1 can be installed in areas where running water is visible.
The following chart gives consumption rates of Masterseal 340 series for an average thickness of
3mm per m2 for 4 mm, 8mm and 16mm sprayed concrete surfaces.
Consumption
of dry powder 4
for average
3
3mm thick
membrane 2
(kg)
1
0
4
3
4mm
8mm
16mm
Degree of surface roughness
Figure 7 Consumption rates for different sprayed concrete substrates
If the surface roughness is more than 16 mm and thus requires more than 6 kg/m2 of Masterseal 340
series, a smoothing layer of Shotpatch 20 may be applied.
Good sprayed concrete surface finish
Apply 4 to 5kg/m2 sprayable membrane
Where sprayed concrete surface

is very poor, a 4mm aggregate
based sprayed concrete
finishing layer is advised, to
keep material costs down
Figure 8 Consumption of Masterseal 340 series based on surface roughness.
3.2 Required machinery, equipment and tools

Masterseal 340 series membrane may be applied by a MEYCO Piccola (Dry Mix Machine) or similar.
The conveying system is 32 mm diameter hose, fitted with a 16 hole water ring, and 32-19 mm nozzle
tip. The MEYCO Piccola comes with a water pump, water meter and digital flow-meter with needle
valve adjustment for accurate control of dosage.
146
Figure 9 MEYCO Piccola (Dry Spray Equipment)
An inline Atlas Copco Air dryer can be used to ensure that the air feed to the Piccola is dry. This
prevents any premature hydration of the Masterseal material.
rayed concrete
3.3 Application
Figure 10 Spraying of Masterseal 340 series.
The surface where the membrane is to be applied on is required to be thoroughly pre-wetted so that
the substrate does not absorb the water from the sprayed membrane. Dust, oil, loose particles must be
removed from the surface to ensure good bonding of the Masterseal membrane.
Spraying distances for both manual and robotic applications is typically between 2 and 2.5 m.
Manipulation of the nozzle should be such to ensure the full coverage of the Masterseal 340 series
into the surface texture of the substrate to give an average minimum thickness of 3mm. Application of
Masterseal is similar to any sprayed concrete. Thus, the sprayed patterns should be vertical, horizontal
and circular motions starting from the lowest point possible.
Lapping of adjacent sections of Masterseal 340 series is simply achieved by ensuring an overlap
width of 20 to 30 cm. The cured underlying membrane should be thoroughly cleaned with high
pressure air-water jetting to remove all loose material and dust prior to application of Masterseal
340 series to the adjacent section. Volume of water, which is introduced at the nozzle is between 20 to
50% of powder weight of Masterseal 340 series. Masterseal undergoes a chemical hardening between
4 to 6 hours sufficient to allow a further structural sprayed concrete lining to be placed. Damaged
areas can be easily repaired by hand mixing the Masterseal with the appropriate amount of water and
apply the material using a hand trowel.
147
COST COMPARISON
4.1 Cost estimate for a typical sprayed membrane

The material cost takes into account the cost of Masterseal sprayable membrane, DR1 geotextile that
is used in areas of running water as well as shotpatch (shotcrete) used for smoothing the substrate.
This cost is worked out based on a typical situation.
Typical Material Cost estimate /m2 = 170 units
4.2 Cost estimate for a typical PVC membrane
The material cost here includes PVC membrane, geotextile, wire mesh, grouting pipes for grouting
voids behind membrane. Additional cost for wastage of shotcrete due to rebound from spraying
through wire mesh is also considered.
Typical Material Cost estimate /m2 = 200 units
5 PROJECT REFERENCES
Masterseal 340 series has been used successfully in the following projects:
Hong Kong Pennys Bay Line Tunnels
South America
Switzerland Collombey Road Tunnel
Australia Paramatta Rail link project in Sydney

6 CONCLUSIONS
Sprayable waterproofing membrane is a system approach to waterproofing of underground structures.
This system is able to effectively waterproof areas of complex geometry. In addition, with its ease of
application and its fully bonding properties, the risk of water ingress an either side of the membrane is
significantly reduced. Should there be any leaks, they can be easily located and treated as opposed to
the conventional PVC membrane system.
The sprayable waterproofing membrane can be useful solution to todays high standards in
underground waterproofing.
REFERENCES
MBT UGC International. Internal MBT reports.
Tom Melbye, Sprayed Concrete For Rock Support
Gammon Skanska Limited (2003) Water Proofing Report
Michael Romer (2003) Test of water tightness under pressure
148
Flow of Groundwater in Fractured Rocks

P.G. Ranjith
Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University, Australia
S.F. Pong
Kiso-Jiban Singapore Pte Ltd, Singapore
N. Saravanan
NatSteel, Singapore
ABSTRACT: A coupled hydro-mechanical analysis was carried out to investigate the effects of
boundary conditions on inflow to a tunnel in a fractured rock mass. In the analysis, two different flow
models were employed: (a) discrete flow model and (b) combined discrete and equivalent continuum
flow model. Two types of joint models (i.e., regular and irregular joint sets) were chosen in the
parametric study. The effects of distribution of in-situ horizontal to vertical stress, hydraulic boundary
conditions, and the scale of boundary blocks on water flow calculations were investigated. Findings
of this study show that the induced stress field has significant influence on flow-deformation
characteristics, depending on the orientations and interconnectivity of joints. When the distribution
ratio exceeds 1.2, the change of joint flow rate is marginal for the given joint models. Moreover, the
study suggests that the most appropriate block size to be used for flow calculation in a fractured rock
mass is 6-8 times of the maximum dimension of the tunnel.
1 INTRODUCTION
Flow analysis has numerous geotechnical applications, and it is an essential tool for the understanding
and the development of comprehensive flow models, particularly for underground rock caverns and
tunneling in rocks. Groundwater ingress has great impact on tunneling in terms of safety and project
costs due to delay in continuous operation. The major costs are associated with pumping of water
from working area and the damage caused by water ingress to the equipment. For example, Burnley
Tunnel in Melbourne experienced higher water ingress than expected which resulted in excessive
heave and cracking in the invert slabs and there was a long delay in opening the tunnel to the public
(Wallis, 2000). Planning decisions concerning the need for groundwater control such as grouting and
design of the pumping system for dewatering should be implemented in advance to give greater
economies of scale within a safer work environment.
Due to the large number of time dependant variables involved in real groundwater inflow problems
(e.g., geological structural features, water reservoirs, excavation techniques) analytical techniques are
hardly used for flow analysis. Therefore, a number of numerical techniques has been developed over
the recent years to analyse groundwater ingress problems (Englman et al., 1983; Long & Witherspoon,
1985; Ranjith, 2000). This paper presents the discrete flow modelling of groundwater flow through
rock joints towards a tunnel, as well as discussing the effects of fluid and mechanical boundary
conditions on fluid flow.
2 FLUID FLOW IN A SINGLE FRACTURE
The mechanical and geometrical characterisation of a single rock joint provides the basis of
understanding fluid flow and deformation behaviour in a fractured rock mass. It is difficult to give a
comprehensive description of flow behaviour even in a single joint, because of the number of variables
involved in a 3-dimensional situation. In many early studies, flow through a single joint was
Main
149
simulated as flow through a channel or pipe, in which no deformation due to external stress was
considered. However, in reality, the deformation of fractures associated with external stress changes
the flow rate of the fluid, and the resulting pore pressures affect the subsequent deformation of the
discontinuities. In a single discontinuity, fluid flow is a function of surface roughness, variation in
aperture size, the magnitude of external loads and their directions relative to the orientation of joint, as
well as the infill materials. Usually, the joint surface roughness plays a major role when the joint
apertures are small.
The flow modeling of intact rock is relatively straightforward, while for jointed rock it becomes a
complex process because the geometry of discontinuities can change due to the variation of stresses
(e.g. stresses relief due to excavation). For hard rock such as granite, if the fractured rock is saturated
with water, the water flow will be mainly through fractures because of their large conductivity in
comparison with intact rock matrix. On the other hand, for unsaturated rocks (i.e., presence of both
water and air), gas often collects in the fractures, whereas water usually stays within the finer pores of
the rock matrix, because of their capillary suction effects (Tsang & Stephansson, 1996). In order to
understand coupled hydro-mechanical processes, flow through a single fracture under a prescribed
combination of normal and shear stress is considered as shown in Figure 1.
Induced stress field
due to an excavation
Insitu stress field
Deformed fracture associated

with induced stresses
Natural Fracture
Fluid flow direction
Fluid flow direction
Rock Matrix
Rock Matrix
(b) After excavation
(a) Before excavation
Figure 1 Effects of induced stresses on fluid flow in a joint
For a single fracture with aperture distribution a(x,y), where (x,y) are points on the fracture surface, if
flow is laminar and steady, the fluid flow is assumed to be governed by the parallel plate flow, in
which the flow rate q(x,y) is proportional to a(x,y)3. Changes of stress field induced by proposed
excavation will greatly influence the aperture distribution a(x,y) to a/(x,y). The following simplified
approach for small normal stress to calculate new values of aperture a/(x,y) can be used.
a/(x,y) = a(x,y) a
( joint dilation or joint closure)
(1)
where, a = displacement of joint caused by change of effective stress.

Based on the above, the equation for coupled hydro-mechanical flow (laminar-smooth) conditions can
be written as follows (Ranjith, 2000):
p
q(x,y) = kj [a/(x,y)]3
(2)
where, p = pressure difference for a given joint length, l

kj = joint permeability factor
150
If the fracture is filled, then the joint permeability factor depends on the filling material. On the other
hand, for an unsaturated fracture, the fracture conductivity is a function of the frictional drag of the
flow along the fracture walls and the tortuisoty of the flow paths in the fracture. For a saturated joint,
it is a function of fluid viscosity only (Tsang & Stephansson, 1996).
3. DISCRETE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
There is an increased usage of discontinnum modeling approaches to simulate the interaction between
flow and deformation of rock fractures. One of the main applications of discrete modeling is to
determine accurate fluid flux into tunnels or underground rock caverns that would take place along
interconnected fracture paths. This technique is a rational method for modeling rock media where
discontinuities play a critical role in determining the fluid flow. In this approach, the rock mass is
described mainly by material characteristics and deformation mechanics of both intact rock and
discontinuities.
For this study, a coupled hydro-mechanical analysis (fracture conductivity, and hence the joint water
pressures, is inter-linked with mechanical deformation) was carried out using UDEC (Itasca, 1996) for
a Horse-shoe shape tunnel (12m width x 15m height), located at a depth of 200m in a jointed rock
mass. Two types of joint models were considered: (1) regular joints and (2) irregular joints which
were generated using a statistical generation module. The groundwater table was assumed to be 10m
below the ground surface. The cubic formula (Eq. 2) was used to simulate water flow through
fractures. The flow is governed by the pressure differential between adjacent domains.
3.1 Initial Boundary conditions
In order to bring the model to equilibrium under initial field conditions, the in-situ stress and fluid
boundary conditions were applied as shown in Figure 2. Two different hydraulic boundary conditions
were considered for the joint models as described below:
Case 1: Constant water pressures acting along top and bottom boundary surfaces, while linearly
varying the fluid pressure along the left and right vertical surfaces (Figure 2, Case 1(a) and
(b)) .
Case 2: A porous medium is wrapped around the boundary block in order to simulate flow on a large
scale. Having created the radial mesh around the block, then the fluid pressure is imposed
around the boundary block (Figure 2, Case 2), using the following equation:
p
Vi = K ij
x j
(3)
where, Vi is the velocity vector, p is the pressure and K ij is the permeability tensor.
The permeability tensor for a continuous joint set was calculated using the following equations (Itasca,
1996).
K11 = Kj cos2
K22 = Kj sin2
K12 = Kj cos sin
Kj =
where,
a
s
(4.1)
(4.2)
(4.3)
a3
12 s
(4.4)
= orientation of joint set

= aperture of joint set
= spacing of joint
= viscosity of water
151
w
xx
Fluid pressure,
P = gh + Py grad
xx
Rock stress, xx= gy
Joint model 1
Rock stress, = gy
p = gh + p grad
w
xx
y
Fluid pressure,
Fluid pressure, pyy = gh w

Rock stress, yy = r gy
Fluid pressure, pyy = g(h + a)

w
Joint model 2
(a) Regular joint model

(Boundary conditions applied to
all four sides as shown above)
(b) Irregular joint model

(Boundary conditions applied to
all four sides as in joint model 1, (a) )
Case 1: Fluid pressures applied to all four sides.
Continuum flow approach
Radial mesh
Joint model 1
Discrete flow approach
where,
hw =height of the
groundwater table,
= insitu stress ratio
r = rock density
= density of water
Pygrad = fluid pressure
gradient
= insitu stress
y = depth
Boundary block
Case 2: Porous medium wrapped around the the external boundary block to represent
hydraulic boundary conditions in large scale
Figure 2 Fluid and mechanical Boundary conditions applied in the analysis
The material properties of the rock mass considered are given in Table 1. For case 2, the assumed
permeability tensor is K11 = 2.43x10-10m3/(Pa.sec), K12= 1.33x10-10 m3/(Pa.sec) and K22=2.43x10-10
m3/(Pa.sec).
152
Table 1 Joint and material properties of rock used in the analysis

Material
Parameter
Rock
Units
Matrix
Discontinuities
Joint model 1
Block modulus
Block shear modulus
Rock
Matrix
Rock
Fractures
Density
Cohesion
Friction angle
Normal stiffness
Shear stiffness
Joint permeability factor
Friction angle
Initial aperture
Residual aperture
10
4.39 x10
3.02 x
1010
2500
5.51 x 107
51
Joint set 1
Joint set 2
2.2 x 1010
1.0 x 1010
80
48
6.0 x 10-4
2.0 x 10-6
2.2 x 1010
1.0 x 1010
80
48
6.0 x 10-4
2.0 x 10-6
Joint model 2
N/m
N/m2
kg/m3
N/m2
deg.
N/m2
N/m2
Pa-1 sec-1
deg.
m
m
2.2 x 1010
1.0 x 1010
80
48
6.0 x 10-4
2.0 x 10-6
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Effects of insitu stress ratio on flow
Effects of the distribution ratio of insitu horizontal to vertical stress on water flow are shown in Figure
3, for joint model 1-case 1. The total flow volume towards the cavity was calculated by summing the
flow quantity at each joint at the intersection with the tunnel periphery. For irregular joints, this
approach was not an easy task. As expected, for the given joint model, the flow rate decreases with
increasing horizontal stress, due to the closure of joint apertures. When the distribution ratio exceeds
1.2, the change of joint flow rate is marginal as most conducting fractures have reached their residual
apertures. However, for the small block of 25x25m, a continuously decreasing flow is observed due to
the large variation of pressure gradient caused by the tunnel periphery and outer boundary block.
Therefore, for most practical flow analyses, it is sufficient to consider this ratio up to around 1.2 for
the given type of joint geometry.
4.2 Effects of fluid boundary conditions and boundary block sizes on flow
The relationship of total flow rates towards the tunnel is illustrated in Figure 4, in which a
normalized block is defined by the boundary block area divided by the excavation area (i.e., tunnel
cross sectional area). Figures 4a-b present flow data for the joint model 1 with two different
hydraulic boundary conditions (i.e., Case 1 and Case 2) while Figure 4c shows flow data for a
tunnel in an irregular joint network. The flow rate significantly decreases when the normalized
block size is approximately 50, irrespective of the hydraulic or in-situ stress boundary conditions
(Figures 4a-c). Moreover, it is observed that there is a sharp decrease in water flow when the
normalized boundary block size ranges from 0 to 50. The change of flow rate is marginal once the
boundary block size exceeds 50. This is because the effects of water pressure on discontinuities
that are intersected by the tunnel boundary reduce. Consequently, a lower value of flow can then be
expected due to the decrease in hydraulic head.
When a porous medium is wrapped around the boundary block (case 2: joint model 1- Figure 4b),
there is an increase in flow towards the tunnel as compared to the conventional way of modeling
fluid pressures (case 1). This is because a rock mass can be best simulated by both flow techniques
(i.e., coupled discrete-continuum approach). However, the estimated flow rates depend on the
accuracy of assumed permeability tensor away from the external boundary block. This sensitivity
analysis yields the most appropriate block size to be selected for numerical flow analysis. The
change of flow rate is marginal once the normalized boundary block size exceeds 50 (Figures 4ac). Based on the distinct element method, the optimum block size for a coupled fluid flow analysis
is 6-8 times the maximum dimension of excavation.
153
Total flow rate towards tunnel x 10 -11 ,m 3/sec
12.0
Case 1: Model 1
Boundary block size = 25 x 25 m
8.0
change of flow rate is marginal
4.0
0
0.4
0.80
1.60
1.20
2.00
Insitu stress ratios

Figure 3 Effects of insitu stress ratios on flow calculations
8.0
, m3/sec
Total flow rates towards the tunnel x 10-11
Case 1: Joint model 1

= Insitu horizontal/vertical stress
= 0.5
= 1.0
= 2.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
40
Normalised block size
80
Figure 4a Effects of boundary block size on flow calculations (Case 1- Jt. Model 1)
154
12.0
, m3/sec
Total flow rates towards the tunnel x 10-11
10.0
= 0.5
= 1.0
= 2.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
40
80
Figure 4b Effects of boundary block size on flow calculation (Case 2 - Jt. model 1)
Total flow rates towards the tunnel x 10-13 , m3/sec

= 0.5
8.0
= 1.0
= 2.0
4.0
40
80
Figure 4c Effects of boundary block size on flow calculations (Case 1 - Jt. model 2)
155
5 CONCLUSIONS
A parametric study based on fully coupled hydro-mechanical method was considered in order to
evaluate the water flow estimations to a tunnel in a fractured rock mass. The influence of
hydraulic, in-situ stress boundary conditions and the scale of boundary blocks on flow have been
investigated. From the plot of inflow against normalized blocks, the most appropriate block size
for flow calculation using the distinct element model can be taken as 6-8 times the maximum width
of the excavation cavity, for a fractured rock mass. This value is independent of the different
hydraulic or in-situ boundary conditions. For the considered joint models, no significant flow rate
occurs when the ratio of the horizontal to vertical stress exceeds 1.2. A coupled discrete-porous
medium approach is suitable to simulate flow on a large scale in a fractured-porous rock mass
provided an accurate permeability tensor can be incorporated in the analysis.
REFERENCES
Englman, R., Gru. Y. and Jaeger, Z. (1983). Fluid flow through a crack network in rock, Journal of Applied
Mechanics, Vol. 50, 707-711.
Itasca (1996). Universal Distinct Element Code Version 3.0. Itasca Consulting Group, Inc, USA.
Long, J.C.S. and Witherspoon, P.A. (1985) The relationship of degree of interconnection to permeability of
fracture networks. Journal of Geophysics Research, Vol. 90 (B4), 3087-3097.
Ranjith, P.G. (2000). Analytical and experimental modeling of coupled water and air flow through rock joints.
Ph.D Thesis, University of Wollongong, Australia.
Tsang, C.F. and Stephansson, O. (1996). A conceptual introduction to coupled thermo-hydro-mechanical
processes in fractured rocks. Coupled Thermo-Hydro-Mechanical processes of Fractured Media, Elsvier
Science.
Wallis, S., (2000). Melbournes road tunnel troubles. Tunnels and Tunneling International, 34-36.
156
Tunnel Waterproofing with Membranes - Waterproofing at

Senoko Cable Tunnel in comparison with International Standards
M. Joos, M. Schurch
Basler & Hofmann Pte. Ltd., Singapore
ABSTRACT: Waterproofing of tunnels is and has always been a challenge, worldwide: Changing Geology with hardly predictable water inflow, limited space underground and only very little intervention opportunities once the tunnel is completed. This paper elaborates on such challenges and focuses
on the waterproofing solutions of mined tunnels with membranes. Different countries have different
standards and different approaches for the waterproofing system. In Singapore, a membrane waterproofing system is used for the shafts and adits at Senoko Cable Tunnel. The paper presents project
specific waterproofing challenges and emphasizes on solutions for them.
.
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 History of Waterproofing
When the first mined railway tunnels were built at the end of the 19th century, waterproofing mainly
consisted in channeling of the water. The tunnel lining was made of masonry and the water was collected in lateral drains. Later, the requirements for waterproofing in infrastructure tunnels increased,
especially the design of the new road tunnels had to guarantee dry conditions in the tunnel.
Concrete replaced masonry as inner lining and with these technological changes it became easier to fix
an intermediate waterproofing layer between first and secondary lining. In Europe, waterproofing
membranes were first applied in 1960s in the course of the construction of the first transalpine highway tunnels.
Different sealing systems for underground structures have been developed in the past and are applied.
Figure 1 further details the different waterproofing systems available on the market.
Waterproof concrete
Watertight mortar
Rigid
sealing systems
Asphalt
Shotcrete/Steel
Civil Engineering
Sealing systems
Bituminous membrane
Waterproofing
membranes
Polymer bitumen membrane

Polymeric membranes
Flexible
sealing systems
Coatings
Liquid synthetic material

Cement based coatings
Figure 1 Different waterproofing systems
Main
157
In mined tunnels with normally uneven substrate, wet conditions and unpredictable ground movements
only flexible systems are recommended and in most projects polymeric-membranes are applied.
1.2 International Standards, Present Requirements
Today, waterproofing in tunnels is internationally established and specified. For higher waterproofing
requirements in mined tunnels, sealing with a polymeric membrane is state-of-the-art. Modern construction methods and materials allow choosing between drained tunnels with a drainage system and
undrained tunnels without drainage.
Internationally renowned standards such as the German Guideline 853.4101 [DB] elaborated by the
German Railway Administration also distinguish between drained and undrained systems, giving recommendation on the choice of the system (Table 1).
Table 1 Waterproofing system recommendation of German Railway guideline 853.4101 and DIN 4030
For water pressures exceeding 30m, the guideline calls for a flexible waterproofing liner with radial
waterstops sealing every construction joint, in addition to an inner, impermeable concrete shell. For
water pressures exceeding 60m, the guideline calls for a double-ply waterproofing membrane. The waterproofing system should be divided into segments whose size permits verifiable vacuum testing and
the repair of leaks by means of injection.
A main decision has to be taken between drained or undrained system. Economically, the key question
to answer is whether the higher operation and maintenance costs for a drained tunnel justify possible
savings at construction stage [Maidl et. al.].
The water composition and aggressiveness is another decisive factor for the choice of the waterproofing system. Most of the damages in drained tunnels can be traced back to an insufficient or unsuitable
drainage system [Wegmueller]. As shown in Table 1 above, DIN-standard 4030 is an important guideline to judge the water quality and to secure the durability of the chosen water management system.
From a designers point of view, the choice of the appropriate waterproofing system for underground
structures therefore mainly depends on:
Geological and hydrological conditions as well as climate

Height of hydrostatic pressure (pressurized or non-pressurized water)
Water composition (aggressive or corrosive water)
Tunneling method and design of tunnel lining
Clients needs (technical, commercial and political aspects)
158
Further, the environmental law can influence the waterproofing system. Cases where tunnels have to
underpass protected areas become more common and as most countries forbid an interaction between
tunnel and environment in such areas, an undrained tunnel waterproofing system has to be applied.
1.3 Design criteria and specifications
Once the decision on the waterproofing system is made a carefully elaborated design as well as detailed specifications are essential and shall be part of tender documents.
Again, the mentioned German railway tunnel guideline 853.4101 gives advice and specifies the following details for waterproofing and further illustrates the topics with drawings (Figure 2):
Substrate condition: Protruding metal parts, such as anchor plates must be covered and edges and
valleys must be rounded with a minimum radius of 20 cm; this shall be carried out with leveling
mortar. For a shotcrete surface, the grain size shall be a maximum of 8mm with a minimum layer
thickness of 50mm. Shotcrete with steel fibres has to be covered with a pure shotcrete layer.
Leveling layer: A leveling layer of woven geotextile a(typically 300-700 g/m2) is fulfilling two
functions: Protecting the membrane on the outer side and catering for drainage behind the watertight seal.
Fixation: The leveling layer (geotextile) is fixed with so called fixing discs of the same polymeric material as the membrane. These fixing discs must be of sufficient resistance and dimensional stability to receive the membrane that is hot air welded onto these discs.
Membranes: The thickness of the membrane mainly depends on the expected final water pressure
and mechanical impact during construction. A minimum thickness of 2mm should be observed. A
signal layer on the dry side enhances detection of mechanical damages to the membrane before
casting the inner lining.
Partitioning: To limit possible and undetected leakages to well defined areas, a partitioning system with waterstops shall be designed and carried out.
Protection layer: In inverts and areas with reinforced concrete, an additional protection layer is
recommended to protect the membrane from mechanical damages during construction.
Seams: Polymeric membranes are manufactured in lanes of approx. 2m width. Seams shall be hot
air welded. A double wedge hot air welding machine allows checking the watertightness of the
seams with air pressure.
Figure 2 Waterproofing system to be applied in construction joints according to Guideline 853.4101
1.4 Requirements for application

Planning the waterproofing system is one thing. Implementing it in a satisfactory way is even more
challenging. Most leakage occurring in a tunnel can be traced back to poor workmanship, insufficient
site supervision and post-installation damages due to careless handling of reinforcement, concrete or
construction equipment.
It is a must to use only highly qualified waterproofing contractors who can prove to have already carried out similar work successfully. Workers have to be trained and have to work according to the sup-
159
pliers application manual. Training and site supervision shall also include clear definition of test
processes and site approvals (e.g. casting of concrete only after membrane inspection through site supervisor).
To further limit failures of waterproofing systems, it is recommendable that also the main contractor is
aware of the subcontracted waterproofing work. It is necessary to inform also his workers on the importance of the membrane so that mechanical damages due to careless handling of reinforcement can
be avoided as much as possible.
2 COUNTRY SPECIFIC SOLUTIONS
2.1 Europe
Membrane sealing is maybe most advanced in Central Europe where the construction of new road and
railway tunnels with high requirements involves extensive waterproofing work.
In these countries the trend in waterproofing goes into fully undrained waterproofing systems. Especially Germany, Austria and Switzerland have high environmental requirements that in many cases
forbid any draining of the surrounding environment. Railway and road tunnels are often a two-shell
construction with a waterproofing membrane in between these two shells. Recent development goes
into sophisticated re-injectable waterproofing membrane systems (Figure 3) in order to achieve a
higher control over undetected leakages.
Figure 3 German Highspeed Rail, waterproofing system with re-injectable compartments (Desenerwald Tunnel)
Other European countries go for similar solutions, normally with slightly different detailing. For instance, France is requiring transparent membranes to be able to check the proper welding of the membrane onto the fixing discs.
Another important aspect is fire safety during construction. In Germany, the use of PVC-membranes is
forbidden due to its release of toxic gases in case of a fire in the tunnel. Membrane system suppliers
have come up with alternative materials, such as membranes made of flexible polyethylene.
2.2 China
Also in China, the use of PVC-membranes for tunnel waterproofing is widely spread. Classically, the
applied composite lining systems consist of shotcrete layer, waterproofing membrane and cast concrete
lining [Wang]. Recent examples of tunnel waterproofing jobs show that re-injectable waterproofing
systems are successfully implemented. At Nanjing MRT, a PVC waterproofing membrane was applied
using waterstops for partitioning and injection hoses for a later injection (Figure 4) of possibly leaking
compartments.
160
Typical Cross section
Typical Longitudinal section
Figure 4 Sealing concept for Nanjing MRT, China using a partitioning system with injection hoses
Similarly, Taiwan High Speed Railway Authority has designed a double-shell system with an intermediate waterproofing membrane for its mined tunnels. Part of these tunnels come with a drained waterproofing system, but tunnels with higher water pressure apply undrained sealing concepts.
Also in Hong Kong, tunnel sealing with membranes is well developed. For the MTR extension project
Tseung Kwan O, Black Hill Tunnels a new drainage system with egg shaped boxes has been developed [Swannell] to cater for the project specific needs, minimizing costs and maintenance at the same
time.
2.3 Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia has less experience in waterproofing of mined tunnels. The majority of the subway
tunnels in larger towns such as Singapore or Bangkok are single shell tunnels with sealing gaskets that
do not require waterproofing membranes. All road tunnels in Singapore are cut & cover tunnels and
less demanding waterproofing systems, mostly bituminous sheets are applied.
Currently, Vietnam is building its first long road tunnel at Hai Van Pass and is using a drained waterproofing system, applying a 2mm thick PVC-membrane at the tunnel vault.
Also in Malaysia, waterproofing of tunnels is a rather new topic. In Kuala Lumpur, Penchala tunnel
might be one of the first road tunnels in Malaysia that is lined with a PVC-membrane. The 2mm thick
membrane has to cater for a reliable umbrella waterproofing system.
Coming back to Singapore, Senoko Cable Tunnel is a good example for a state-of-the-art waterproofing system in Southeast Asia. It is designed as a fully undrained tunnel, using a 2mm thick PVCmembrane for its shafts and adits.
3 WATERPROOFING CONCEPT OF SENOKO CABLE TUNNEL
3.1 The project
Senoko Cable Tunnel is located in Woodlands, a town district in the north of Singapore. The project
consists of a 1.8km long twin tunnel lying about 50m below surface. The inner diameter of the twin
tunnel is D=3.7m, excavated by means of a hard rock tunnel boring machine. Start shaft, end shaft and
the intermediate shaft as well as connecting adits are excavated in a conventional excavation method
way using diaphragm walls as primary support for the upper part in the soft soil.
The client specified a fully undrained waterproofing system for its underground infrastructure. The
tunnel segments of the main tunnels are sealed with hydrophilic sealing gaskets. The upper parts of the
161
shafts are secured with watertight diaphragm walls. The lower parts of the shafts and the connecting
adits are in the hard rock. They are excavated by a conventional drill & blast method and secured with
shotcrete and anchors.
Senoko End shaft
Woodlands Shaft
Adits
TBM-Tunnels
Gambas Start Shaft
Figure 5 Schematic view of the project, shafts and adits are sealed with polymeric waterproofing membranes
A fully undrained waterproofing system has been specified to cater for the waterproofing in these
lower parts of the shafts as well as the adits. The 2mm thick PVC-membrane is placed between the
shotcrete lining and the inner lining of reinforced cast-in situ concrete.
The present paper focuses on the details of the applied system and emphasizes on the project specific
challenges to be solved, such as between the areas with waterproofing membrane and segmental lining
or diaphragm walls.
3.2 Waterproofing concept chosen
Because of the high water pressure of up to 50m, a high quality standard is required for the waterproofing system. A single-ply PVC-membrane system with partitioning was chosen.
Figure 6 Chosen partitioning system in adits, cross section and 3D-Illustration
The chosen system consists of a 400g/m2 geotextile, a 2mm PVC-membrane with signal layer, waterstops catering for the partitioning and a protective layer of recycled PVC-membrane. Figure 6 illustrates the concept of partitioning in the adits.
3.3 Sealing the Shaft Bottom
Waterproofing work started at Gambas shaft with the waterproofing of the bottom slab. As a first step
the substrate has to be leveled, anchor and metal parts to be covered. Then, the geotextile was installed. In horizontal areas, fixation of the geotextile is not necessary, but in vertical areas, the geotextile was fixed with 2-3 tunnel discs per m2. After that, the membrane was laid and jointed by means of
heated wedge pressure welding. This welding creates two seams with an approx. 10mm wide channel
that allows testing the seam tightness by adding compressed air to the test channel.
162
The membrane at the shaft bottom was then covered with a protective layer. Waterstops were installed
at the construction joint between bottom slab and future inner lining of the shaft walls (Figure 7). This
safety measure prevents water from flowing along the inner side of the membrane, should there be undetected penetrations.
Tunnel discs, nailed

into shotcrete substrate
Geotextile
Waterstop at construction joint
PVC-membrane
with signal layer
Hot air welded
seams
Figure 7 Sealing of shaft bottom slab (left) and bottom of the shaft walls (right)
Before the reinforcement was put in place, an additional layer of protective mortar was applied to cater
for a safe support for the weight of the massive reinforcement.
3.4 Sealing the shaft walls
The shaft walls were sealed much later, just before the inner concrete lining was put up. Together with
the main contractor, a vertical layout of the membrane was selected. To carry out the waterproofing
work, it was necessary to erect a scaffold covering the whole area up to the bottom of the diaphragm
walls and termination point of the membrane (Figure 8). Geotextile, membrane and protective layer for
the shaft walls were hung from the top of the shaft and then fixed onto the wall accordingly.
Special attention had to be paid to the water trapped behind the membrane. Flexible tubes were placed
behind the membrane in order to be able to pump trapped water out before casting the inner lining.
Figure 8 Sealing of shaft wall (right), termination area at bottom of diaphragm wall (left)
The shaft walls were cast in 3m hubs. A total of 20 climbing formwork panels with platforms along the
shaft circumference catered for the safe installation of reinforcement. Every 6m, a waterstop was
placed on the inner side of the membrane to prevent water from travelling along the inner side of the
membrane in case of possible leakage, due to undetected mechanical damages.
163
3.5 Sealing the adits

The inverts of the connecting adits were sealed first. Taking into account that the connecting rebars
would hinder a later application of the waterproofing system, the invert sealing also included the sealing of the walls of the adits (Figure 9).
The position of the waterstops had to be in line with the position of the construction joints. Therefore,
an early planning and co-ordination with the main contractor was essential.
Shotcrete substrate
Geotextile
PVC-membrane
Protection layer
Waterstops
Connecting rebars
Figure 9 Sealing of the adits in two steps: Invert sealing (left) and vault sealing (right)
In a second stage, the vault lining was carried out. A small movable scaffold was used to carry out the
waterproofing work. A proper fixation with approx. 3-4 tunnel discs per m2 is necessary to fix the
membrane, especially when the additional protective layer is also hung onto the membrane (Figure 9).
Casting of the vault concrete was carried out with a 6 m long formwork. As shown in Figure 6, the waterstop system applied at the invert was extended to the vault to cater for a full round partitioning.
3.6 Project specific challenges and solutions
Some project specific waterproofing challenges had to be designed and solved carefully:
Transitions zones: As only the adits and the lower parts of the shafts are sealed with a membrane,
solutions for the transition zones to the tunnel segments of the main tunnels as well as to diaphragm wall had to be found. A solution with epoxy glued membrane strips turned out to be the
most suitable solution for this project (as shown in Figure 8). Tests were carried out on site to
prove the reliability of the proposed solution.
Design changes-Inclined adits: Due to geological surprises, the level of the second main tunnel
was lowered by approx. 8m and inclined access adits had to be built. The bottom slab of these inclined adits had to be secured with connecting rebars penetrating the membrane. With prefabricated membrane cones, the watertightness of these penetrations could be guaranteed (Figure 10).
Longitudinal section of inclined adit
Detail of anchored slab

Steel bolt fixed in hard rock
Figure 10 Penetrations in inclined adits were sealed with tailor-made membrane cones
164
Vault concrete grouting: All adits at Senoko Cable Tunnel are heavily reinforced and the final
water pressure at the shaft bottom and adits - after conclusion of the work - will be at 4-5 bar.
These circumstances lead to a potential danger at the vault crown that the membrane is pressed
through the reinforcement of a possibly not fully cast vault crown [Pierson]. To avoid such damages in a late stage, the contractor had to carefully post-grout the respective vault crowns.
Thanks to an intensive and interactive discussion with contractor and the clients designer, all these
project specific challenges could be solved satisfactory.
3.7 Tests and quality assurance
A waterproofing system is only as good as its weakest point. Beside material requirements, workmanship and post-installation protection are crucial points for the functioning of a waterproofing system.
The chosen waterproofing system comes with double welded seams that allow testing the watertightness of the seams by using air pressure test equipment. The signal layer of the membrane facilitates the
detection of mechanical damages to the membrane before casting the concrete. In reinforced areas and
especially in invert zone, a protection layer and/or protective mortar are additional safety measures to
prevent such damages. Possible water inflow due to undetected penetrations can be limited by using a
comprehensive partitioning system with waterstops.
All these measures are only effectively implemented if skilled and regularly trained workers carry out
the job and if all involved parties are fully aware of the delicate task. In case of Senoko Cable Tunnel,
regular site visits and discussion with the main contractor paid off very well.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Waterproofing in underground structures is a comparatively small but important job. International
guidelines are available but they cannot replace a proper project specific design of a waterproofing
system. Experiences made at Senoko Cable Tunnel proved the validity of some universal waterproofing principles and allow the following statements:
Planning stage: Early selection of system and materials and detailed specification for installers
are a sound basis for every waterproofing system. For higher requirements, partitioning is recommended and has preferably to be in line with the position of construction joints.
Application: Installation has to be carried out by qualified specialists with trained workers. The
waterproofing system manufacturer has to provide guidelines for application and to come up with
detailed drawings for project specific details as transition zones and penetrations.
Site supervision: Monitoring the waterproofing work is essential. The person in charge has to ensure a careful and professional application of the waterproofing system and to guarantee the protection of the membrane after application until the inner lining is cast! Quality checks such as air
pressure tests and visual checks before casting assure the functioning of the applied system.
Flexibility: Waterproofing systems in underground structures have to allow for late changes that
sometimes can not be avoided. In case of Senoko Cable Tunnel, the whole design of the adits at
Woodlands shaft experienced major changes while under construction. The chosen waterproofing
system proved to be able to effectively adapt to the changed circumstances.
Logistics: Excavation of underground structures is logistically highly challenging. Access routes
are limited and might temporarily be denied to the waterproofing applicator. Working from a scaffold normally slows down the work progress and the waterproofing work should not obstruct
transport routes. Further, ventilation systems and media have to remain in operation while waterproofing work is carried out. All these aspects are crucial for the planning of waterproofing and
have to be considered in an early stage.
Co-ordination: Regular meetings with the main contractor helped a lot to understand the overall
schedule of the tunnel excavation! Other subcontractors might work at the same time in the same
areas. Co-ordination with them allowed carrying out the waterproofing work more efficiently.
Waterproofing is a learning process. Compared to other regions, waterproofing of mined tunnels is still
in an early stage in Southeast Asia. But the example of Senoko Cable Tunnel shows that the awareness
165
for waterproofing is on the rise and higher waterproofing requirements will apply in near future. Clients and designers are therefore asked to focus in waterproofing systems, rather than waterproofing
membranes alone.
REFERENCES
Deutsche Bahn, Guideline 853. Planning, Construction and Maintenance of Railway Tunnels, Chapter 853.4101
Waterproofing and Drainage
Maidl, B.. et al 2000. Sealing concepts for Tunnels, In Tunnelbau Volume 2000
Pierson, R. et al 2000. Quality assurance for Concrete Tunnel Inner Shells, offprint from Forschung und Praxis
39
Swannell, N.G. et al. 2001. Forming a new route for drainage. Tunnels & Tunneling International Sep: 25-27
Wang, J.Y. 2000. Tunnelling and technolgical progress in tunnelling in China. Tunnels and Underground structures (ICTUS 2000): 97-106. Rotterdam. Balkema
Wegmueller, M.C. 2001. Einfluesse des Bergwassers, Schaeden am Drainage- und Entwaesserungssystem: 134136. Zurich. Staeubli
166
SESSION 5
TUNNELS
Main
On Modeling of Dynamic Response of Underground

Tunnels to Blast Loading
Y.Y. Jiao, J. Zhao, H.W. Song
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Y.Y. Jiao
Institute of Rock and Soil Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, P.R.China
ABSTRACT: An underground explosion test conducted previously is numerically investigated by using UDEC, and the dynamic response of a parallel tunnel to the chamber explosion is analyzed. Numerical results obtained agree well with test data. Results show that rock joints can significantly affect
the transmission and the attenuation of shock waves, and can therefore influence the stability of the
adjacent tunnel. Rock joints act as a kind of filters through which only low-frequency components of
the shock waves are allowed to pass, i.e., the high-frequency components of the shock waves do no
harm to far-field tunnels if a predominant joint set exists in between. Results also show that the spacing of joint set can remarkably affect the stability of the adjacent tunnel: the larger the spacing, the
larger the deformation. In addition, with satisfactory numerical results which agree well with test data,
the present study also illustrates that DEM is more suitable for the simulation of the dynamic response
of underground tunnel to blast loading in jointed rock masses.
1 INTRODUCTION
Shock loading resulting from explosion has been attached great importance to the design and protection of underground structures these years. Shock wave propagation, which is considered a controlling
factor in the damage of rock tunnels in dynamic problems, is one of the major concerns in underground construction (Henrych, 1979). In order to analyze the dynamic response and stability of underground tunnels, a variety of numerical methods such as FEM and BEM have been accordingly introduced. However, it has been well recognized that numerous discontinuities exist in the rock masses in
the forms of fault, joint or bedding plane (Goodman, 1976) which can dominate the mechanical responses to shock waves, and commonly used numerical methods, on the other hand, are usually continuum-based. To simulate discontinuous mechanical behaviors of rock masses, these methods are difficult to give reasonable predictions.
Discrete element method (DEM), a discontinuous model to simulate fractured rock masses (Cundall,
1971), can be an alternative. In the DEM, a rock mass is treated as an assemblage of discrete blocks.
The contact face between blocks could be the real planar joints. The blocks could be either rigid or deformable. The solution scheme is identical to that used in FDM for continuum analysis. At the contact
faces, interacting forces are governed by the force-displacement relationship; while at the centroid of
each block, Newtons second law in central difference format is used to govern the motion of blocks.
If the blocks are deformable, the motion equations are defined over the grid points of the FDM mesh
within a block. The dynamic behavior is described in incremental manner and evaluated through a finite time step algorithm. Due to its explicit form of dynamic formulation, DEM is capable of simulating large displacement of discrete blocks in both static and dynamic problems without much unstable
numerical problems.
At the early stage, DEM has been mostly employed to simulate static problem of rock masses. In 1987,
Lemos developed a numerical technique, namely modified Universal Distinct Element Method (code
name UDEC), to study the dynamic responses of a jointed rock mass modeled as an infinite elastic
Main
169
medium with a single discontinuity subjected to a line source of incident waves. He demonstrated the
validity of the numerical technique. Chen and Zhao (1998), Chen (1999), Chen el al.(2000) employed
the UDEC to model shock wave propagation in rock masses, and reported that better results were obtained by using the velocity history as input parameters (obtained from another code AUTODYN2D).
In the literature, there are plenty of reports on DEM modeling of jointed rock for propagation of stress
waves induced either by explosion or by earthquake, but few are concerning with stability of underground cavern subjected to blasting load (Itasca Consulting Group, 1996, 1998).
In this study, the response of underground tunnel to far-field blasting in jointed rock masses is numerically investigated through a case study using the two-dimensional DEM code UDEC. Field data are
obtained from an underground tunnel explosion test (Zhou et al., 2002; Chong et al., 2002). The field
test configuration and the numerical model are described first, then the joint effect on attenuation of
shock wave PPV (Peak Particle Velocity) and frequency, and the joint effect on tunnel response to explosion as well, are discussed. Some useful conclusions are obtained accordingly.
2 DEM PROCEDURES
The DEM solution scheme for movements of blocks is identical to that used in the explicit finitedifference method for continuum analysis. The Newtons second law is expressed in the form of explicit finite-difference equation. The solution yields the displacements of the blocks in response to the
acting forces. Subsequently, the known displacements are used to determine the contact forces between blocks via the force-displacement relation which governs the behavior of block interfaces. The
computations alternate between the calculation of the force-displacement law at block interfaces and
the Newtons second law at centroid of blocks. The solution procedure is based on a time-step algorithm.
2.1 Governing equations
The equations governing the translational motion of blocks are written as follow
u&&i + u& i =
+ gi
(1)
where u&&i is the acceleration of the centroid of a block, denotes the viscous damping coefficient,
F is the sum of the forces acting on the block, m is the block mass, and g denotes the gravitational
i
acceleration.
In finite-difference form, Equation (1) is written as
Fi ( t )

( t + t / 2 )
u& i
= D1u& i(t t / 2 ) +
+ g i t D2
m

where
(2)
( t t )
u&i( t + t ) and u& i
are the velocities at grid-point i at time t + t and t t respectively,
and D1 = 1 ( t / 2 ) , D2 = [1 + ( t / 2 )] .
1
Similarly, the equation of rotational motion is:
& i + i =
Mi
I
(3)
where denotes the rotational velocity, M i is the total torque acting on the block, I denotes the moment of inertia. Similar to the equation of translational motion, Equation (3) can be written in finite
difference form. The details are omitted here.
170
2.2 Contact forces

The stress-displacement relationship at block interfaces is described by a spring-slider model. In the
direction normal to the interface, the relation is assumed non-linear as follow.
n = k n u n
(4)
where n denotes the effective incremental normal stress, u n denotes the incremental normal displacement, and kn denotes the stiffness which is a positive constant. Only if the normal stress is tensile
(i.e. negative) and exceeds the tensile strength, then kn is set equal to zero. In the tangential direction,
the stress-displacement relationship employs the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion, which can be written
as:
If
s C + n tan = max
(5)
then
s = k s u
(6)
else
s = sign(u s ) max
e
s
where C denotes the cohesion,
(7)
denotes the friction angle,
elastic component of the incremental shear displacement,

ment.
us
k s is
the shear stiffness,
use
is the
is the total incremental shear displace-
Figure 1 Configuration of the test
3 FIELD TEST LAYOUT AND NUMERICAL MODEL

A large-scale blast test was conducted in underground tunnel to investigate the safety of adjacent tunnels (Chong et al., 2002; Zhou et al., 2002). The test facility consists of a blasting chamber and a series
of tunnels. An adjacent and parallel slot tunnel at criterion separation distance (0.6Q1/3) is used to
monitor and verify the response of the explosion. The test facility is located at about 100 m below the
171
ground surface. The chamber is 8.8 m wide, 4.2 m high, and 33 m long, while the slot tunnel is 2 m in
width and 4.2 m in height. The configuration of the test is schematically shown in Figure 1. The effective TNT charge weight is 606 kg with a explosive density of 10 kg/m3.
In UDEC modeling, the dimension of the model is 30 30 m, and two joint sets are included with dip
angle of 45 o and 45 o , respectively. To investigate the effect of joint density, the joint spacing of the
two joint sets varies among 1m, 1.5 m, 2.0 m and 2.5 m. As we know, in modeling shock wave propagation, the zone size must be smaller than 1/10-1/8 of the shortest length of propagating waves. For
example, if the predominant frequency of waves is 500 Hz, the propagation velocity is 5000 m/s, the
wave length would be 10 m, the zone size should be smaller than 1.25 m. For this site explosion, the
composition of shock wave frequencies is very complicated, the zone size of 0.5 m is applied in calculation. The virgin rock is assumed to be linear elastic, while all joints satisfy Coulomb slip model. The
properties of virgin rock and joints are listed in Table 1 and Table 2, respectively. Additionally, in order to reduce reflection of shock waves from the specified boundaries, transmitting boundary technique is employed in the computational model.
Table 1 Properties of virgin rock
Property
Density (kg/m3)
Bulk Modulus (GPa)
Shear Modulus (GPa)
Cohesion (MPa)
Friction angle (o)
Tensile strength (MPa)
Value
2650
54.3
29.5
24
57
16
Table 2 Properties of rock joints

Property
Normal stiffness (GPa/m)
Shear stiffness (Gpa/m)
Cohesion (MPa)
Friction angle (o)
Tensile strength (Mpa)
Value
100
50
1.0
37
1.0
The blast loading, represented by a triangular velocity-history on the chamber walls, is obtained by the
following formulae (Henrych 1979):
p =
14.0717 5.5397 0.3572 0.00625

+
+
R
R2
R3
R4
0.05 R 0.3
6.1938 0.3262 2.1324

p =
+
0.3 R 1
R
R2
R3
0.662 4.05 3.288
p =
+ 2 +
1 R 10
R
R
R3
p r = 2p +
6p 2
p + 7 p 0
(8)
(9)
= 10 3 (0.107 + 0.444 R + 0.264 R 2

W
0.129 R 3 + 0.0335 R 4 ) [s / kg 1 / 3 ]
(10)
v n = pr /( C p )
(11)
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Where p is the maximum overpressure at the shock wave front in kg/cm2, pr is the reflected
wave overpressure at the chamber wall in kg/cm2, [s] is the duration of the overpressure, R [m] is
the distance of the point considered from the charge center, R = R
3
[m / kg1 / 3 ] is the scaled distance,
W [kg] is the charge weight, p 0 [kg/cm2] is the atmospheric pressure, C p is the wave speed, v n is the
velocity history imposed on the wall. For the above test configuration, with the loading ununiformity
taken into account, the amplitude of the velocity history is 2.03 m/s, and the duration is 2.5 ms.
4 RESULTS AND ANLYSIS
4.1 Characteristics of velocity and deformation
Figure 2 shows the resulting velocity field obtained by UDEC at different time points. As can be seen,
the shock waves propagate in a spherical shape, the upstream wall will be first to be influenced, and
the shock of the downstream wall is ignited in connection with the up-and-down moving rock. But
similar to the site observation, no block is found to detach from the wall in the slot tunnel.
0.5 ms
2 ms
Figure 2 Velocity field at various time points
3 ms
Joint spacing: 1.0 m

Figure 3 Final displacement of the slot tunnel
3.5 ms
To get some insights of the stability of the slot tunnel with different joint spacing, three models with
same conditions but different joint spacing are computed, and the final displacement in the vicinity of
the slot tunnel are compared in Figure 3. Similar phenomenon can be observed from the three cases:
surround the perimeter of the slot tunnel, the inward displacements only occur on the upstream wall. It
is also worth noting that with the increase of joint spacing, the permanent displacements appear to be
larger. This is totally understandable. As commonly accepted, large joint spacing means few joints in
place within the same distance, and more energy of shock waves can be transported to the slot tunnel if
the shock waves do not have to transmit through too many joints, as a result, the slot tunnel will be affected to a relatively larger extent.
173
In designing a ground or underground structure against attack by shock waves, peak particle velocity
(PPV) is usually an important parameter to be considered (Dowding 1996). It has been well recognized
that apart from the material properties of the rock mass, the joints existing in the rock mass play an
important role in decreasing the amplitude of induced vibration. Figure 4 illustrates the computed attenuation of PPV against the field test data along the instrumentation line above the detonation chamber. In this case the joint spacing is 1.0m. It can be seen that the computed PPVs are nearly within the
scope of test data, it indicate that DEM is very suitable to simulate the propagation and attenuation of
shock waves in jointed rock masses.
Figure 4 Attenuation of peak particle velocity

4.2 Attenuation of shock-wave frequency
It has been well recognized that the performance and the safety of a structure are highly frequencydependent. When the principal frequency of the shock waves is close to the natural frequency of a
structure, the safety margin to the structure diminishes rapidly. Against this background, to investigate
the characteristics of the attenuation of shock-wave frequency, the Fourier spectra of acceleration are
computed through Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) based on the simulated results.
Figure 5 plots the simulated attenuation of the principal frequencies of horizontal acceleration along
the instrumentation line between the chamber and the slot tunnel when the joint spacing is 1m. It can
be seen that the principal frequency of shock waves at the chamber wall is obviously the highest and is
much higher than those at further distances. It is worth noting that just at a very short distance (less
than 7.5 m) away from the detonation, the principal frequency drops remarkably. In addition, at distances further away (7.5 m and more), the principal frequencies all attenuate at slower rates. The usual
perception has that the joint set has strong influence on propagating waves having wavelengths less
than 4 times the spacing of joints. Usually and approximately, the speed of the propagating P-wave in
jointed rock masses is v=6000 m/s. If the average spacing of joints is 1.0 m, thus, the critical wavelength is 4x1.0 m (=4.0 m), and the corresponding frequency f is 6000/4.0 = 1500 Hz. As such, frequencies higher than 1500 Hz would be affected. The numerical results are found agreeable to this perception. As can be seen from Figure 5, within the distance of 7.5 m, frequencies higher than 1500 Hz
vanish completely. Against his background, the joint sets can be regarded as a number of filters, which
allow low-frequency waves to pass through but damp down the high frequency waves. It indicates that
shock waves with frequency higher than 1500 Hz will do no harm to the stability of the slot tunnel.
174
300
Fourier spectra (m/s )
250
200
150
Chamber
7.5m
10.5m
13.5m
100
50
0
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 5 Attenuation of principal frequency along horizontal line

To illustrate the effect of joint density on shock-wave attenuation, two additional calculations with
joint spacing of 1.5 and 2.5 m, respectively, are also performed. Figure 6 compares the principal frequencies of vertical acceleration resulting from different joint spacing at 12.5 m above the detonation.
As can be seen with interest, smaller joint spacing yields higher principal frequency, while larger spacing yields lower principle frequency.
100
Spacing=1.0m
Spacing=1.5m
Spacing=2.5m
Fourier spectra (m/s )
80
60
40
20
0
0
500
1000
1500
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 6 Comparison of frequency spectra among different spacing

5 CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, an underground explosion test conducted previously is numerically investigated by using
UDEC, and the dynamic response of parallel tunnel to the chamber explosion is analyzed. Numerical
results obtained are compared with test data. Results show that rock joints can significantly affect the
transmission and the attenuation of shock waves, and can therefore influence the stability of the adjacent tunnel. It indicates that rock joints act as a kind of filters through which only low-frequency com-
175
ponents of the shock wave are allowed to pass, i.e., the high-frequency components of the shock waves
do no harm to far-field tunnels if a predominated set of joints exists in between. In case a structure
needs to be protected from shock waves of specific frequencies, artificial planar joints at carefully designed spacing can be put in place surrounding the structure. Results also show that the spacing of
joint set can remarkably affect the deformation of the adjacent tunnel: the larger the spacing, the larger
the deformation. Apart from these insights, with satisfactory numerical results which agree well with
test data, the present study also illustrates that the discontinuum-based DEM is more suitable for the
investigation of the dynamic response of underground tunnel to blasting load in jointed rock masses.
REFERENCES
Cundall, P.A. 1971. A computer model for simulating progressive large scale movements in blocky rock systems.
Proc. Symp. Int. Soc. Rock Mech., Nancy, France, 1971, Vol. 1 paper II-8.
Chong, K., Seah, C.C., Lim, H.S., Zhou, Y. 2002. Large Scale Tests-Airblast, Ground Shock and Debris. Proceedings of International Symposium on Defence construction. Singapore, 17-18
Chen, S.G., Zhao J. 1998. A study of UDEC modelling for blast wave propagation in jointed rock masses. Int. J.
Rock Mech. Min. Sci. Vol 35, 93-99.
Chen, S.G. 1999. Discrete Element Modelling of Jointed Rock Masses under Dynamic Loading. Ph. D. thesis,
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 1999.
Chen, S.G., Cai, J.G., Zhao, J., Zhou, Y.X. 2000. 3DEC modelling of a small-scale field explosion test. Pacific
Rock 2000, Girard, Liebman, Breeds & Doe (eds), Balkema, Rotterdam, 571-576.
Goodman R.E.1976. Methods of Geological Engineering in Discontinuous Rocks. St. Paul: West Publishing
Henrych J. 1979. The Dynamics of Explosion. New York: Elsevier scientific publishing company.
ITASCA CONSULTING GROUP. 1996. UDEC reference manual, Version 3.0, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA.
ITASCA CONSULTING GROUP. 1998. 3DEC reference manual, Version 2.0, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA.
Lemos, J.A. 1987. Distinct element model for dynamic analysis of jointed rock with application to dam foundations and fault motion. Ph. D. thesis, University of Minnesota, USA.
Zhou, Y., Chong, K., Seah, C.C., Zhao, J. 2002. Dynamic response and tunnel damage from explosion loading.
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Defence Construction. Singapore, 1-14
Dowding CH. 1996. Construction vibrations. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
176
Weathering Influence on TBM Tunnelling

X.H. Zhang, Q.M. Gong, J. Zhao
ABSTRACT: Recent research on interaction between TBM machinery parameters, operation parameters and performance parameters as well as rock terrain conditions found that in hard rock terrains and
under optimal operation, the TBM performance mainly designated by the penetration rate depends on
the rock material properties such as uniaxial compressive strength and brittleness, and discontinuity
occurrence and spacing.
As well known, weathering process degrades the physical and mechanical properties of rock material
and discontinuity of rock mass. The uniaxial compressive strength and brittleness of rock material decrease with weathering while porosity and microcracks may increase with weathering. Nevertheless,
the original discontinuity occurrence and spacing do not change with weathering. However, the
mixed-face ground may be introduced to tunnel face by intense weathered bands along discontinuities
and dykes, the differential weathering between the external and internal parts of rock blocks separated
by jointing, sharp transitions from completely weathered rocks and residual soils to slightly weathered
and fresh rocks. As a result, the TBM penetration rate in weathered rock mass is noticeably different
from unweathered rock mass. Up to now, little literature on weathering influence on TBM performance is reported. This paper addresses how the weathering process influences penetration rate and cutter wear in hard rock conditions under optimal TBM operation.
1 INTRODUCTION
Since the introduction of tunnelling boring technology in hard rock terrain, the study on interaction between rock and cutting tools (rolling disc cutters) has been done continuously. The purposes of those
researches are to estimate basic penetration rate and cutter wear under given TBM machinery parameters and rock mass conditions, and to optimise the TBM design (thrust, torque, power, cutter size, cutter spacing) in a given rock mass condition. The CSM model (Rostami and Ozdemir, 1993) uses a
semi-theoretical equation to estimate the necessary cutter forces for a designated penetration (mm/rev)
under optimum spacing and cutter geometry. The CSM model does not include the influence of rock
mass properties such as spacing and orientation of jointing plane on the penetration rate. The NTNU
model assumes that the rock mass jointing plays a dominating role in basic penetration rate influenced
by the rock mass factors: fracture spacing and orientation, drilling rate index and porosity (Bruland,
2000). The drilling rate index depends on the surface hardness or strength and rock brittleness. The
smaller the surface hardness and the larger the brittleness, the larger is the drilling rate index. The
NTNU model assumes that rock fragmentation is prevailingly produced by impact-induced tensile
failure. Gong (2003) indicates that the uniaxial compressive strength and brittleness of rock, and spacing and orientation of the discontinuities are the major rock mass factors affecting TBM performance.
Hucka and Das (1974) uses the brittleness of B1 (the ratio of uniaxial compressive strength to tensile
strength, t) and B2 (the ratio of uniaxial compressive strength minus tensile strength to the sum of
both strengths). This is because the rocks of higher brittleness have higher ratio of compressive to tensile strength and resilience. In this study, B1 is used as an index to express rock brittleness (Gong,
2003).
Main
177
The basic penetration rate (mm/rev) of TBMs in rock terrain is in whole influenced by the rock mass
parameters, machinery parameters, and operation parameters. The rock mass parameters include uniaxial compressive strength (UCS), brittleness (B1), joint orientation and volumetric joint count (Jv) in
lieu of joint set number and joint spacing. The machinery parameters include cutter diameter and spacing, TBM diameter, power capacity (maximum torque) and maximum thrust. The operation parameters
include the thrust, torque and RPM. In mixed-face ground, the operation level of thrust, torque and
RPM plays a decisive role in TBM penetration rate and cutter wear.
Weathering generally decreases the strength and brittleness of rock material, and to some extent, also
increases jointing intensity near the bedrock surface. Since the weathering initiates from the surface of
discontinuities, and therefore the portion adjacent to the discontinuity surfaces or the external surfaces
of the rock blocks are more intensively weathered than the internal portion. As a result, except the
massive rock mass and heavily jointed rock mass, significantly differential weathering exists in most
of rocks, especially in granitic rocks. The mixed-face ground is introduced to the tunnel face by intensely weathered bands along discontinuities and dykes, the differential weathering between the external and internal parts of rock blocks separated by discontinuities, sharp transition from completely
weathered rocks and residual soils to slightly weathered and fresh rocks. For dykes, they may be
stronger and less weathered than the surrounding rock mass, and the mixed-face ground is also formed.
This paper addresses how the weathering and weathering-introduced mixed-face ground influence
TBM penetration rate and cutter wear in rock terrain and optimum operation parameters in mixed-face
ground for better TBM performance.
2 WEATHERING INFLUENCE ON PROPERTIES OF ROCK MATERIALS AND ROCK MASSS
FROM VIEWPOINT OF TBM TUNNELLING
2.1 Rock materials
For crystalline rocks, especially granitic rocks, weathering generally decreases the density and all
strength indexes and increases the porosity and saturated water content (Irfan and Dearman 1978a,
1978b, Dearman and Irfan 1978, Lee and de Freitas 1989, Zhao et al. 1994, Gupta & Rao 1998). The
strength indexes include the Schmidt hammer value, point load strength, Brazilian tensile strength,
UCS, and elastic modulus. The most frequently used weathered rock classification system is that developed by Fookes et al. (1971) and later modified by Dearman (1974, 1976), Irfan and Dearman
(1978a, 1978b), Hencher and Martin (1982), Zhao et al. (1994) and Anon (1995). This classification
was initiated for weathered granitic rocks but has been applied to all kinds of rocks. The weathered
rock is divided into six grades: grade I (fresh rock), grade II (slightly weathered), grade III (moderately
weathered), grade IV (highly weathered), grade V (completely weathered) and grade VI (residual soil).
The grades I to IV belong to the rock category and grades V and VI belong to the soil category. This
study uses the approach of the classification of weathered rock by Anon (1995) as a basis for rock material.
Zhao et al. (1994), Lee (1989), Gupta and Rao (1998, 2000) showed how UCS changes with weathering in granitic formations. Compared to fresh rock (grade I), the UCS of grade II, grade III and grade
IV decreases to 50-60%, 30%, and 15% of fresh rock strength. The grade II rock still belongs to
very strong rock category (ISRM 1981). For the grade IV rock, the majority is within the weak
rock category.
Based on Gupta and Raos (2000) and this studys test results on weathered quartzite, granite and basalt, weathered rocks deform with increasing failure strain with progressive weathering grades, and
therefore their brittleness decreases with weathering, as shown in Figure 1.
For porosity and microcracks, weathering increases their values significantly. For example, the fresh
(grade I) granite normally has an effective porosity of less than 1%, and grade II increases by 5%,
grade III by 7% and grade IV by 10% (Irfan and Dearman 1978a).
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16.0
Brittleness B1
12.0
8.0
4.0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
Failure strain (%)
Fig. 1 Brittleness B1 and failure strain under compression test for weathered igneous rocks
Noted is that weathering influences the failure mode under compressive test (Gupta and Rao 2000).
From fresh rock (grade I) to completely weathered rock (grade II), the rock failure modes are as following: splitting and tensile (grade I), tensile plus shear (grade II), shear plus tensile (grade III), shear
(grade IV) and shear plus bulging (grade V). It is clear that the failure shifts from brittle tensile mode
to plastic shear mode. This implies that under normal force of TBM rolling cutter, the fragmentation
mechanism dominated by the splitting and tensile crack propagation (fresh rock) may be changed to
shear plus tensile failure (weathered rock). TBM cutting efficiency will decrease with an increase in
normal cutter wear but not necessarily a decrease in penetration rate.
2.2 Rock mass
Weathering generally does not change the spacing and occurrence of weathered rock mass compared
to fresh rock mass, but may increase the random joints. In some case, weathering may systematically
increase joint frequency. Sheeting and unloading joints are good examples, which increase towards the
ground and valley surfaces. Except healing of joints, weathering most often increases the width of
fractures and joints by decomposing and microfracturing the rock materials along discontinuity surfaces. Due to weathering, the discontinuities are filled with weak materials, or become more open
without fillings. Most significantly, due to differential weathering in rock mass and sharp transitions
from fresh and slightly weathered rock to completely weathered rock and residual soil, a mixed-face
ground is formed.
2.3 Identification of weathered ground class for TBM tunnelling
Before identifying weathered ground classes for TBM tunnelling, it is necessary to define the mixedface ground for TBM tunnelling. The mixed-face ground has been being a topic for a long time because of its significant influence on TBM performance (Sutcliffe 1981, Hunter and Aust 1987, Johannessen and Askilsrud 1993, Bruland 2000, Shirlaw et al. 2000, Valle 2001, Wallis 2000, Blindheim et
al. 2002, Ranjith et al. 2002, Steingrimsson et al. 2002). From the geological viewpoint, the mixedface ground can be defined as simultaneous occurrence of two or more geological formations, or the
same geological formation but with conspicuously different weathering grade (e.g. in granitic formation, the interface between highly to completely weathered granite and fresh to slightly weathered
granite constitutes a mixed-face ground). However, from a TBM tunnelling viewpoint, the mixed-face
ground defined on the geological basis may not influence TBM performance, and actually does so only
when the differences in normalised penetration rate and area percentage of the mixed-face components
reach a certain level. The normalised penetration rate is the penetration per revolution per 10 kN (or
per ton) net cutter force under optimum TBM operation and its unit is mm/rev/10kN/cutter, or in short
form: mm/10kN or mm/t). For different TBMs, the cutter force is normalised for cutter size and
spacing.
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As such, it is necessary to make a quantitative definition for the mixed-face ground in the viewpoint of
TBM tunnelling. Clearly, there are two kinds of input required to make such a quantitative definition,
namely the normalised penetration rate and area percentage of the mixed-face ground. The TBM machinery parameters, though important to qualify the mixed-face ground for TBM tunnelling, are not
included in this paper. Based on the above discussion, the mixed-face ground can be defined as simultaneous occurrence of two or more types of sufficient area of ground with significantly different normalised penetration rates. It consists of two or more rock formations (including Quaternary loose deposits in case of a soil-rock mixed-face ground), or the same rock formation but with conspicuously
different facture intensity or weathering grades. For simplicity, mixed-face components are still called
hard and soft rocks or soils. The exact magnitudes of the difference in normalised penetration rate and
area percentage have yet to be determined in this study.
.
From the viewpoint of TBM tunnelling, the major weathered ground can be categorised into four
classes. Class 1 is the relatively homogeneously weathered ground. Classes 2 to 4 are the mixed-face
ground formed by intensely weathered bands along discontinuities and dykes, the differential weathering between the external and internal parts of rock blocks separated by discontinuities, sharp transitions from completely weathered rocks and residual soils to slightly weathered and fresh rocks. The
rock of weathering grades (I, II, III and IV) is treated as rock material and the rock of grades V and VI
as soil-like materials for simplicity.
Fig. 2 Prevailing types of mixed-face ground in rock TBM tunnelling
Class 1: relatively homogeneously weathered ground is characterized by homogeneous weathered rock

mass separated by discontinuities which might be widen or filled with soft materials or healed in some
cases. Compared to unweathered rock mass, the major differences are a decrease in rock strength and
brittleness, a increase in porosity and microcracks in rock, and a increase in weakness aperture or
width of the discontinuities. Class 1 ground do not frequently occurs in nature except in massive rock
mass or very fractured rock mass.
Class 2: layered mixed-face ground is formed by intrusive dykes, discontinuities either by tectonic
stress or weathering process, layered rock of significant difference in nominal penetration rate, as
shown in Figures 2c, 2b and 2a, respectively. The intrusive dykes are either significantly harder or
softer than their surroundings. The discontinuities may have weak infillings, or may be decomposed,
or both their walls are very fractured or decomposed. Class 2 mixed-face ground exists both in weathered and unweathered rock mass (e.g. soft-hard rock bedding interface, dykes in a rock formation and
weakened/sheared/fractured zone in intact rock mass). Noted is that Class 2 mixed-face ground is akin
to Class 3 mixed-face ground in case where there occur only two rock beddings in the tunnel face with
hard portion in the lower face.
Class 3: two-portion mixed-face ground is characterised by interface of soil-like materials and rock,
and sometimes may have the third portion as a transition from hard to soft portions, as shown in Figure
2d. The hard portion mainly consists of relatively unweathered rock mass or strong unweathered
dykes. The soft portion mainly consists of Quaternary loose deposit, residual soil (grade VI), and completely weathered rock (grade V). Class 3 mixed-face ground occurs in the soil-rock boundary zone,
where the rock mass is weathered and in most cases the transition between rock and soil-like materials
is very narrow. In addition, Class 2 mixed-face ground also occurs in the boundary zone between Qua-
180
ternary deposit and rock formation, where the rock mass, nevertheless, are often more or less weathered.
Class 4: locked-corestone mixed-face ground is characterised by prevailing corestones separated by
soil-like material, as shown in Figure 2e and Figures 3a and 3b. Figure 3a shows the corestone layer
immediately below the reddish brown residual soil layers in Bukit Timah granite. Figure 3b is a view
of a corestone in figure 3a. It is clear that the inside of the corestone is fresh granite, and in some cases,
may be less weathered granite. The majority of tunnel face material is composed of corestones. The
corestones can not be rotated, but may be dislocated during cutterhead rotation. Class 4 mixed-face
ground mostly occurs in weathering profile of granitic formation, and in some cases, in massive sandstones.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 3 Corestone layer in Bukit Timah Granite
It is worth to mention that one difficult ground is not included in scope of this study. It is a class of
ground characterised by individual corestones distributed in prevailing soil-like material matrix (completely weathered rock and residual soil). The corestones, composed of relatively unweathered rock,
might not be fully rotated but may be easily dislocated depending on strength of soil matrix. In addition, it also occurs in unconsolidated deposits such as alluvium, diluvium, pluvium, and colluvium
with boulders. In karstic river alluvium, floated carbonate rock boulders may also render a mixed face
condition. The individual corestones often cause the cutterhead to vibrate and impacts to rolling cutters
and cutterhead. Manual intervention to break the corestones has to be applied when undrained shear
strength of soil-like material matrix is too low to prevent them from rotating and dislocating (Park et al.
2002, Ranjith et al 2002). The mobility of soil-like material and vibration of the cutterhead influence
the stability of the tunnel face (Shirlaw et al.2000).
3 INTERACTION BETWEEN THE ROCK MASS AND TBM ROLLING CUTTER
3.1 Unweathered rock mass
The dominant TBM rolling disc cutter is of constant cross section. As rolling cutter penetrates into the
rock, a crushed zone, or hydrostatic zone is formed due to high triaxial compressive stress induced beneath the cutter exceeding the compressive strength the rock. This zone consists of fine grained
crushed rock. The grain size increases from the centre of the zone to the surrounding rock. In the external of the crushed zone is the so-called cracked zone where radial cracks are developed by induced
181
high stress in the crushed zone. The radial cracks are the prevalent discontinuity surface created in this
crushed zone except the pre-existing discontinuities. The cracks are initiated due to high concentration
of induced stress, and in some case may start from pre-existing flaws such as porosity, microcracks
and jointing. The tensile fracture initiation and propagation are assumed to be the principal means of
chip formation and considered as the major failure model. Noted is that the cracks induced around the
crushed zone, especially those continuing to propagate to the free surface, suffers significant shear
stress. As a result, the prevailing tensile plus shear model is failure model for chip formation (Rostami
and Ozdemir, 1993).
In actual TBM boring, the interaction between the cracks from two adjacent passes guides the propagation of fractures. When one or more cracks from the neighbouring passes meet or the cracks reach
the free surface, chipping occurs. The length of cracks is a function of rock brittleness and the pressure
in the crushed zone. The pressure is in turn determined by the cutter force. The interaction between the
two cuts depends on spacing between the cuts, the angles, and extension of cracks between the adjacent cuts. For chip formation, there are three cases, namely inadequate chipping, excessive crushing
and optimum chipping.
For inadequate chipping, cracks are developed toward the cutting face instead of propagating towards
the neighbouring cuts through a relative short straight line, or the cracks length is inadequate to coalesce with the adjacent pass, but to reach free surface by forming small triangular chips. This premature chipping will cause a dramatic drop in the pressure of the crushed zone, which hence prevents further propagation cracks towards to adjacent cuts, leaving a ridge between the two cuts almost
untouched. The reason for inadequate chipping is dual fold. On one hand, the cutter normal force may
not be sufficient to cause adequate cut depth and long cracks. On the other hand, it may be because the
cutter spacing is too large for the cracks to coalesce between the two adjacent cuts. For both cases, the
spacing to penetration ratio actually exceeds the optimum because of either too large spacing or too
low penetration.
For excessive crushing, when either the spacing is too small or the cutter force is too high, longer but
ineffective cracks can develop inward and meet in a steep angle. A trough between the two cutters is
formed. For an optimum spacing, cracks are ideally propagated towards the neighbouring cuts through
a relative straight line which would be the shortest distance for crack propagation and is approximately
equal to half the cutter spacing.
Noted is that the normal cutter force is dynamic, and increases to a peak value during crack propagation and decreases to a low value when chipping occurs. As such, the normal cutter force dynamic factor (the ratio of peak normal cutter force to the average normal cutter force) could be up to 8.1 for face
cutters (Gobetz, 1974). The average gross cutter force (total thrust divided by the numbers of all cutters for unshielded TBM) is much less than actual peak force. For example, Samuel and Seow (1984)
found that the peak force is more than 200 kN and the average gross cutter force 132 kN, In addition,
the actual cutter force level is below 100 kN for more than 50% of the boring time.
During the chipping process, the discontinuities existing in rock mass will facilitate the fracture initiation, propagation and coalescence when their orientation and spacing are favourable. Chips are easily
formed along pre-existing cracks and fractures. Howarth (1981) found that the larger the infill width
and the smaller the spacing of the discontinuities, the less is the thrust for a fixed penetration depth.
The specific energy decreases rapidly with decreasing spacing and increasing infill width. Theoretically, rock masses with more discontinuities should be easily penetrated by the rolling cutters as the
energy required to fragment the rock become less. Laughton et al. (1994) observed the same results.
As the joints become more extensive, the tunnel face itself becomes more unstable and leads to a
blocky condition. It results in a negative influence on penetration rate.
Bruland (2000) found that when the spacing of discontinuities was less than about 50 mm, the radial
cracks generated by rolling cutters would always reach a weakness plane and the penetration rate
would increase generally with increase in the angle between the tunnel axis and discontinuities. When
spacing of discontinuities is larger than 50 mm, the penetration rate would increase with increase in the
angle between the tunnel axis and discontinuities and then decrease when the angle is more than 60.
When the angle between the tunnel axis and discontinuities is more than 60, the influence on the
182
TBM performance will be most likely adverse due to heavy vibrations and damage to cutter rings and
their bearings.
3.2 Relatively homogeneously weathered ground
Compared to unweathered rock mass, the weathered rock mass usually has a significant decrease in
strength and brittleness, an increase in porosity and microcracks, and an increase in weakness width of
discontinuities by decomposing and microfracturing the rock materials along the discontinuity surfaces. When rolling cutters act on weathered rock mass, excessive crushing will occur. This is because
the cutter force is too high compared to the cutter spacing which is normally designed for the hard
fresh rock. The fragmentation mechanism dominated by the splitting and tensile crack propagation in
fresh rock may be changed to the one by shear plus tensile failure in weathered rock. As such, the cutting efficiency will decrease and the specific energy will increase. The cutting tool temperature and
cutter wear will also increase.
3.3 Mixed-face ground
For mixed-face ground, the most paramount characteristic is uneven or unbalanced cutter force distribution due to significant penetration difference between cutters in the hard and soft portions of tunnel
face. Though the disc cutters always experience a rapidly varying load during cutting, and the applied
thrust is in practice never completely evenly distributed over the cutters and cutterhead. However, in
mixed-face ground, this uneven loading distribution is intensified. The cutterhead forces all cutters to
advance at practically the same penetration per cutterhead revolution. The thrust force not required in
the soft portion of the face is transferred to the hard portion. The cutters rolling on the hard rock portion attract more applied thrust than on the soft portion.
The second paramount characteristic is the impact or dynamic loading on TBM cutters and cutterhead
as well as their bearings. When the cutters roll from the soft portion to the hard rock portion, the load
on individual cutters could suddenly increase from close zero to 5 to10 times of the average level and
the hammering effect on cutters is evident (Steingrimsson et al. 2003). Since calculation of the cutter
force is normally conducted as average static loads, the sudden increase in average cutter force and
peak force definitely has very adverse influence on both cutters and cutterhead as well as their bearings.
The third paramount characteristic is the high momentum of cutter and cutterhead due to the above
two factors. This will possibly have serious influences on the bearings of the cutter and cutterhead.
The last characteristic is actually an effect of the uneven loading and dynamic loading on cutters and
cutterhead. Heavy vibration of cutterhead frequently occurs in mixed-face ground. Operation thrust
and rotation speed of cutterhead have to be decreased. Therefore, it is unlikely to obtain optimum rock
breakage by rolling cutters.
The interaction between the rolling cutters and the mixed-face ground is mainly controlled by the hard
rock portion, i.e. the hard rock portion controls the penetration rate. The face area percentage plays a
key role in causing mix-face ground for TBM tunnelling. When hard rock prevails in face, the area of
soft material requires reaching a certain level for formation of mixed-face ground. However, when soft
rock prevails, a small potion of hard rock may cause serious mixed-face problems. To maintain an efficient cutting and the net average cutting force each cutter rolling on hard rock portion below the
loading capacity, the thrust has to be decreased to a level higher than the critical cutting force but
lower than the load rating of the cutters. Meanwhile, the rotation speed of the cutterhead also requires
to be decreased to minimise the dynamic loading and cutterhead vibration, and to facilitate TBM steering.
In calculation the cutter force, the net load needs to be used since manufacturers normally designate
the rating of cutters as net load. However, it is difficult to calculate the net average cutter force cutter
in shielded TBMs. For unshielded TBMs, it has been a common practice to assume 10% to15% friction force in hard rock ground, which will be deducted from total thrust force in calculation. The tolerance for such estimation is within the practical requirements. The friction force is caused by the
TBMs weight.
183
However, for shielded TBMs in mixed-face ground, the friction will change significantly with stability
conditions of tunnel face and crown. In the case where the tunnel face and crown are stable, the friction force is mainly due to the weight of TBM cutterhead and shields. Therefore, it can be estimated or
be obtained through a shield friction test. In the case where the tunnel face and crown are unstable, the
friction force is not only due to the weight of TBM cutterhead and shields, but also due to the selfweight of the rock or soil which loses its stability and is supported by TBM cutterhead and shield. The
later contribution to friction force is highly variable with ground conditions. Both friction force and
friction tests in unstable mix-face ground have yet to be determined and reported. It is of top importance for calculation of the reduction level of total thrust.
4. INFLUENCE OF WEATHERING ON TBM PERFORMANCE
With regard to the TBM performance, especially the penetration rate and cutter wear, the influence of
weathering can be addressed in two sections, namely, relatively homogeneously weathered ground and
mixed-face ground.
4.1 Relatively homogeneously weathered ground
As discussed in section 3.2, in relatively homogeneously weathered ground, the TBM basic penetration rate normally increases. Similar results were found that the penetration rate was increased from
2.21 m/h in IMS 1 rock mass to 3.90 m/h in IMS 4 rock mass (Grandori et al. 1995). IMS stands for
the Integrated Mass System, which classifies the rock mass based on joint spacing and weathering
grades (fresh, slightly weathered, moderately weathered, highly weathered and completely weathered
rocks) (McFeat-Smith et al. 1986). Since excessive crushing occurs during fragmentation process by
rolling disc cutters, and tensile splitting becomes less prevalent, the cutting efficiency becomes low. It
is evident that the chips in weathered ground are irregularly lumps instead of standard long-thin-flat
chips. Normal cutter wear will increase due to excessive breakage and subsequent high temperature of
cutting tools. The temperature of the mucks has been observed as higher as 71 oC (Shirlaw et al. 2000).
The requirement for torque is more critical than thrust and torque-limited condition is likely to occur.
4.2 Mixed-face ground
The influence of mixed-face ground include the issues such as increase in normal force per cutter in
hard part of the face, impacts and dynamic loading on the cutters, vibration of the cutterhead, and uneven loading distribution on cutterhead and the main bearing. Because of those effects, the operation
thrust and cutterhead rotation speed have to be decreased far below the optimum level, thereby causing
a decrease in penetration rate and an increase in cutter wear especially abnormal flat wear, flange chip
wear, and multi-flat wear. Meanwhile the cutting tool temperature increases due to less content of
standard chip formed by tensile crack propagation. Irregularly shaped lumps as well as fine grained
materials are the major muck shapes.
For Class 2 mixed-face ground, when the shaded zones in Figures 4 (a), (b) and (c) is softer than the
adjacent rocks, the adverse influence will occur only when the area reaches about 10% based on the
data provided by Steigrimsson et al. (2003) Otherwise, it may increase the penetration rate a small
amount. However, when harder than the adjacent rocks or soils, even though the shaded zones occupy
a small portion of the face, it will decrease the TBM penetration rate. This is because the hard portion
of face controls the penetration rate and the thrust level has to be decreased to reduce cutterhead vibrations and the force of the cutters rolling on the hard portion. Steering problems are not significant, but
may be significant when only a small area of hard rock distributes in the perimeter. Abnormal flat
wear and flange chip wear frequently occur. The tunnel face is generally stable.
For Class 3 mixed-face ground, since the hard rock is mostly located in the lower portion of the face,
the steering and vibration problems are conspicuous. With groundwater, the tunnelling face is unstable due to soil-like material moving with groundwater and compressed air and high EPB pressure may
be required. The face stability may deteriorate with cutterhead vibration. The thrust and cutterhead rotation speed have to be decreased to a very low level. To an extreme extent where the rock is very dif-
184
ficult to penetrate, the cutterhead rotation is constrained and even blocked. As a result, the cutterhead
has to be rotated reversely to free the cutterhead. In the mixed-face ground, the basic penetration rate
is very low and Shirlaw et al. (2000) reports that the advance rate is only 1.5 to 3.0 m per day. Abnormal cutter wear such as flange chip wear, flat wear and multi-flat wear, and bearing freezing and damages occur frequently.
Class 4 mixed-face ground is most difficult ground in case hard rock TBMs have to go through. This is
because the corestones may be dislocated or even rotated more or less with cutterhead. And in case of
falling-out of the large corestone, the effect of impact on the cutterhead and cutters is very adverse.
Sudden loading increase occurs when the cutters from soft soil-like material to rock. The cutterhead
may be frequently prevented from rotating due to excess in torque limit. In some cases, manual fragmentation is required. Vibration of cutterhead is also very intense. Like Class 3 mixed-face ground, the
tunnel face is unstable, especially in grade IV and V weathered soil-like matrix. Little literature is reported in this regard.
5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The influence of weathering on rock mechanical properties is significant. The weathered rock usually
has significant decrease in strength and brittleness, increase in porosity and microcracks, and increases
in weakness width of discontinuities by decomposing and microfracturing the rock materials along
discontinuity surface.
For TBM tunneling, the influence of weathering on TBM performance is in most cases adverse. In
relatively homogeneously weathered ground, the TBM basic penetration rate normally increases. The
fragmentation mechanism dominated by the splitting and tensile crack propagation may be changed to
the one by shear plus tensile failure from fresh rock to weathered rock, and tensile splitting becomes
less prevalent, the cutting efficiency becomes low. The chips in weathered ground are irregularly
lumps instead of standard long-thin-flat chips. Normal cutter wear will increase due to inefficient
breakage and subsequent high temperature of cutting tools. The requirement for torque is more critical
than thrust and torque-limited condition is likely to occur.
In weathering-induced mixed-face ground, due to highly uneven force distribution over cutters, high
dynamic loading and impact on cutters and cutterhead as well as their bearings, and highly dynamic
momentum of the cutter and cutterhead bearing as well as resultant cutterhead vibration, low penetration rate and high cut wear, especially abnormal cutter wear are the major problem. For a better TBM
performance, optimum operation thrust and cutterhead rotation speed need meet three requirements,
namely less than load rating of than cutters, larger than critical cutter force for the hard rock portion to
ensure splitting and tensile fragmentation mechanism, and allowable vibration for the sake of machinery life-span and steering.
Data for the above condition are very limited from publications and tunneling industry for the TBM
operation, performance and their corresponding geology conditions. This hinders the progress of research and redevelopment in TBM tunneling technology in mixed-face ground. Further data collection
and provision together with research are required to benefit manufacturers, contractors and clients.
REFERENCES
Anon. 1995. The description and classification of weathered rocks for engineering purposes. Q. J. Eng. Geol.
28: 207-242
Blindheim, O. T., Grv, E. and Nilsen, B. 2002. The effect of mixed face conditions (MFC) on hard rock TBM
performance. AITES-ITA 2002 World Tunnel Congress. Sydney.
Bruland A. 2000. Hard Rock Tunnel Boring. Doctoral thesis, Norwegian University of Science and Technology,
Trondheim.
Dearman W. R. 1974. Weathering classification in the characterisation of rock for engineering purposes in British practice. Bull Int. Assoc. Eng. Geol. 9: 33-42.
Dearman W. R. 1976. Weathering classification in the characterisation of rock: a revision. Bull Int. Assoc. Eng.
Geol. 13: 123-127.
185
Dearman W.R. and Irfan T.Y. 1978. Classification and index properties of weathered coarse-grained granites
from South-West England. Proc. 3rd Int. Congr. IAEG, Madrid. 2: 119130
Fookes P. G., Dearman W. R. and Franklin J. A., 1971. Some engineering aspects of rock weathering with field
examples form Dartmoor and elsewhere. Q. J. Eng. Geol. 4: 139-195.
Gobetz F. W. 1974. Development of a boring machine cutter instrumentation program. Final Report, United
Aircraft Research laboratories to Department of the Interior. USBM Contract H0122072, UARL Report M971373-10.
Gong Q. M. 2003. Development of a Rock Mass Classification Scheme for Tunnel Boring, first year report,
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University.
Grandori R., Sem M., Lembo-Fazio A. & Ribacchi R. 1995. Tunnelling by Double shield TBM in the Hong
Kong granite. The 8th Int. Cong. on Rock Mechanics, Proceedings of Int. Soc. for Rock Mechanics 1: 569574.
Gupta A. S. and Rao K. S. 1998. Index properties of weathered rocks: inter-relationships and applicability. Bull.
Eng. Geol. Environ. 57: 161-172
Gupta A. S. and Rao K. S. 2000. Weathering effects on the strength and deformational behaviour of crystalline
rocks under uniaxial compression. Eng. Geo. 56: 257-274.
Hencher S.R. and Martin R. P. 1982. The description and classification of weathered rocks in Hong Kong for
engineering purposes. Proc. 7th Southeast Asian Geot. Conf., Hong Kong. 1: 125-142.
Hucka V. and Das B. 1974. Brittleness determination of rocks by different methods. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci.
& Geomech. Abstr. 11: 383-392.
Hunter P.W. and Aust M.I.E.1987. Excavation of a major tunnel by double shielded TBM through mixed ground
basalts and clayey soils. Proceedings of Rapid Excavation and Tunnelling Conference, 526-561.
Irfan T. Y. and Dearman W. R.,1978a. The engineering petrography of weathered granite in Cornwall, England.
Q. J. Eng. Geol. 11: 233-344.
Irfan T. Y. and Dearman W. R.,1978b. Engineering classification and index properties of a weathered granite in
Cornwall, England. Bull Int. Assoc. Eng. Geol. 17: 79-90
ISRM 1981. Rock Characterisation, Testing and Monitoring-ISRM Suggested Methods, in Brown E. T. (Ed.).
Pergamon Press, Oxford.
Johannessen S. and Askilsrud O. G. 1993. Meraaker Hydro - Tunneling the Norwegian Way. Proceedings of
Rapid Excavation and Tunnelling Conference, 415-429.
Lee S.G. and De Freitas M. H. 1989. A revision of the description and classification of weathered granite and its
application to granites in Korea. Q. J. Eng. Geol. 22: 31-48.
McFeat-Smith I., Nieuwenhuijs G. K. & Lai W. C. 1986. Application of seismic surveying, oriented drilling and
rock classification for site investigation of rock tunnels. Rock Engineering and Excavation in an Urban Environment: 249-260.
Park C., Park C., Synn J. H., and Lee S. D. 2002. Estimation of net penetration rate and thrust force of a large
diameter shield TBM in soil. AITES-ITA 2002 World Tunnel Congress. Sydney
Ranjith P.G., Zhao, J. and Seah T.P., 2002. A case study of effects of ground conditions on tunnel boring machines. AITES-ITA 2002 World Tunnel Congress. Sydney
Rostami J. and Ozdemir L. 1993. A new model for performance prediction of hard rock TBMs. Proceedings of
Rapid Excavation and Tunnelling Conference, 793-809.
Samuel A. E. and L. P Seow.1984.Disc force measurements on a full-face tunnelling machine. Int. J. Rock Mech.
Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr. 21(2): 83-96.
Shirlaw J. N, Hencher S. R. and Zhao J. 2000. Design and construction issues for excavation and tunneling in
some tropically weathered rocks and soils. Geo2000, Nov 19-24 2000, Melbourne, Australia.
Steingrmsson H. J., Grv E. and Nilsen B. 2003. The significance of mixed-face conditions for TBM
performance. World Tunnelling, 435-441.
Sutcliffe H. 1981. Mixed face tunnelling some design and contract considerations. Proceedings of Rapid Excavation and Tunnelling Conference, 345-356
Valle D. N., 2001. Boring through a rock-soil interface in Singapore. Proceedings of Rapid Excavation and Tunnelling Conference, 633-645
Wallis S. 2000. Manapouri struggles to make headway. T&T International, Apr., 30-33.
Zhao, J., Broms, B. B., Zhou, Y. & Choa, V., 1994: A study of the weathering of the Bukit Timah Granite Part
A and Part B. Bull Int. Assoc. Eng. Geol . 49: 97-106; 50: 105-111.
186
Design Considerations for Small Diameter Tunnels in

Singapore
J F Benson
Mott Connell Limited, Hong Kong
ABSTRACT: The desire to avoid open-cut excavations and disruption to urban environments is
becoming increasingly essential within society. Singapore is one such society where the use of
pipejacking techniques is being used to avoid this disruption and install underground pipes such as
sewers. By opting for pipejacking or microtunnelling construction, shallow utilities, foundations and
trees can be avoided along with costly diversions, legal problems and adverse environmental effects.
Current methods allow pipes with internal diameters ranging from 0.15m to 3m to be jacked through a
wide range of ground conditions. Detailed investigations and planning is recommended in order to
successfully carry out pipejacking construction works. This paper introduces some of the significant
design considerations that were experienced when designing the Link Sewers for the Deep Tunnel
Sewerage Scheme.
1
INTRODUCTION
The Deep Tunnel Sewerage System (DTSS) is a large diameter tunnel designed to pass sewerage from
the western side of Singapore to a large treatment works near Changi Airport in the east. To connect
the existing pumping stations to the DTSS a number of Link Sewers were proposed with internal
diameters ranging from 0.2m to 2.4m. These sewers run from either existing pumping stations or
downstream manholes, to drop shafts that connect into the Deep Tunnel sewer.
To design and construct the small diameter sewers, consideration was given to using pipejacking and
microtunnelling techniques. These techniques can operate with limited working space available at the
surface, no man access within the pipes and the small sizes of the pipes. Pipejacking is often described
as the specific technique for trench less installation of pipes. The principle is to use hydraulic rams to
push sections of pipe into position while the excavation is formed by a cutting head, shield or auger.
Microtunnelling relates to small diameters and is best described as pipejacking in diameters where
man-access is considered unsafe, and is typically limited to internal diameters less than 0.8m to 1m.
2
HYDRAULIC DESIGN
The hydraulic design was carried out to generate a vertical alignment. Minimum and maximum
velocities were used to ensure the sewers had sufficient self flushing flows while also avoiding
surcharging and major scouring. Future infrastructure, such as future LTA stations; often needed to be
avoided and this was resolved by changing the horizontal alignment, or lowering the vertical
alignment with the use of vortex or back drop structures. These structures significantly reduced the
flow velocity and hence scouring potential from the flow. The selection of smooth pipe materials such
as vitrified clay and polymer concrete also contributed to reducing the frictional resistance associated
with the flow.
3
PIPE MATERIAL
Due to the tropical climate in Singapore, caution is recommended for corrosion reasons when
considering using reinforced concrete as a pipe material when it comes into contact with sewage.
Concrete pipes of 900mm dia and larger were internally lined with HDPE to avoid this corrosion
problem. To maintain self flushing velocities, the pipe diameters for the Link Sewers were often
below this diameter and therefore unsuitable for man access for installation or welding of the HDPE
Main
187
internal lining. Therefore alternative materials to reinforced concrete needed to be considered for the
Link Sewers. Consideration was given to a wide variety of materials but due to strength, corrosion,
durability and cost aspects, the pipe materials accepted as suitable for diameters below 0.9m included
vitrified clay and polymer concrete.
The strength ratings for vitrified clay and polymer concrete jacking pipes are similar as outlined in
Table 1. The vitrified clay is currently considered to be cheaper but more brittle whereas the polymer
concrete is considered more robust and flexible. Vitrified clay jacking pipes are typically available
with internal diameters between ranging 150mm and 1400mm. Polymer concrete pipes are typically
available with internal diameters ranging between 150mm and 3000mm. As noted earlier, concrete
pipes for sewers typically require HDPE internal linings in tropical countries to avoid corrosion, and
the internal diameters are over 1000mm for man access to weld the lining between pipes after
installation.
Table 1
Internal Diameter (mm)
200
250
300
400
500
600
700
800
1000
1200
Polymer Concrete Jacking

Strength (kN)
(No factor of safety)
55
208
239
576
766
901
1036
1146
1772
2100
Vitrified Clay Jacking Strength

(kN)
(No factor of safety)
71
156168
162181
318397
379425
402565
419625
496769
5161302
15401882
When selecting materials the factors of safety are very dependent on whether manual or automatic
steering or different methods of quality control testing are adopted. These factors of safety can range
from 3.2 to 4.
The allowable compressive strength for both polymer concrete and vitrified clay jacking pipes is
typically over 80N/mm2.
4
PIPE JOINTING/COLLAR DETAILS
Outlined below shows typically examples of loose fitting jointing details that are currently available
in the market.
Figure 1
188
Figure 2
Figure 3
Problems can be associated with loose fitting collars, or collars that become proud of the pipe
extrados during jacking operations which then peel off. This was experienced in Singapore. The
problem may be resolved by jacking the pipe backwards but the best solution is to specify only fixed
collars. In order to avoid long-term corrosion problems stainless steel (Grade 316) is recommended
for the collar. Outlined below are details for fixed collars that are considered acceptable to avoid
removal during jacking operations.
Figure 4
Figure 5
189
JACKING AND RECEPTION SHAFTS
Shafts were sited where changes in horizontal alignment are located, as pipe jacking generally requires
straight drives. In one instance where site constraints dictated the alignment, a short curved drive was
proposed. The curvature was calculated based on the maximum permissible out of tolerance angle
from the pipe manufacturer. This is typically 10. Curved drives are only recommended on relatively
short drives due to the additional stresses imposed at the joints where problems can be experienced
with maintaining water-tight seals. Curved pipejacking drives have been used in a number of
countries to pass under rivers and canals.
The minimum shaft sizes differ for jacking and reception shafts due to the fact that the jacking rams
are only required in the jacking shaft. The minimum shaft sizes can also vary between pipejacking
machine manufacturers so it is good practice to gather plenty of information regarding the latest
machines available in the market place. The minimum shaft sizes range from 3.2m to 9m internal
diameter depending on the machine manufacturer, length of jacking pipe and whether the shaft is
intended for jacking or reception.
In Singapore, the shaft locations were constrained by several considerations: no excavation on roads,
works to be carried out 2m away from trees, away from private property boundaries, access ways and
underground utilities. When trial piles were excavated at proposed shaft locations, some unidentified
services were discovered and these lead to further refinements to the shaft locations. As the
topographical survey and underground cable testing information became available it also helped to
refine shaft locations, and plan for utility diversions. Generally utility diversions were avoided
wherever possible. In particular high voltage cables, water mains and gas mains. Great care was taken
to ensure that a licensed cable detection worker was used to identify cables with a CAT scan.
Where connections were required to existing infrastructure such as pumping stations or existing
manholes, trial pits were excavated close to the existing structures so that shafts could be sited as close
as practicable. The intention was to minimise the break-in works required in order to commission
the Link Sewer system.
In some instances shaft locations were shifted in order to locate them in rock. The inherent rock
strength provided a substantial reaction for launching the jacking pipes.
The standard details for manholes indicated piles below the base slab. This was often not practical due
to differential settlement between the manhole and pipe, and the inherent soil friction being adequate
to avoid bearing capacity or settlement problems. Calculations were prepared to justify that without
piles, the settlements experienced by both the pipe and manhole were not excessive.
Allowable jacking loads were calculated based on the UK guide to best practice for the Installation of
Pipe Jacks and Microtunnels, where it was noted that polymer concrete jacking pipes could be jacked
further than Vitrified Clay pipes. Reductions in jacking loads were included where bentonite slurry
was used to reduce frictional resistance.
6
SITE INVESTIGATION
In order to minimise the risks associated with escalating construction costs and delays it is essential to
undertake a thorough site investigation. The geotechnical investigation is the most important aspect of
the site investigation and boreholes formed the major element of these works. The boreholes were
recommended at 50m to 100m spacings and typically at changes in horizontal alignment or shaft
locations and major changes in topography. Where the initial boreholes revealed rock, additional
boreholes were often carried out to establish a more accurate rockhead profile.
Extensive laboratory tests were also recommended. In particular rock tests including Unconfined
Compressive Strength (UCS), Point Load, Cherchar, Brazilian Tensile Strength in order to establish
190
the mechanical and tunnelling properties associated with the rock. On some alignments the Bukit
Timah Granite was found to have UCS values in the order of 280MPa and Cherchar values between 4
and 5. In the Jurong Formation the Brazilian Tensile tests revealed that the rock mass should delineate.
Other important aspects that were investigated included the permeability, water-table and chemical
composition of minerals. In order to confirm that swelling clay were not a problem, an X-ray
diffraction test was carried out and this proved that this was not an issue.
The extensive site investigation and subsequent laboratory testing was aimed at helping the
Contractors to determine the most appropriate methods of construction based on the ground water
levels, strength and permeability of the ground, wear of cutters in rock, possible ground treatment, and
muck removal.
7
PIPEJACKING MACHINE SELECTION
The costs associated with the selection of a pipejacking machine can be in the order of 30% of the outturn construction cost so machine selection can have a major influence on the project. Perhaps of
greater influence are the risks associated with having to retrieve or re-mobilise a machine if it becomes
stuck.
In Singapore the high water-table led to Earth Pressure Balance (EPB) machines or similar machines
being considered. Open shields were not considered appropriate due to the high water-table, the
limited ability to prevent face collapse or the ingress of ground water and fines, and the general
uncohesive and permeable nature of the ground conditions in most schemes.
Slurry machines were also considered where sufficient space was available at the surface for desilting
tanks, and where the excavated ground was suitable for transportation in suspension by the slurry
medium. The re-use and disposal of bentonite was also an important factor in considering the use of
these machines.
In areas where rock was identified from the site investigation consideration was given to using larger
machines, generally of 1200mm ID. This enabled man access to be maintained for changing cutter
discs from behind the machine head. Where rock machines with diameters less than 1200mm were
proposed for drives, careful consideration was given to the type of rock, the likelihood to getting stuck
and the risks imposed to surrounding infrastructure.
In a particular area, the ground conditions ranged from Granite with UCS results in the order of
280MPa, to completely weathered or decomposed granite. The maximum hydrostatic pressure the
machine was anticipated to experience was in the order of 3.5 bar. The Contractors recommended the
use of a mixed face machine that could deal with both the hard and soft ground. The machine could
operate in either EPB or slurry modes depending on the best method for the appropriate ground
conditions.
8
SPECIFICATION
Specifications defining safe methods of working, and specifying acceptable pipe materials, and
pipejacking methods were recommended. In order to avoid Contractors proposing large settlements
with their submissions we considered it appropriate to specify settlement limits based on preliminary
calculations.
The specification gave the Contractor the opportunity of introducing inter-jacks on straight drives if
required.
In order to ensure that rock machines were of sufficient diameter, rear loading and changing of cutter
discs was specified.
191
SETTLEMENT
Greenfield surface settlements for tunnelling were estimated based on the empirical method from
OReilly and New (1982). The volume of face loss was estimated based on overbreaks of 20 and
30mm in order to investigate the sensitivity of the settlement trough. Please refer to Figure 6. The
settlements due to tunnel excavation were estimated to be less than 15mm in most instances. The
settlement troughs were then plotted and the damage compared to the Rankine classification of
damage.
Typical settlement Curve
Predicted Green field Settlement Profile (based on OReilly & New (1982)
2.4m I.D. Pipejack, 24m depth to invert
Completely weathered granite
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
-35
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
10
15
Distance from centreline of tunnel (m)
Over break 20mm
20
25
30
Settlement
(mm)
35
Over break 30mm
Figure 6
Where tunnels passed close to existing piled structures, detailed calculations were prepared to
demonstrate that no adverse effects were predicted. In one instance it was demonstrated that due to the
piles not being end bearing, i.e. friction piles, there was sufficient negative skin friction generated at
higher levels to ensure that the structure experienced negligible settlement.
Settlements due to shaft construction were estimated based on local experience and papers by both
Peck, and New & Bowers. The findings were then compared to case histories from similar
construction and ground conditions in Singapore. It must be stressed that shaft settlement is very
dependant on the method of construction, the ground conditions, and ensuring no loss of ground water
or fines into the excavation. The settlements due to shaft excavation ranged from 0-2%.
Figures 7 to 9 outline a typical shaft cross-section, settlement monitoring layout plan, and the
settlement profiles for two shafts in the Tuas area of Singapore. It is worth noting that the settlements
due to shaft construction were greater and extended further than predicted where the sheet pile
clutches leaked as a result of the ingress of ground water and fines into the excavation. It must also be
noted that the predicted settlements do not differentiate between actual settlements caused by vibration
of the sheet piles during installation, movement of the sheet piles during excavation, or long-term
consolidation settlements.
192
Figure 7
Figure 8
193
Figure 9
10
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author wishes to acknowledge the Public Utilities Board with gratitude for kindly allowing this
paper to be presented. Special thanks must also be given to KTP Consultants, L & M Contractors, Ed
Zublin Ag, Haswell Consultants, Mott Connell Consultants, Herrenknecht (Asia) Ltd, Soltau/Wirth
and Lovat, Naylor Pipes, Keramo-Steinzeug, and M.I. Pipes who all provided helpful advice.
REFERENCES
Boscardin M.D., Cording E. (1989) Building Response to Excavation induced settlement. Journal Geotechnical
Engineering. ASCE VII No1. pp 1-21.
GCO Publication 1/90 Review of Design Methods for Excavations (1990, reprinted 2003), Geotechnical
Engineering Office, Hong Kong.
Mair R.J., Taylor R.N. and Bracegirdle A. (1983), Subsurface settlement profiles above tunnels in clays.
Gotechnique 43;2;315-320.
New B.M., Bowers K.H. Ground movement model validation at the Heathrow Express trial tunnel. Transport
Research Laboratory, Crowthorne, England.
OReilly M.P. and New B.M. (1982), Settlement above tunnels in the United Kingdom their magnitude and
prediction. Transport and Road Research Laboratory, Crowthorne, England. Tunnelling 82, London, IMM 173181.
Peck R.B. Deep excavations and tunnelling in soft ground. Proceedings 7th International conference on soil
mechanics and foundation engineering, Mexico, 1969, state of the art volume (Mexico: Sociedad Mexicana de
Mecanica de Sueols, 1969), 225-90.
Rankin, W.J. (1988). Ground movements resulting from urban tunnelling: predictions and effects. Engineering
Geology of Underground Movements, Nottingham, pp. 79-82, London Geological Society.
194
Thomson J. (1995), Pipejacking and Microtunnelling. Blackie Academic & Professional, an imprint of Chapman
& Hall, Wester Cleddens Road, Bishopbriggs, Glasgow G64 2NZ, UK.
UK guide to best practice for the Installation of Pipe Jacks and Microtunnels(1995), UK Pipejacking
Association, produced by Marshall Robinson Roe
Wong K.S., Li W., Shirlaw J.N., Ong J.C.W, Wen D. Hsu J.C.W. (2001) Old Alluvium: Engineering Properties
and Braced Excavation Performance. Underground Singapore 2001.
195
Numerical Fitting Attempts of Tunnelling-Induced

Ground Movement in Granitic Residual Soil
Lim K. C.
JURONG Consultants Pte. Ltd., Singapore
Lee F. H., Phoon K. K.

National University of Singapore, Singapore
ABSTRACT: Three-dimensional finite element back-analyses of the Earth Pressure Balance (EPB)
shield tunnel heading in Contract 704 of the Northeast Mass Rapid Transit Line were carried out. The
analyses simulated the effects of the soil removal, face pressure, groundwater drawdown, weight of the
shield and the installation of lining behind the heading. The results of the study showed that the MohrCoulomb and Cam Clay models with conventional soil parameters obtained under high strain
conditions do not accurately predict the true ground conditions. An anisotropic hyperbolic Cam Clay
model was found to yield much better agreement. This anisotropic hyperbolic Cam Clay model
combines an anisotropic non-linear description of soil behaviour pre-yield with a Cam Clay
description post-yield.
1 INTRODUCTION
Ground settlement due to tunnelling can, in principle, be predicted using analytical, empirical or the
numerical methods. However, as more tunnelling projects are located in an urbanised area congested
with important infrastructure facilities such as gas pipes, power grids or even with existing
foundations, numerical methods such as finite element methods (FEM) gives much more flexibility to
design engineers in predicting the ground settlement behaviour. Although two-dimensional (2-D) FE
analyses have been widely used in predicting ground settlement due to tunnelling, the process of
tunnelling is essentially a three dimensional (3-D) problem. This is because even as the soil is removed
at the heading, lining is often installed a short distance behind. Thus, the unsupported span of tunnel is
relatively short. Thus, two dimensional (2-D) FE analyses which effectively assume that the entire
tunnel span is unsupported cannot give correct results on the magnitude of the settlement, unless the
displacement of the tunnel walls or ground loss are artificially restricted or controlled. Thus, 2-D FE
analyses cannot perform a first-principle simulation of the tunnel process. Furthermore, even though
the cross-sectional profile of the settlement trough can be predicted by 2-D FE analyses, by controlling
ground loss or tunnel wall displacement, the longitudinal profile cannot be predicted. It is this issue
that motivates the use of 3-D FEM simulation to study ground movement due to tunnelling.
In this paper, a back-analysis of C704 EPB tunnelling project will be carried out using 3-D FE
analyses to verify the simulation of the EPB tunnelling construction sequence. In addition, various
sensitivity studies involving Modified Cam Clay (MCC) model, a small strain Cam Clay model
(HCC), an anisotropy elastic model (MCEA) and a hybrid model (HMCEA) comprising of HCC and
MCEA will be conducted to assess the performance of these models in back-predicting the field
measurements. The numerical code which was used is NUSCRISP, which is a version of the CRISP
code (Britto & Gunn, 1990) with a high-speed Krylov subspace solution algorithm (e.g. Chan et al.
2001, Lee et al. 2002, Phoon et al. 2002). The implementation of this solver in CRISP allowed all the
FE analyses to be conducted with a reasonably turnaround time on a PC with AMD 1.4 GHz chipset
with 1.0 GB random access memory.
Main
196
2 PROBLEM DEFINITION AND FINITE ELEMENT MESH OF EARTH PRESSURE BALANCE

(EPB) TUNNELLING
In C704, the springline of the tunnel segment studied varies from a depth of 18 m to 21 m below the
ground surface. In the finite element mesh, the springline was modelled at a constant depth of 21 m
from ground surface, to ease data input. The tunnel extrados diameter was 6m and the EPB shield was
9m in length. As Figure 1 shows, taking advantage of symmetry, only half of the tunnel and ground
domain was modelled. The finite element mesh extended laterally for a distance of approximately 10
times the diameter, D, from the centre of the tunnel. This is to ensure that the lateral boundaries have
no significant effects on the results (Oteo, 1982). Lin et al. (2001) suggested that the longitudinal
boundary is insignificant if the distance between the boundary and the tunnel is larger than 8D, both
ahead and behind the tunnel face.
FEM Monitored Section
248 m
50 m
65 m
Figure 1 Typical finite element mesh
As shown in Figure 1, in this study, the longitudinal boundary is set at 20 D i.e. approximately 120 m
for both ahead and behind the tunnel face at the monitored section. The finite element mesh used in
this analysis consisted of 3120 20-noded brick elements.
The soil domain was modelled using 20-noded linear strain brick (LSB) elements with pore pressure
degrees of freedom at the vertices, all the analyses being full Biot-coupled consolidation analyses with
groundwater drawdown simulated. The vertical sides of the mesh were laterally restrained against
transverse movement whilst the base is completely fixed. Following pre-construction standpipe
readings, the in-situ groundwater table is set at a depth of 5 m below the ground surface. The ground
surface is also assumed to be a drainage boundary, so that the pore pressure at the ground surface is
fixed at atmospheric pressure throughout the analysis. The vertical plane of symmetry, the base as well
as the initiating and terminating faces of the mesh were assumed to be impermeable, so as to allow any
tunnel drawdown effects to be manifested. The vertical far side of the mesh, which runs parallel to the
tunnel axis and facing the vertical plane of symmetry, is assumed to be a fully rechargeable hydrostatic
boundary throughout the analysis. The ground domain was sub-divided into three soil layers. The
thicknesses of the soil layers, covering from the ground surface, are 14 m, 26 m and 10 m respectively.
Conventional laboratory tests e.g. Dames and Moore (1983) showed that the granitic sapprolites found
in Singapore generally behave in a manner that is akin to an over-consolidated soil with overconsolidation ratio (OCR) of about 3. This includes its tendency to dilate in consolidated undrained
tests conducted under in-situ effective stress levels. The moderately high OCR of 3 indicate that while
compression and shear yielding are possible, they are rather unlikely to occur apart from isolated
197
regions of stress concentration around the tunnel heading. For this reason, it is quite possible that the
ground behaviour is dictated by elastic rather large-scale plastic behaviour. To assess this, the elastic
behaviour of the ground was also separately modelled using a Cam Clay model which follows a
hyperbolic shear stress-strain law in the elastic regime (Nasim 1999) as well as an anisotropic elastic
model.
Figure 2 shows the idealized tunnelling sequence used in the finite element modelling. As shown in
this figure, at any stage of tunnelling, the space which is to be occupied by the tunnel can be subdivided into three regions. The first comprised the original soil domain which is ahead of the tunnel
face and yet to be excavated. The second consisted of the space occupied by the TBM machine. To
enable ground movement into the cut cavity, the excavated soil is replaced by shield machine
elements. The EPB shield was modelled using two concentric layers of thin brick elements. The inner
layer of brick elements simulates the stiffness of the shield. In order to avoid numerical illconditioning, the thickness of the elements is set larger than the thickness of the shield. The modulus
of the material is then reduced accordingly so as to preserve the overall shield stiffness. It should be
noted that the stiffness of the shield is not readily evaluated and whatever is modelled is merely an
estimated value. However, sensitivity studies indicated that, because the stiffness of the shield is much
larger than that of the soil, the results are not heavily influenced by the shield stiffness. This is also
consistent with Britto and Gunns (1990) observation. The outer layer of brick elements is an
artificially softened layer of element, which is designed to allow the soil to collapse inward and take
up some of the gap resulting from the inevitable overcutting. These softened external shield machine
elements are necessitated by the lack of gap elements in CRISP.
The shield elements are followed by a span of tunnel liner elements which consisted of an elastic layer
of brick elements surrounded by another layer of more compressible grout elements. The purpose of
this grout layer is to allow stress relieve due to the occurrences of the shield and tail voids and at the
same time allowing compatibility with the rest of the finite element domain. The concrete tunnel liner
was assumed to be impervious, as the concrete lining has permeability that is typically at least two
orders of magnitude lower than that of the surrounding soil (Fitzpatrick, 1980). Poulos and
Loganathan (1998) suggested that the weight of the liner is a significant percentage of that of the
excavated soil and therefore must be included into the analysis. Other researchers, e.g. Lee and Rowe
(1990, 1992) and Sagaseta (1987), had shown that the excavated tunnel boundary deforms to an
elliptical shape with the least movement at the invert level. This is consistent with the notion that the
self-weight of the liner and tunnel boring machine has a significant effect. In this study, the weight of
the liner and EPB machine were modelled through 3-D brick elements having full shield weight or
liner weight and thus act as a pressure loading on the invert of the tunnel. The liner is assumed to be
continuous in the analysis. In practice, the liner used consisted of pre-cast segments, this may have a
lower stiffness than a continuous liner. However, Lim (2003) have conducted a sensitivity study and
shown that the range of reduced modulus of the liner have little impact on ground settlement. This is
attributable to the fact that even the reduced modulus of the liner is much higher than the modulus of
the surrounding soil.
The advancement of the tunnel and liner are simulated in the analysis using the following stages:
The soil elements ahead of the EPB shield were removed and face pressure was applied. In
C704, the applied face pressure due to EPB advancing was about 100 kPa to 200 kPa (Shirlaw,
2001). In this study, a face pressure of 160 kPa was adopted in the analysis. The sensitivity of
the results to the face pressure will be discussed later. At the exposed tunnel wall, pore
pressure was fixed at atmospheric pressure, until lining is installed.
The excavated soil elements were replaced by the EPB shield elements (see Figure 2a). A rate
of advance of 4 m/day was adopted, this being typical of the rate of advance in this segment of
tunnel.
Tunnel liner installation was modelled by replacing the relevant shield elements by concrete
liner elements, Figure 2b. The presence of tail voids occupied by injected cement grout was
simulated by replacing the most outer layer of shield elements by a layer of compressible
elastic elements.
198
Soil Elements
EPB shield
Concrete Liner
Grout Layer
Figure 2a FE construction sequences for EPB modelling (Stage A)
Soil Elements
EPB shield
Concrete Liner
Grout Layer
Figure 2b FE construction sequences for EPB modelling (Stage B)

3 EFFECTS OF SOIL MODELS
In the discussion below, 3-D FE results using elastic anisotropy (MCEA) and small strain non-linearity
(HCC) soil models on the longitudinal and cross-sectional settlement profiles induced by tunnelling
will be compared. A hybrid model (HMCEA), which combines the features of HCC and MCEA
features was also developed and used to back-analyse the ground response. The development of these
soil models was presented in Lim (2003) studies. The typical soil parameters are reflected in Table 1.
These values are also similar to Dames and Moores (1983) recommended values for G4 soil. The
Youngs moduli of the concrete lining and grout layer were taken to be 11.2 GPa and 28 MPa
respectively. However, parametric studies indicate that the results are not sensitive to the slight
variations in the moduli of the concrete lining and grout layer; this is probably due to the fact that
these two materials are much stiffer than the surrounding soil anyway.
The monitored cross-section, at which settlement profiles are compared with the field measurements, is
the mid-section of the ground domain, as shown in Figure 1. This section will be designated as the
monitored section in subsequent discussion. The pre-excavation stage refers to the construction stage
when EPB shield is moving towards the monitored section. The excavation stage refers to the
excavation of the monitored section while the post-excavation stage refers to the stage at which the
EPB shield has passed and is moving away from the monitored section.
This study focuses on the short-term settlement, which refers to the settlement that occurred within a
few weeks of the tunnel face passing any point of reference on the surface. The field and computed
data are presented in the order in which the construction occurred.
Figure 2 shows the trough length results obtained from FEA and C704 field data. In terms of
magnitude, both the MCC and MCEA appear to have overestimated the settlement magnitude while
HCC and HMCEA appear to fit the data better.
199
Table 1 Typical soil parameters for C704 Finite element analysis

Model
ecs
M
C
MCC (Layer 1)
MCC (Layer 2)
MCC (Layer 3)
0.0267
0.0350
0.0110
0.113
0.104
0.0693
1.8
1.9
2.0
0.73
0.94
1.2
0.3
0.3
0.3
1
1
1
-------
n
-------
m
-------
qf (kPa)
-------
MCEA (Layer 1)
MCEA (Layer 2)
MCEA (Layer 3)
0.0267
0.0350
0.0110
0.113
0.104
0.0693
1.8
1.9
2.0
0.73
0.94
1.2
0.3
0.3
0.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
-------
-------
-------
-------
HCC (Layer 1)
HCC (Layer 2)
HCC (Layer 3)
0.0267
0.0350
0.0110
0.113
0.104
0.0693
1.8
1.9
2.0
0.73
0.94
1.2
0.3
0.3
0.3
1
1
1
250
140
140
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.23
0.23
0.23
250
300
300
HMCEA 1 (Layer 1) 0.0267

0.113
0.104
0.0693
1.8
1.9
2.0
0.73
0.94
1.2
0.3
0.3
0.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
250
140
140
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.23
0.23
0.23
250
300
300

0.113
0.104
0.0693
1.8
1.9
2.0
0.73
0.94
1.2
0.3
0.3
0.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
250
140
140
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.23
0.23
0.23
150
200
300

0.113
0.104
0.0693
1.8
1.9
2.0
0.73
0.94
1.2
0.3
0.3
0.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
250
140
140
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.23
0.23
0.23
150
300
400
Note: G = 1 kPa for HCC & HMCEA

where = slope of the isotropic unload-reload line, = slope of the isotropic normal consolidation
line, ecs = void ratio at critical state, M = slope of the critical state line in the p'- q plane; = Poissons
ratio, = anisotropy factor, C, n, m and qf = constant or exponent of the empirical formulation of
shear modulus at small strain (Nasim, 1999)
0.010
0.000
Y-Displacement (m)
-0.010
-0.020
-0.030
MCC
-0.040
MCEA
HCC
-0.050
HMCEA 1
C704 L1 data
-0.060
C704 L4 data
C704 L5 data
-0.070
test-lo.grf
-0.080
-12.00
-8.00
-4.00
0.00
4.00
8.00
12.00
16.00
20.00
Z/D
Figure 2 Comparison of Trough length for various soil models with field data
As shown in Figures 3 to 5, the MCC and MCEA modelling for the entire construction sequence
consistently predict larger settlement. As mentioned earlier, the parameters for the MCC and MCEA
models were deduced from the triaxial and consolidation test results reported in the soil investigation
report. The parameters ignore the fact that, in the small-strain range, in which the stiffness of the soil
can be far higher than that measured in conventional triaxial and oedometer tests. The variation in
stiffness in the small strain range is accounted for by the HCC and HMCEA models but not the MCC
200
0.010
0.010
0.000
0.000
-0.010
-0.010
Trough width at ~8D
-0.020
Y-displacement (m)
Y-displacement (m)
and MCEA models. As a result, the effective stiffness modelled by the MCC and MCEA is too low to
be representative of that of the soil.
-0.030
-0.040
C704 L1 data
-0.050
C704 L4 data
-0.020
Trough width at ~3D
-0.030
-0.040
C704 L1 data
-0.050
C704 L4 data
C704 L5 data (NA)
C704 L5 data
MCC
-0.060
MCC
-0.060
MCEA
MCEA
HCC
-0.070
HCC
-0.070
HMCEA 1
HMCEA 1
0.00
2.00
4.00
6.00
8.00
10.00
com-tra2.grf
-0.080
com-tra1.grf
-0.080
0.00
12.00
2.00
4.00
6.00
8.00
10.00
12.00
X/D
X/D
0.010
0.010
0.000
0.000
-0.010
-0.010
-0.020
Y-displacement (m)
Y-displacement (m)
Figure 3 Trough width at 8 D and 3 D away from tunnel face
Trough width at 0D
-0.030
-0.040
C704 L1 data
-0.050
C704 L4 data
-0.020
Trough width at ~-3D
-0.030
-0.040
C704 L1 data
-0.050
C704 L4 data
C704 L5 data
C704 L5 data
MCC
-0.060
MCC
-0.060
MCEA
MCEA
HCC
-0.070
HMCEA 1
com-tra3.grf
-0.080
0.00
2.00
4.00
6.00
8.00
10.00
HCC
-0.070
HMCEA 1
com-tra4.grf
-0.080
12.00
0.00
X/D
Figure 4 Trough width at 0 D and 3 D away from tunnel face

0.010
0.000
Y-displacement (m)
-0.010
-0.020
Trough width at ~-8D
-0.030
-0.040
C704 L1 data
-0.050
C704 L4 data
C704 L5 data
MCC
-0.060
MCEA
HCC
-0.070
HMCEA 1
com-tra5.grf
-0.080
0.00
2.00
4.00
6.00
8.00
10.00
12.00
X/D
Figure 5 Trough width at 8 D away from tunnel face
201
2.00
4.00
6.00
X/D
8.00
10.00
12.00
Figure 6 shows the variation in the predicted longitudinal settlement profile by the HMCEA model. As
can be seen, by adjusting the parameters of HMCEA model, various amounts of tail void settlement
can be predicted. Overall, the HCC and HMCEA models are predicting a slightly faster fall in the
settlement ahead of the tunnel than the MCC and MCEA models. This can again be attributed to the
ability of the HCC and HMCEA models to replicate the reduction in stiffness in the small strain range
whereas the MCC and MCEA models cannot.
0.005
Y-Displacement (m)
0.000
-0.005
HMCEA 1
-0.010
HMCEA 2
HMCEA 3
HCC
C704 L5 data
-0.015
test-lo3.grf
-0.020
-12.00
-8.00
-4.00
0.00
4.00
8.00
12.00
16.00
20.00
Z/D
Figure 6 Comparison of Trough lengths for variations of HMCEA model

6.00
6.00
+3D SB
+1.5D SB
Initital reading
Initital reading
MCC
MCC
MCEA
4.00
MCEA
HCC
4.00
HCC
HMCEA
Y/D
Y/D
HMCEA
2.00
2.00
I5101 24m away

from driving axis
0.00
I5101 24m away

from driving axis
0.00
Tunnel axis level
Tunnel axis level
SB Tunnel
I5101
-2.00
2E-2
1E-2
0E+0
Displacement (m)
SB Tunnel
I5101
fe01-b1a.grf
axis-aa
-1E-2
-2.00
2E-2
-2E-2
1E-2
0E+0
Displacement (m)
fe01-b2a.grf
axis-aa
-1E-2
-2E-2
Figure 7 Comparison of subsurface lateral response at (a) +3D and (b) +1.5D from tunnel driving axis.
6.00
6.00
0D SB
-1.5D SB
Initital reading
Initital reading
MCC
MCC
MCEA
MCEA
4.00
4.00
HCC
HCC
HMCEA
Y/D
Y/D
HMCEA
2.00
2.00
I5101 24m away
from driving axis
I5101 24m away

from driving axis
0.00
0.00
Tunnel axis level
Tunnel axis level

SB Tunnel
SB Tunnel
I5101
-2.00
2E-2
1E-2
0E+0
Displacement (m)
-1E-2
I5101
fe01-b3a.grf
axis-aa
-2.00
2E-2
-2E-2
1E-2
0E+0
Displacement (m)
-1E-2
fe01-b4a.grf
axis-aa
-2E-2
Figure 8 Comparison of subsurface lateral response at (a) 0D and (b) -1.5D from tunnel driving axis.
202
Figures 7 and 8 show the measured and computed response of an inclinometer which measure lateral
movement of the ground during the construction process. As can be seen, much larger movements are
once again predicted by the MCC and MCEA models than the HCC and HMCEA. This can be
attributed to the differences in the modelling of the small strain behaviour of the soil, as discussed
earlier.
4
CONCLUSIONS
In this study, finite element studies were conducted and back-analysed based on the measured soil
parameters and field response of the C704 EPB shield tunnelling project. The effects of various soil
models on ground response were compared.
Among the various soil models used in the finite element analyses, the measured and computed
magnitude are in general agreement if soil models featuring small strain non-linearity, such as HCC
and HMCEA, are used. On the other hand, using the modified Cam Clay model, which does not
capture the small strain non-linear behaviour, as well as parameters from conventional triaxial and
consolidation tests, significantly over-estimates of the ground settlement. This is attributable to the fact
that, with Earth Pressure Balance (EPB) control of the face, strain levels in the soil around the tunnel
are kept relatively low. On the other hand, conventionally triaxial test parameters are obtained under
much larger strain conditions; thus they do not reflect the characteristics of the soil around the tunnel
under field conditions.
REFERENCES
Britto A.M. and Gunn M.J. (1990). Crisp90 Users and Programmers Guide. Cambridge University
Engineering Department, Soil Mechanics Group.
Chan S. H., Phoon K. K. and Lee F. H. (2001). A Modified Jacobi preconditioner for solving ill-conditioned
Biot's consolidation equations using symmetric Quasi-Minimal Residual Method. International Journal for
Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics, 25, no. 10, 1001-1025.
Dames and Moore (1983) Detailed Geotechnical Study, Factual report issued to provisional MRT authority,
Singapore.
Fitzpatrick L. (1980). Lining leakage and consolidation around soft-ground tunnels. Masters thesis, Cornell
University.
Lee F. H., Phoon K. K., Lim K. C. and Chan S. H. (2002). Performance of Jacobi preconditioner in Krylov
subspace solution of finite element equations. International Journal for Numerical and Analytical Methods in
Geomechanics, 26, no. 4, 341-372.
Lee K.M. and Rowe R.K. (1990). Finite element modelling of the 3D ground deformations due to tunnelling in
soft cohesive soils- Part I/II, Computers and Geotechnics, 10, 87-109, 111-138.
Lee K.M. and Rowe K.R. (1992) Subsidence owing to tunnelling Part I: Estimating the Gap parameter.
Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol 29, 1992, 929-940.
Lim K.C. (2003) Three-dimensional finite element analysis of earth pressure balance tunnelling. PhD Thesis,
Center for Soft Ground Engineering, National University of Singapore.
Lin C.C., Chen J.C. and Chi S.Y. (2001). Optimized back-analysis for ground movement using equivalent
ground loss model. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology. Vol. 16 (3), 159-165.
Loganathan N. and Poulos H.G. (1998). Analytical Prediction for Tunnelling-induced ground movements in
clays. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, September 1998, 846-856.
Nasim A.S.M. (1999). Corner constraints in strutted excavation. MEng. Thesis, Department of Civil
Engineering, CSGE, National University of Singapore.
Oteo C.S. and Sagaseta C. (1982). Prediction of settlements due to underground openings. Int. Symp. On
Numerical models in Geomechanics, Zurich. 653-699.
Phoon K K., Toh K. C., Chan S. H. and Lee F. H. (2002). An efficient diagonal preconditioner for finite element
solution of Biot's consolidation equations. International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering, 55,
no. 4, 377-400.
Sagaseta C. (1987). Analysis of undrained soil deformation due to ground loss, Geotechnique, 37, No.3 , 301320.
Shirlaw J.N., Ong J.C.W., Rosser R.B., Osborne N.H., Tan C.G., Heslop P.J.E. (2001) Immediate Settlements
due to tunnelling for the North East Line. Proceedings of Underground Singapore 2001, 29th 30th
November, 2001.
203
Use of Passive Fire Protection Systems for Tunnel Linings

N.J. Varley
MBT Asia Pacific, Degussa Construction Chemicals, Singapore
ABSTRACT: Recent tunnel fires in Europe and Asia (Korea) have led to a heightened awareness of
the need to consider suitable protection of concrete linings in high-risk locations. The significant
effects of explosive spalling, and the associated heating of both the concrete and the reinforcement has
led to the development of high performance fire protection measures. The use of monofilament
polypropylene fibres has been recognized as an effective way of mitigating the effects of explosive
spalling. However, the damage due to excessive heating is not addressed with this solution. Thermal
barriers, which can be used to fully protect the reinforced concrete, are of two main types, either a
spray applied cementitious-based mortar, or a pre-fabricated board, fixed to the tunnel lining. MBT
has developed Meyco Fix Fireshield, a new mortar product, which has been introduced to the
tunnelling market in combination with a laser guided robotic application system. This paper presents a
review of the current industry practice with regard to passive fire protection systems, provides an
insight into fires in tunnels, reviews some typical specifications, looks at typical fire curves, and
introduces Meyco Fix Fireshield. There is also an update on various funded projects that are currently
up and running in Europe to provide guidance on fire safety in both existing and new tunnel
construction.
1 INTRODUCTION
In the last 20 years there have been a number of fires in both road and rail tunnels, leading in some
cases to a tragic loss of life. Recent examples include the Daegu Subway in South Korea 2003, the
Mont Blanc Tunnel in the Alps 1999, the Tauern tunnel in Austria and the Channel Tunnel between
France and the UK 1996. The cost of repair and more importantly loss of service are significant.
These events have forced clients, insurance companies and other bodies to request that designers and
consultants look carefully at fire cause, effect and protection. This investigative work is leading to
continued fire assessment and new testing methods being developed in order to develop fire safety
protection systems, methods and procedures that minimise risk. In particular, specially developed
spray applied mortars, shown to offer a role as passive fire protecting barriers, have been included in
this assessment. The nature of these products, and their efficacy as insulating coatings is presented
here.
2 THE BACKGROUND
2.1 Underground Structures - Fire Protection and Risk Analysis:
The main focus has been twofold:
Priority one is on saving life by providing escape passages, fire suppression systems e.g. sprinklers
and sophisticated ventilation techniques, which can control and direct smoke and fumes away from
the stranded passengers.
Main
204
Priority two is to assess the integrity of the building fabrics and their suitability to perform before,
during and after a fire. The fire loading (fire duration and temperature profile) is a measurement of the
fire potential (intensity) and where possible this should be reduced by constructing train carriages,
stations and tunnels from non combustible materials. Where this is not possible the materials have to
be evaluated by carrying out combustion tests to assess the risk involved. In certain situations the use
of these materials can contribute significantly to the fire load and thus the risk of serious damage
becomes high. These materials may have to be substituted or protected using non-combustible
materials of known performance in a fire.
The risk analysis must recognise the factors listed above and also assess what will be carried through
these tunnels. There is clearly a risk of fire if the tunnels permit vehicles with petrol and diesel
engines. The risk, of course, will depend on a number of issues - the traffic frequency, vehicle type
and nature of the goods carried.
In 1996 the serious damaged to the concrete lining witnessed in the Channel Tunnel as a result of
explosive spalling during an intense fire has led to further investigation into the protection of
concrete, a material once considered largely resilient, from the effects of fire and temperature.
3 FIRE PROFILES
Much research has been carried out to determine the time temperature profile of a typical fire. In the
UK British Standard BS 476 (and International Standard ISO 834) set out to standardise a typical fire
in a building and produced a standard fire test curve commonly referred to as a cellulosic fire. The
fuel source for this type of fire is considered to be wood, paper, fabrics etc. This fire profile is
typified by a relatively slow temperature rise up to 1000C after 120 minutes.
During the 1970s the oil company Mobil undertook exploratory work on the fire scenario when
hydrocarbon fuel burned. A time temperature profile was developed which typified this
hydrocarbon fire, resulting in a rapid temperature rise during the first 5 minutes of the fire up to
900C, with a peak of 1100C. This research laid the foundation for test procedures to assess passive
fire protecting materials for the offshore and petrochemical industries.
Most recently introduced has been a natural fire safety concept the result of a large European
research project, Eureka, which has released a method to more accurately determine building fires,
as opposed to the standard fire approach.
Tunnels which carry a wide range of vehicles and cargoes, very often permit the transportation of
hazardous goods. The worst case is assessed as being a fire caused by an accident with a large petrol
tanker. Theoretically, a petrol tanker containing approximately 45,000 litres of petrol exploding in a
12-metre tunnel produces a fire load of 300MW and could produce a fire, which lasts for almost 2
hours. The Channel Tunnel investigation suggested that an average fire load of 150MW with a
maximum value of 350MW was reached during the fire.
The Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research, (TNO) and the Ministry of Public Works,
Rijkswaterstaat (RWS) established a fire curve for the evaluation of passive protecting materials
based on tests performed in 1979. These materials include spray-applied mortars. This RWS fire
curve is best described as a most severe hydrocarbon fire curve rapidly exceeding 1200C and
peaking at 1350C after 60 minutes. The duration of this fire test is 120 minutes.
In figure 1 below, examples of these and associated fire curves are plotted: the ISO-834 standard fire,
the Eurocode 1 hydro-carbon fire, the German RABT fire curve and the RWS fire curve.
205
1600
Rijkswaterstaat
1400
Temperature [0C]
1200
Hydrocarbon (Eurocode1)
1000
800
Standardfire (ISO-834)
600
RABT
400
200
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Time [min]
Figure 1 Various fire curves
In Figure 1, the RWS fire curve is clearly the most severe fire. It rises quickly to high temperature
levels beyond 1200C. Many standard (building) insulation materials decompose and loose their
function above 1200C. It may very well be that insulation materials behave well in the case of (ISO834) standard fire exposure, the Eurocode hydrocarbon fire and even the RABT curve, but may not
suffice in the case of a fire under RWS fire conditions.
4 INTEGRITY
With regard to the structural integrity of a tunnel, the maximum temperature of the fire curve is
important together with the heating rate and the exposure time. For high quality, durable concrete
tunnel linings, the risk of explosive spalling is high. Therefore, when analysis and testing is proposed
the correct choice of fire curve in relation to the structural integrity of the tunnel is essential and the
traffic type in turn will influence this.
One example: in Holland a classification proposal has been made, based on a literature survey, and
carried out within the scope of the large Dutch research project for underground tunnelling. The
results are shown below Table 1 (Varley and Case, 1999).
Table 1
Traffic type
Nominal fire curves for different tunnels

Fire exposure time
[min]
Pedestrian
Bicycle
2
Hay wagon
90-120
Car (5-10 MW)
30-60
Container / shuttle
120(+)
Lorry (100 MW)
120(+)
Tanker (300 MW)
120
240
Bus
90-120
Metro / Light rail / HSL (40 MW)
90-120
Train (300 MW)
120
240
206
Representative nominal fire curve

none (negligible)
none (negligible)
hydro-carbon
standard / hydro-carbon
hydro-carbon
hydro-carbon
RWS and/or
hydro-carbon
hydro-carbon
RWS and/or
5 THERMAL BARRIERS
5.1 Passive protection systems
There are a wide range of products used for passive fire protection including concrete, lightweight
concrete, intumescent paints, protective panel or board systems and spray-applied coatings A short
summary of each is presented below.
5.1.1 Concrete
Concrete is often regarded as versatile and resilient. This common building material has many
interesting properties, and due to its very nature, offers some degree of resistance to degradation at
higher temperatures. However, concrete does start to lose inherent strength and integrity as the
temperature rises above 300C (Neville). Normal strength concrete based on commonly available
aggregates is generally considered to be a fairly good insulator. A Thermal Conductivity figure in the
range of between 1.4 and 3.6 W/mK is typical depending on the nature of aggregate used. Siliceous
aggregates yield a higher thermal conductivity than carbonate aggregates due to the higher
crystallinity of the siliceous aggregate (Neville).
Thus for many years concrete, either cast insitu or sprayed, has been seen on many buildings
surrounding structural steel members as fire protection. In building terms the critical temperature for
reinforcing steel is 538C, this is the point at which only 60% of the original strength remains and
structural failure under full design load is likely. The time it takes for this temperature to be reached
will depend on the thickness and nature of the concrete cover to the steel.
Following on from the comments above, it has been suggested that the use of high performance
concrete, (HPC), may exacerbate the rate of explosive spalling during a fire. HPC which typically
contains micro silica, has a higher compressive strength, a lower water / cement ratio and therefore
has a reduced permeability compared to normal concrete. This may lead to an increase in the rate of
spalling during a fire mainly because any inherent moisture, either bound or free, cannot easily escape
as steam through the dense matrix of the high quality concrete. Many tunnel linings either cast
segments or insitu are constructed of HPC.
5.1.2 Lightweight Concrete
Lightweight concrete is considered to have very good fire resistance due to its reduced density and
corresponding lower thermal conductivity. Typical thermal conductivity values for lightweight
concrete are shown in Table 2.
Table 2 Typical Thermal conductivity values for lightweight concrete.
Aggregate Type
Typical Concrete
Compressive
Thermal
Density (kg/m3)
Strength (MPa)
Conductivity W/m
(Air Dried)
C
Vermiculite
480
0.9
0.1 0.2
Perlite
520
3.0
0.1 0.2
Leca
1300
14.0
0.3 0.6
Aglite
1550
26.0
0.6
Lytag
1600
37.5
0.5
Foamed Slag
2000
27.5
0.9
Reference: Fultons Concrete Technology

At lower density this concrete is inherently weak and does not offer any structural performance,
however, using similar materials, spray applied passive fire protection coatings based on cement and
lightweight aggregates are commonly used. These products used as protective coatings will be
examined later. At higher density, lightweight concretes can offer excellent strength and may be used
for certain structural applications e.g. floating marine structures, where weight saving is required.
207
The use of lightweight aggregate (lytag) in structural dense concrete, which may offer both strength
and fire protection, has been tested for the CTRL Rail Link project in the UK (Reference: Technical
Report No. 000-RUG-RLEEX-00005-AB). However, results have suggested that this concrete mix
performed poorly under test exhibiting progressive explosive spalling within minutes of heat being
applied. It is stated that the reason for this effect is related to the saturated coarse aggregate within the
dense impermeable cement matrix, which, as the heating continues, causes a rapid build up of vapour
pressure and tensile stresses leading to spalling failure of the concrete surface.
5.1.3 Fibre reinforced concrete
The use of both steel fibre and polypropylene fibre has been investigated with some interesting results
to date. Research is ongoing through various EU funded projects.
5.1.4 Steel Fibres
Steel fibres tend to increase the thermal conductivity of the concrete to a small extent. This is due to
the fact that the thermal conductivity of steel is considerably higher than concrete. As mentioned
earlier the aggregate type also affects the conductivity (Lie and Kodur). Overall the thermal properties
of the steel fibre concrete are similar to the plain concrete. The main benefit of the steel fibre has been
seen in bored tunnels of circular cross section where the segmental concrete lining is essentially
subject to compressive stresses. In this situation the steel fibre is often approved in place of steel
reinforcement for improved load capacity of the radial joints, crack control and handling robustness.
The steel fibre concrete offers a greater ductility and when compared to plain concrete, at elevated
temperatures, exhibits a greater range of mechanical properties. These include improved compressive
strength, ultimate strain and a reduction of tensile cracking.
5.1.5 Polypropylene Fibres
Certain benefits may be found with the addition of polypropylene fibres to concrete. Researchers
generally feel that concrete with polypropylene fibres is less sensitive to spalling, due to the fact that
during fire exposure the fibres melt and thus form an escape route for steam pressure. In recent
years some indicative tests have been performed at TNO on 1.45x1.45x0.35m slabs with different
types of polypropylene fibres (fibrillated and monofilament). The results have demonstrated that with
monofilament fibres a dramatic reduction in the amount of spalling is observed. A EU funded
research project entitled Confibre is looking into the use of Fibres in concrete against Fire. Results are
expected within two years.
5.1.6 Fibre combinations
It is understood that the combined use of polypropylene fibres as part of the fire protection measures
together with steel fibres for crack control and improved durability has been adopted by CTRL
(London) and is included in the Works Specification for the concrete lining which features precast
elements.
5.1.7 Intumescent Coatings
These coatings are applied in a similar manner to paint and can be used to provide fire protection to
steel for periods up to 4 hours. Intumescent coatings protect the steel from corrosion and can be
formulated for use in the most aggressive environments. In the event of a fire, at a temperature of
approximately 200C an intumescent coating reacts to form a gas filled char. This char is some 20
50 times the thickness of the original coating and offers fire protection to the steel by insulation. In a
tunnel situation where steel plate lining systems are sometimes employed, the use of intumescent
coatings can appreciably reduce the likelihood of buckling during a fire when temperatures exceed
400C.
5.1.8 Protective panel or Board Systems
The use of protective board or panel systems has been in use for many years. These non-combustible
boards are capable of providing fire resistance for periods of up to 4 hours depending on the thickness
employed. These boards are constructed of a wide range of materials from calcium silicate through to
sophisticated ceramic systems. In tunnelling applications the use of board systems has been utilised in
Holland for most submersed tube tunnels where the rectangular reinforced concrete section readily
permits the fixing of flat boards close to the tunnel substrate.
208
5.1.9 Spray Applied Coatings

Sprayed mortars for fire protection have been available for many years and are commonly used for the
fire protection of structural steel elements. They are very good insulators with low thermal
conductivity in the range of 0.1 0.4 W/mK. As a comparison the thermal conductivity of concrete
and steel is respectively 2 and 50 W/mK. Typical mortar densities are observed in the range of 300
900 kg/m3 with corresponding compressive strengths of 0.5 5.0 MPa @ 28 days. These products are
based on a mix of cement or gypsum filled with lightweight components such as vermiculite or
polystyrene beads. Synthetic fibres are often added to aid in the application process and offer impact
resistance, some flexural benefit and improve the integrity of these relatively weak materials. Newly
developed spray applied mortars, such as Meyco Fix Fireshield 1350 (the recent winner of a product
innovation award in Spain) are arguably more suitable for tunnel environments, offer excellent fire
protection at higher compressive strengths, (up to 30MPa) and thus are more robust, durable and less
susceptible to damage underground.
5.1.10 Testing
For general building or offshore / petrochemical applications these products are typically tested to a
relevant standard e.g. ISO 834, BS476 in the UK by certified testing establishments such as the Loss
Prevention Council Laboratories. These full scale furnace tests on loaded and unloaded specimens
determine the thickness of material required to offer protection for a given time period determined by
using thermocouples which measure when a critical temperature has been achieved on the steel
surface. For underground situations taking the example above of a burning petrol tanker this testing is
not considered suitable for tunnel linings and thus in Holland the TNO and RWS have developed test
methods based on the RWS fire curve for both submersed tube tunnels and bored tunnels. These two
fire tests are described as a standard test for immersed tunnels and a spalling test for bored tunnels.
6 EU TUNNEL FIRE SAFETY ACTION
The European Commission has started a comprehensive review of tunnel safety with a goal to
improve the guidelines for the design and operation of all European Tunnels. Seven multinational
projects (some involving as many as 40 organisations) funded by European Commission are
underway. A short synopsis of each follows.
6.1 Fire in Tunnels (FIT)
This project aims to establish and develop European networking and optimise efforts on fire safety in
tunnels.
6.2 Durable and Reliable Tunnel Structures (DARTS)
This project aims at developing, for each individual case, operational methods and supporting tools
for the choice of cost optimal tunnel type and construction procedures regarding environmental
conditions, technical qualities, safety precautions and long service life.
6.3 Safe Tunnel
The main objective is to contribute to the reduction of the number of accidents in road tunnels by
preventive safety measures
6.4 SIRTAKI
Safety Improvement in Road and rail Tunnels using advanced information technologies and
Knowledge Intensive decision support models. SIRTAKI aims at developing an advanced tunnel
management system that specifically tackles safety issues and emergencies and is fully integrated in
the overall network management.
209
6.5 Virtual Fires

The Virtual Real Time Emergency Simulator aims to develop a simulator that allows the training of
fire fighters in the efficient mitigation of fires in tunnels using a computer generated virtual
environment.
6.6 UPTUN
Upgrading Existing Tunnels the primary goal here is cost effective, sustainable and innovative
upgrading methods for fire safety in existing tunnels.
6.7 SafeT
Safety in Tunnels will start in 2003 and aims to draft harmonised European guidelines for tunnel
safety drawing upon the knowledge accumulated and developed in the other EU funded projects.
For more information on any of these projects please refer to Khoury (2003).
7 CONCLUSIONS
Tunnel linings may need to be protected from the harmful affects of a fire. Concrete starts to lose
inherent strength at 300C; the critical temperature for steel reinforcement is 250C.
Risk assessment should be used to ensure that the necessary protective measures are put in place to
protect the structural integrity of the lining. These measures, for example, include the use of thicker
linings, which would permit a degree of spalling to occur without loss of integrity, water sprinkler /
misting system to reduce temperatures and passive protective coatings which have a low thermal
conductivity and high temperature resistance. There are wide ranges of products available, which
offer passive protection.
Spray applied mortars are available which protect both immersed tube tunnel (with active
reinforcement) and bored tunnel linings from the harmful affects of fire. The latest generation of these
products such as Meycofix Fireshield 1350 meets the mechanical properties and durability expected in
an underground environment. The products may also be pre cast and thus a composite segment with
built in fire protection could be manufactured.
In Holland a fire curve has been produced by the TNO which models the worst-case fire expected in a
tunnel. This RWS fire curve is used as part of a comprehensive test methodology to assess the
efficacy of these sprayed mortars (and other protective systems) in a full scale laboratory furnace test.
Spray applied mortars are available which protect both immersed tube tunnel (with active
reinforcement) and bored tunnel linings from the harmful affects of fire. The latest generation of these
products such as Meycofix Fireshield 1350 meets the mechanical properties and durability expected in
an underground environment. The products may also be pre cast and thus a composite segment with
built in fire protection could be manufactured.
A number of board systems and spray-applied materials have been designed and tested to meet these
stringent requirements. Results to date would suggest that approximately 40mm of a specially
designed spray applied fireproofing mortar will offer protection for 2 hours against fire temperatures
up to 1350C the RWS fire.
Research and development into the fire design of concrete continues. There are currently numerous
EU funded projects, which will examine the major aspects of fires in tunnels, the role of fibres, the
effects of reinforcement, and look further into the science of concrete at high temperatures.
210
Much is still to be learned about the effects of fire in an underground situation and how best to design
a cost effective and efficient protection system which can resist high temperature and ensure the
continued operation of the facility should a fire occur.
REFERENCES
Channel Tunnel Safety Authority Inquiry into the fire on heavy goods vehicle shuttle 7539 on 18th November
1996
Eureka Project EU499 Fires in Transport Tunnels
Khoury, G.A. 2003 EU tunnel fire safety action, Tunnels and Tunnelling, April
Lie and Kodur. Thermal and mechanical properties of steel fibre reinforced concrete at elevated temperatures
Neville Properties of Concrete
RLE Technical Report No. 000-RUG-RLEEX-00005-AB Fire Performance of Concrete for Tunnel Linings
Varley N. & Case C. 1999. Fire Protection of Concrete Linings in tunnels: Concrete May 1999: 27, 30
211
SESSION 6
SHAFTS & TUNNELS
Main
Design and Construction of Deep Shafts in Hong Kong

Special Administrative Region (SAR), China
L. J. Pakianathan
Mott MacDonald Pte Ltd, Singapore
A. K. L. Kwong
University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
D. D. McLearie
Montgomery Watson Harza, Hong Kong
W. K. Ng
Drainage Services Department, Government of the Hong Kong SAR, Hong Kong
ABSTRACT: Shafts play an essential part in the construction, operation and maintenance of tunnels
and deep underground structures but are rarely given exclusive prominence in technical publications.
The aim of this paper is to summarise the experiences gained in Hong Kong SAR during the
construction of the Harbour Area Treatment Scheme Stage 1 where seventeen shafts were constructed.
Their excavated diameters range between 2.5 m to 50 m and at a maximum depth over 150 m these are
the deepest shafts below sea level in Hong Kong. All shafts were located in reclaimed land and in
close proximity to the sea. The upper shafts in soils and weak rock were constructed by diaphragm
walling method and the lower shafts in rock by mainly drilling and blasting. Raise boring and blind
shaft drilling methods were also employed. The upper shafts and permanent shaft linings were
designed using conventional methods and the primary support selection for the lower shaft was based
on Bartons (1974) Q system. Settlement monitoring and inclinometer measurements were
undertaken during excavation to confirm the design assumptions. During construction several
difficulties were met that had to be overcome. All shafts with the exception of one were successfully
excavated and completed. This paper addresses the key design and construction issues and the
difficulties that were encountered which may be common for deep shafts constructed in an urban
setting near a coastline.
1
INTRODUCTION
The Harbour Area Treatment Scheme (formerly known as Strategic Sewage Disposal Scheme) is an
environmental improvement project aimed at cleaning up the waters in the Victoria Harbour. The first
stage consists of transfer tunnels linking the primary treatment works located at the southern part of
Kowloon and eastern part of Hong Kong Island to a centrally located chemically enhanced treatment
facility at the Stonecutters Island. A network of 25 km long transfer tunnels were constructed in
bedrock at depths varying between 75 m and 145 m below sea level making these the deepest tunnels
to date below sea level in Hong Kong SAR.
In order to construct the tunnels and to transfer the sewage from the coastal treatment works, 17 shafts
were constructed. The excavated diameter of the shafts varies from 2.5 m to 50 m and they reach down
to a maximum depth of over 150 m. The decision to locate the tunnels at a deep level in the rock well
below toe levels of pile foundations, made it possible to construct the tunnels along a most direct as
well as shortest route. It became necessary however to sink deep shafts to link the tunnels to the
ground surface. The functions of the different types of shafts are summarised in Table 1.
Main
215
Table 1 Function of different types of shafts

Shaft Type
Function
Production shafts
to excavate the tunnels and to construct the permanent lining
Drop shafts
to transfer the sewage from the terminal manholes to the tunnels
Riser shafts
to convey the sewage from the tunnels back to the surface installations
Pumping station shafts
to raise the hydraulic head of sewage using submersible pumps
Figure 1 shows the location of the shafts and Table 2 shows their particulars. All deep shafts were
excavated in two parts as upper and lower shaft to suit the operation and the differing ground
conditions. The upper shafts were constructed by diaphragm walling or open cut methods through soil
and weak rock and the lower shafts were excavated by drilling and blasting, raise boring or blind hole
drilling methods in hard rock. Of these, diaphragm walling and drilling & blasting methods were
predominantly used.
The upper section the production shafts were typically 10 m in diameter and reduce to 8.0 m at the
lower section by the installation of a 1 m thick toe level ring beam at the rock/soil interface, Figure 2.
The drop shafts are of a larger diameter in the upper section to function as a chamber to remove air
from the sewage and to accommodate a bell mouth and vortex drop pipe. These reduce in size to
approximately 2.5 m excavated diameter in the lower section. The drop shafts incorporate a 4.0 m deep
sump below the tunnel invert level to accommodate submersible pumps for emergency dewatering.
The land based riser shafts were excavated at the same size as the production shafts to enable the
removal of the tunnel boring machines. The permanent linings for the riser shafts are made of steel
pipes or in-situ concrete. Their internal diameters are identical to those of the tunnels to maintain the
same flow velocity so as to prevent any sedimentation at the shaft bottom.
The pumping station shafts were sized on the basis of the required holding capacity and pumping
arrangement. They are up to 38m deep and are founded in soil. The Stonecutters Island Main Pumping
Station (SCIMPS) shaft at 50 m diameter is among the largest in Asia.
Contractors Skanska-Shui On-Balfour Beatty Joint Venture excavated all the production shafts and
Kwun Tong pumping station shaft under an advance works contract DC/93/10. The value of this
contract was HK$226 million and the works commenced in August 1994. In parallel another advanced
works contract for the construction of diaphragm walls and soft ground excavation of the SCIMPS and
riser shaft was awarded to Leighton Contractors at HK$116 million. The remaining drop and riser
shafts were excavated later on as part of the tunnelling works contracts as shown in Table 2.
2
GROUND CONDITIONS
The shafts were constructed through recent Fill, Marine Deposits, Alluvium, Completely to Highly
Decomposed Rock and Bed Rock. The marine deposits are generally soft, greenish grey clays with
variable amounts of silt, sand and shell fragments. The alluvium deposits are generally characterized
by variable firm to stiff silts and silty clays. The completely decomposed rock is generally firm,
clayey, sandy Silt with some angular to sub-angular fine to occasional coarse gravel sized rock and
quartz fragments. The bedrock is made up of either Granite or Volcanic Tuffs.
Three out of the seventeen shafts were excavated in volcanic tuffs and remainders were in granite. The
ground water table was at sea level and the water met in the shafts was saline.
216
217
218
Table 2. The main features of the shafts

Shaft
No.
Location
Kwai Chung
PTW
Tsing Yi PTW
2
3
Stonecutters
Island STW
Stonecutters
Island STW
Stonecutters
Island
Undersea
Outfall
To Kwa Wan
5
6A &
6B
7
8
16
To Kwa Wan
PTW
Kwun Tong
PTW
Kwun Tong
Pumping
Station
Kwun Tong
Pumping
Station
Kwun Tong
Pumping
Station
Tseung Kwan
O PTW
Shau Kei Wan
PTW
Shau Kei Wan
PTW
Chai Wan PTW
17
Chai Wan
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
#-
Function
Upper Shaft Excavation
Lower Shaft Excavation
(m)
13.5
Depth
(m)
33
Production and
drop shaft
Riser shaft
10
Pumping station
shaft
Outfall production
and drop shaft
Outfall riser shafts
Production shaft
10
60
Drop shaft
12
32
Drop shaft
13
32
Production and
drop shaft
13
37
Pumping station
shaft
15
25
Diaphragm
wall
DC/93/10
Production and
riser shaft
10
33
Diaphragm
wall
DC/93/10
50
Drill and blast
DC/93/10
Production and
drop shaft
Drop and riser
shaft
Diversion chamber
shaft
Production and
drop shaft
Production shaft
10
32
DC/93/10
63
Drill and blast
DC/93/10
25
DC/93/13
4.5
105
Drill and blast
DC/96/17
7.5
26
DC/96/17
26
10
21
Diaphragm
wall
Diaphragm
wall
Diaphragm
wall
Diaphragm
wall
Diaphragm
wall
Drop shaft
Permanent Lining
Constructio
n method
Diaphragm
wall
Open cut
Contract
No.
DC/93/14
DC/96/20
DC/93/10
(m)
2.5
Depth
(m)
107
Construction
method
Raise boring
Contract No.
Geology
Type
DC/96/20
Granite
Concrete
Contract
no.
DC/96/20
137
Drill and blast
DC/93/10
Granite
Concrete
DC/96/20
63
Diaphragm
wall
DC/93/11
68
DC/93/14
DC/96/20
Granite
Concrete
DC/96/20
50
38
DC/93/11
Concrete
DC/93/16
10
10
Diaphragm
wall
Diaphragm
wall
-
Hydraulic
hammer;
Drill and blast
-
97
Drill and blast
DC/93/10
Granite
Concrete
DC/93/18
DC/93/18
Granite
Steel pipes
DC/93/18
Diaphragm
wall
Diaphragm
wall
Diaphragm
wall
Diaphragm
wall
DC/93/10
83
Blind hole
drilling
Drill and blast
DC/93/10
Granite
Backfilled
DC/96/18
DC/93/14
2.5
109
Raise boring
DC/96/18
Granite
Concrete
DC/96/18
DC/93/14
2.5
116
Raise boring
DC/96/18
Granite
Concrete
DC/96/18
DC/93/10
114
Drill and blast
DC/93/10
Granite
Concrete
DC/96/18
Concrete
DC/93/14
Granite
Steel pipes
DC/96/17
Volcanic
Tuffs
Granite
Steel pipes
DC/96/17
Concrete
DC/96/17
Concrete
DC/96/17
Concrete
DC/96/17
Backfilled
DC/96/17
DC/93/10
DC/93/13
107
Drill and blast
DC/93/13
DC/93/10
75
(113)
Drill and blast
DC/93/10
Shaft excavation was discontinued before completion
219
Volcanic
Tuffs
Volcanic
Tuffs
3 DESIGN
3.1 General
The design of the shafts was based on their function which was initially to provide temporary access
for tunnel construction and then to transfer the sewage from the treatment works to the deep level
tunnels followed by conveying to the central treatments works or outfall. The availability of suitable
land space and the location and orientation of the terminal manholes at the treatment works were main
factors in deciding the location of the shafts. The upper shaft situated within the soft ground was
designed as an octagon suitable for construction by the diaphragm walling method. The lower part of
the shaft was designed to take advantage of the inherent strength of the rock during the temporary
stage and to with stand hydrostatic pressures during the permanent stage.
3.2 Upper Shaft
The upper shaft was designed to withstand the loading from the ground and ground water pressure
with an allowance made for surcharge and flooding of the surrounding area. The permissible deviation
of the diaphragm wall panels from true verticality was 1:75. The thickness of the walls was chosen to
maintain at least 300 mm contact between adjacent panels for the worst case scenario where their
verticality is offset in the opposing directions. For a 30 m deep shaft this works out as 1100 mm. The
typical thickness adopted for the diaphragm walls was either 1000 mm or 1200mm. A 150 mm
construction tolerance was added to the required internal radius and the contractor proposed to trim
back any excess concrete encroaching beyond this. Where the diaphragm walls were very deep and the
resulting thickness is excessive specialist equipment was used to control verticality.
The quasi-circular shafts were designed to carry the loads in hoop compression without any internal
propping or strutting. At toe level a nominal 1 m x 1 m ring beam was designed to tie the individual
panels together. Where the rock head variation was more than 1 m then deeper ring beams were
designed and installed. Where it is not possible to install a toe level ring beam as in the case of the
Shau Kei Wan diversion chamber, shear pins were drilled and grouted into the rock.
The reinforcement for the panels was selected not only to carry the forces but also to make the cages
sufficiently rigid for handlings purposes and to minimize the entrapment of bentonite mud during the
concrete placing. Steel pipes and inclinometer tubes were incorporated into the rebar cages to facilitate
the drilling of contact grouting holes and for monitoring respectively.
3.3 Lower Shaft
Four types of primary support as shown in Figure 3 were specified. The primary support design for the
lower shaft was based on the Bartons rock mass quality Q system, Barton et al, (1974). Using the
information from the initial site investigation (boreholes drilled at the centre of the shafts) it was
possible to estimate the corresponding Q numbers and select the appropriate support type at different
depths. The Bills of Quantities were prepared using this method to quantify the extent of the different
support type. As the work proceeded the exposed rock face was geologically mapped after each round
of excavation and the Q value was re-calculated and agreed with the Engineers Representatives on
site prior to installation of the appropriate support type. The extent of estimated support type under
contract DC/93/10 is compared with the actual in Table 4.
Table 4. Comparison of estimated support type with actual
Support type
Estimate (m)
Actual (m)
97
139
Type A
353
367
Type B
99
37
Type C
19
25
Type D
220
The permanent lining was designed to withstand full external hydrostatic pressure under flooding
conditions assuming that the shaft was empty. The inner surfaces of the permanent linings that are
exposed to condensation were protected by a High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) fully welded
protective membrane. This is resistant to hydrogen sulphide attack from the sewage. The surface areas
that are always fully submerged did require such protection.
4
CONSTRUCTION OF UPPER SHAFT
4.1 Guide Walls

The diaphragm wall construction began with the construction of guide walls. These were temporary
structures constructed along both faces of the diaphragm wall. The top of the guide walls was located
approximately 0.5 m to 1.0 m above the surrounding ground level so that a positive head of bentonite
slurry can be maintained in the excavation to control ground settlement. A sheet pile cofferdam was
first erected before the excavation of the typically 1.0 m deep guide walls in view of the high ground
water table. The guide walls were constructed of nominally reinforced concrete.
4.2 Diaphragm walls
The diaphragm walls were excavated as eight separate panels generally using clamshell grabs
suspended from a 50 Tonne crawler crane. The storage silos for the bentonite and plants for slurry
separation and desanding were installed on site prior to the commencement of excavation. The panels
were excavated in one to three bites. The operation of the grabs was stopped when a hard stratum was
reached and it was no longer practical to use this method. Circular and rectangular chisels were
employed to excavate through the hard stratum until the predefined toe level of the panel which is at
least 500mm below the top of Grade III rock was reached. Following completion of excavation of a
panel stop ends were installed and recirculation and pumping out of bentonite from the toe level was
carried out for long periods of time (usually overnight) to remove all sediment deposits from the
founding level which were mainly sand and rock chippings.
When the trench is sufficiently clean the reinforcement cages were lowered in sections up to 12 m long
and coupled up vertically using bulldog clips. A tremie pipe was positioned with its end at the bottom
of the excavation to enable underwater concrete placing. A high slump Grade 35 concrete mix was
delivered to the site and was discharged directly from the truck mixers to the hoppers fitted on top of a
tremie pipe. During concrete placing the tremie pipe was carefully lifted up with the free end securely
buried at least 1 to 2 m inside the fresh concrete to avoid contamination from bentonite. The displaced
bentonite was returned to the storage silos after being cleaned in the separation plant.
4.3 Contact Grouting
In general practice excavation inside the diaphragm walls rarely continues deep to expose the toe of
the wall panels. In the case of HATS, shafts were sunk below the founding levels of the diaphragm
walls and therefore some form of cut off against possible water ingress through the uneven joint at the
wall/rock interface became necessary. This was achieved by drilling at least 5 m below the toe (of the
deepest panel) through pre-installed pipes cast in the wall panels and injecting a stable cement grout
via a single stage packer. This method proved to be effective in stemming any ingress at the wall/rock
interface but despite this two shafts required additional treatment described in Section 9.7.
4.4 Excavation
The excavation of the soft ground inside the diaphragm walls was carried out by a 0.25 to 0.3 m3
capacity backhoe type excavator and loaded into 4 m3 capacity muck skips. The filled skips were
removed to the surface by a crawler crane. Any water that was trapped inside was removed by
pumping into the muck skips as the excavation proceeded. The shaft walls were surveyed for each 1.0
221
m depth and any projection inside the required internal perimeter was removed by a hydraulic hammer
mounted on the excavator. The reinforcement bars that became exposed during this operation were
coated with anti corrosive paint and protected further by a layer of sprayed concrete.
4.5 Instrumentation and Monitoring
Inclinometer readings to detect any horizontal movement of the wall panels were taken daily when the
upper shaft excavation was in progress. This was necessary to verify that the design assumptions and
confirm the stability. The readings were generally satisfactory overall but occasionally unreliable
readings were detected. In the latter case extensometer pins were installed and additional convergence
readings were taken.
4.6 Water Ingress
The specifications stipulated that the upper shaft shall be watertight. However during excavation
seepage was observed in a few locations, mainly through the wall panel joints and the isolated
bentonite pockets. The leaks through the joints were repaired by drilling and injecting with a chemical
grout. The trapped bentonite pockets were repaired by first removing the loose materials followed by
scabbling back to sound concrete and then backfilling with a repair concrete mix. Any seepage water
was first diverted using pipes during this operation and then grouted after the repair concrete has
reached sufficient strength.
4.7 Progress rates
The diaphragm wall construction and excavation have taken approximately four to six months. The
delay at the Shau Kei Wan D/S can be attributed to the large variation in the rock head level requiring
extensive chiselling. The durations of upper shaft construction activities are summarised in Table 5.
Table 5. Duration of upper shaft construction in calendar days
Shaft
Guide walls Diaphragm
Toe
Soft
walls
grouting
excavation
SCO D/S
20
41
12
26
TKW P/S
20
66
16
47
KTPS D/S
18
46
17
31
KTPS R/S
23
58
14
48
TKO P/S
20
56
17
48
KTPS
21
69
16
60
CW P/S
22
51
13
24
SKW D/S
21
110
11
35
Ring beam
24
13
22
21
27
12
12
Total
duration
123
162
134
164
168
166
122
189
5 CONSTRUCTION OF LOWER SHAFT

The lower shafts were constructed by drilling and blasting and by raise boring methods. A typical
cycle of advance for drilling and blasting consisted of cleaning the face, marking out and drilling shot
holes, charging, blasting, fume clearance, mucking out and support installation. Probing and grouting
was done at a certain frequency as described below.
5.1 Probing and grouting
The ground conditions were explored by two methods during excavation. Advance probing where
holes up to 30 m long were drilled at the four corners of the shaft was the preferred method. The other
method was to drill an approximately 100 mm diameter central hole all the way down to the shaft
bottom using a down the hole hammer.
222
Where significant water inflow was met in the probe holes further holes were drilled to inject cement
grout. It was common practice to maintain approximately 5 m overlap between fans of probe holes.
5.2 Drilling and blasting
The lower shaft excavation was carried out generally by drilling and blasting. Immediately below the
toe of the diaphragm walls 1.5 m long blasting holes were drilled. At each shaft a trial blast was
conducted to confirm the blast design, to demonstrate compliance with the Mines Department
regulations and to prove that blasting induced vibrations were below the permissible limits. As the
ground conditions improved with the depth of excavation the shot hole length was increased to 2.4 m.
Two types of full face blasting patterns namely wedge cut and parallel hole cut were used. Where
the water inflow was high the shaft blasting was done in two halves so that the lower half was used as
a temporary sump while drilling was carried out in the upper half.
A typical cycle began with the cleaning the rock face after mucking out and marking the centre of the
shaft by lowering a plumb bob from a steel beam temporarily placed over the shaft top. The outer
perimeter of the excavation was then marked out by spray paint taking account of the primary support
thickness. The locations of individual blast holes were marked out as dots of spray paint. The holes for
the wedge cut were drilled at an inclination dipping towards the shaft centre. The ring of holes
immediately in front of the perimeter holes were drilled vertically down and the perimeter holes were
drilled at a slight angle dipping away from the shaft center. With the parallel hole cut, relief holes
approximately 100 mm in diameter were drilled near the shaft center and all blast holes were drilled
vertically downward. It was important to drill the wedge cut holes accurately to maintain an even
spacing of the rings at the toe of the holes. This became particularly important in massive granite with
few joints. On occasions blast hole numbers were increased where such conditions were encountered.
The blasting vibration can be estimated using the equation given in Geoguide 4, GEO Hong Kong
(1992):
A = KQdR-b
(1)
where A= predicted particle velocity in mm/s; Q = maximum charge weight per delay in kilograms;
R= distance between the blast and the measuring point in metres; K= rock constant; d= charge
exponent; and b= attenuation exponent. However the Mines Department equation (2) for calculating
the peak particle velocity (PPV) was more widely used:
PPV = K(R/Q0.5)B
(2)
The site specific constants K=644 and B=-1.22 were derived from a regression curve representing a
large number of measurements taken at various locations in Hong Kong.
5.3 Spoil Removal
The spoil removal commenced soon after blasting and smoke clearance. The equipment used was the
same as that used for the upper shaft with the exception of a 15 tonne Hagglund gantry crane replacing
the crawler crane. The skips were only 75% loaded to avoid the risk of falling rock.
5.4 Primary Support
The contractor proposed certain changes to the typical primary support types stated in the contract
documents and these were accepted by the Engineer. The main changes are as follows:
Type A replacement of chain link mesh with 20 mm sprayed concrete since there was a risk of fly
rock from blasting being temporarily caugt in the mesh.
223
Type D replacement of the steel arch ribs with a mesh reinforced sprayed concrete beam.
5.5 Progress Rates
The excavation was carried out in two 12 hour shifts. The planned and actual rates of progress for rock
classification/ primary support types are compared in Table 6.
Table 6. Average excavation progress per week
Rock-Mass
Support
Planned Progress
Classification Q
Type
Rate (m/week)
>4
A
10.3
0.4 4
B
9.3
0.1 0.4
C
4.7
<0.1
D
3.9
Actual Progress
Rate (m/week)
8.1
6.3
3.8
2.4
UNUSUAL DIFFICULTIES
A number of difficulties were encountered during the construction of the shafts. These ranged from
coordinating the construction activities with the 24 hour operation of the treatment works, dealing with
landfill materials present in the soft ground, substantial variations in the rock head levels, ground water
leakage and ground loss, constraints imposed by explosives delivery and limitations on blasting
periods, environmental restrictions and the necessity to complete the works in a timely manner so as to
avoid delays to the following on tunnelling works. Some such difficulties were not anticipated by the
contractors and therefore different mitigation measures were tried starting with the simple and
progressing to the more complex based on the success. As a result significant delays were encountered
even though almost all the problems were resolved successfully.
6.1 Proximity to the sea
All shafts were located close to the sea. Three were located within 10 m of the sea wall and two of the
outfall risers were in fact constructed below the sea bed. During the excavation of the upper shaft of
Chai Wan and Shau Kei Wan shafts which are located very close to the sea wall several large size (up
to 1.5 m long) rock backfill that was placed previously to construct the sea wall were encountered.
These could not be plucked out by the clam shell grab and therefore a cactus type grab was used
instead. In addition substantial losses of bentonite slurry also occurred through this medium. This
problem was overcome by backfilling the excavated trenches with completely decomposed granite and
re-excavating through it. Furthermore only one panel was excavated at any one time.
The surcharge loading within a 10 m zone behind the sea wall was restricted to 10 kN/m2. This
limitation made it difficult to install bentonite slurry silos and gantry crane foundations near the shaft
and special dispensation was sought for the Shau kei Wan diversion chamber shaft to install the slurry
tanks immediately behind the sea wall because of limited land space. There was sufficient redundancy
available in the sea wall designs to accommodate additional temporary loading but systematic
settlement monitoring of the sea wall coping was undertaken to demonstrate that the excess surcharge
loading did not have any adverse effect.
6.2 Working on Reclaimed Land
The shafts were constructed on land that was reclaimed from sea. The fill material and placing
methods in the case of old reclamations were not as strictly controlled as those new. At Kwun Tong
shaft site there was evidence of household refuse in the land fill. In addition that site was previously
used as a fuel farm for unloading fuel from ships and storing there temporarily. Upon close
224
investigation contamination from the fuel was found to be limited since additional fill material had
been placed over the site and the surface runoff has washed away and diluted the fuel concentration in
the ground. However during the excavation of the upper shaft through the land fill material bubbling of
gases was observed. Gas monitoring was carried out to detect hydrogen sulphide and explosive gases
and forced ventilation was set up. The natural ventilation was found to be sufficient to disperse the
hazardous gases since they occurred at a relatively high elevation.
At Tseung Kwan O the shaft was located in an old land fill and at the foot hills of a recent waste
dumping site. During the excavation of the upper shaft leachate was encountered. This was carefully
removed and disposed off site. Frequent gas monitoring readings were taken to check for explosive gas
content. The gas concentration measured was sufficiently low after dispersal by forced ventilation.
Since the diaphragm walls were watertight in the case of both shafts the hazardous gases problem was
resolved once the layer containing decaying waste was removed.
6.3 Variations in rock head level and deep weathering
One borehole was drilled at the centre of each shaft during pre-tender site investigation. Since the foot
print of a shaft is relatively small significant variations in the rock head levels were not anticipated and
a variation of less than 1m was expected. However during the detailed design of the upper shaft
diaphragm walls three or more boreholes were drilled and substantial variation in the rock head levels
between different panels was discovered for Stonecutters Island riser shaft, To Kwa Wan production
shaft and Shau Kei Wan shafts. The largest variation of 7.5 m between the highest at and lowest toe
level was met at the Shau Kei Wan Diversion chamber shaft. In the case of the Stonecutters Island
Riser Shaft and To Kwa Wan production shaft deep weathering compounded the difficulties taking the
diaphragm walls to some 50 to 60 m deep. A hydro-fraise type diaphragm wall trench cutter was used
to ensure the verticality of the deep wall panels. In addition deep toe level ring beams were constructed
to compensate for the variations in the rock head level.
There was not sufficient space inside the Shau Kei Wan diversion chamber to install a ring beam and
in any case this shaft was not required to be deep. The panels were dowelled into rock with a bundle of
4 x 50 mm cement grouted reinforcement bars. Inclinometer and convergence measurements were
taken during the shaft excavation to verify the stability and no adverse trends were observed.
6.4 Marine mud ingress into Diaphragm wall excavation
While the upper section of the Stonecutters Riser shaft was being excavated a sudden inrush of marine
mud from the toe of a diaphragm wall panel occurred. This loss of ground through gaps in between
undetected corestones caused a depression in the ground surface. Since the location of the ground loss
was situated close to a 60 m diameter shaft and in an area planned for the construction of an adit
linking the two shafts, serious concerns arose when this incident occurred. The contractor proposed to
fill the shaft with water immediately to contain the mud flow by equalising the hydrostatic pressure,
install another diaphragm wall panel behind that affected and then undertake jet grouting from the
surface to strengthen the collapsed ground. These remedial works were successful but caused a major
delay to the completion of the shaft excavation. In addition the method of excavation of the adit was
changed to open cut from bored tunnelling by installing additional diaphragm wall panels between the
jet grouted area and the 60 m shaft.
When the shaft was re-excavated after the remedial works frequent inclinometer and extensometer
readings were taken to monitor the convergence and verify the stability.
6.5 Flooding incidents in the upper shaft
At the Stonecutters Island outfall shaft an unexpected inrush of water was met at the initial stages of
rock excavation works immediately under the toe of the diaphragm walls. During the time of the
incident an excavator was cleaning the shaft bottom making it ready for the next round of blasting.
225
There was sufficient time to rescue the excavator operator before the shaft completely flooded.
According to his account the water entered through a clay seam in the rock. It was decided to
undertake tube-a-manchette grouting from outside the shaft over the zone of the leak. After completion
of grouting the shaft was pumped out dry and no further leakage was met. It was later discovered that
the water leak occurred through the clay matrix in between two large corestones. This area was
strengthened by applying sprayed concrete before undertaking further excavation.
A similar incident occurred as well at the foot of the diaphragm wall of the Tseung Kwan O shaft. The
pumping system was able to cope with the inflow and therefore it was decided to grout the leaks from
inside the shaft. First deep holes were drilled to intercept the leaks some distance behind the shaft wall
and mechanical packers were installed in these holes. After channeling the water to pipes set in rapid
hardening cement, a layer of sprayed concrete was applied to the closely jointed shaft wall and the
packers were grouted up under pressure as soon as the sprayed concrete has reached sufficient
strength. Eventhough the remedial method was successful in staunching majority of the inflow there
was residual leakage from this area which persisted until the permanent lining was installed.
6.6 Wide Clay filled sub-vertical joint in rock
At the Stonecutters riser shaft an approximately 1 m wide clay filled hydro-thermically altered joint
was met immediately below the diaphragm wall panels. The rock mass quality was substantially
reduced by the presence of this weak material and it was decided to adopt Type D primary support
which is based on steel arch ribs and sprayed concrete. The sub-vertical joint persisted for up to about
30 m deep before disappearing into the side wall and out side the foot print of the shaft. The steel arch
ribs were continued until the influence of this joint on the shaft was no longer significant.
6.7 Plant breakdown
The high humidity, constantly wet and salty environment in the shaft lead to higher than normal wear
and tear of mechanical plant and equipment. The excavator, water pumps and shotcrete pumps
suffered from frequent breakdown. On occasions the gantry crane also broke down contributing to the
average lost time of approximately 20%. Even though the direct loss of time from plant break down
can be averaged out as 5 hours per day its effect in terms of the 10 hour window available for blasting
was very serious since a lost blast meant that the whole days production was lost.
6.8 Delivery of explosives
The storage, transportation and use of explosives were strictly controlled to prevent both misuse and
mishaps. The proximity of the shaft site in relation to the Mines Department magazine generally
governed the time of arrival of explosives on site. The earliest delivery was received at the shafts
nearest to the magazine at around 9 to 10 am and the furthest shafts where transportation also included
use of a boat received deliveries by noon. This was satisfactory for undertaking one blast a day but not
for two. As the excavation works were falling behind programme the contractor attempted to do two
blasts a day without success. With help from the client special dispensation was obtained for delivery
of explosives and blasting on Sundays and Public Holidays. This proved to be effective and resulted in
a 15% improvement in production.
6.9 Shaft/tunnel junctions
The forming of junctions between shafts and tunnels were undertaken without difficulties in the rock
though several of these junctions incorporated a chamfer to permit lowering of the tunnel boring
machine components. However this activity proved to be very difficult in the upper shaft through the
soft ground. During the construction of the Kwun Tong pumping station shaft/adit tunnel junction a
sudden inrush of sand and ground water occurred. The remedial works necessitated the use of liquid
nitrogen freezing to form an impermeable plug in the soil while the tunnel eye opening was made in
the diaphragm wall, Pakianathan et al (2002). At Shau Kei Wan drop shaft soil grouting followed by
the installation of a circular fan of closely spaced horizontal grouted pipe piles was put in place before
226
making the tunnel eye opening in the diaphragm wall to construct an adit tunnel. The presence of a
water retaining box culvert directly above the this junction made the task even more difficult. This
junction opening was formed without incident or adverse settlement to the structure above.
6.10
Substantial water ingress
The Chai Wan production shaft was located in Volcanic Ash Tuffs within the zone of influence of the
Chai Wan fault. The water ingress progressively increased from 80 l/min at 35 m depth to 1400 l/min
at 96 m despite pregrouting. Majority of the grouting holes turned out to be dry and ineffective in
intercepting water making joints which were tight and closely spaced. Initially an OPC cement grout
mix at varying water cement ratio (from 5:1 to 1:1) with 2% bentonite was used at a maximum back
pressure of 30 bar. When this was found not very effective Rheocem 650 microcement with 3%
Rheobuild 1000 at a water cement ratio of 3:1 was tried at the same pressure. This resulted in higher
grout take but the progress became very slow and water inflow continued. As the overall project time
table could not be met at the rate of progress being acheived it was decided to reverse the direction of
the TBM drive and abandon this shaft.
Upon completion of the shafts the total inflow rates at the bottom of the shafts were measured before
handing over to the tunnelling contractors. These rates are given in Table 7. Inflow rates from all
shafts with the exception of the abandoned Chai Wan production shaft were well below the 300 l/min
limit set for dewatering purposes.
Table 7. Ground water ingress after completion of shaft excavation
Shaft
Depth of
Total
Inflow rate per
Inflow rate per square
shaft
inflow rate
metre of shaft
metre of shaft
(m)##
(l/min)
(l/min/m)
(l/min/m2)
0.020
0.5
69
Tsing Yi
140( 129)
0.024
0.6
36
Tseung Kwan O
95 (63)
0.008
0.2
18
Stonecutters Outfall 107 (97)
0.040
1.0
54
Kwun Tong Riser
83 (50)
0.020
0.5
60
KwunTong Drop
151 (114)
0.076
1.9
160
To Kwa Wan
138 (83)
0.744
18.7
1400
Chai Wan#
96 (75)
#Shaft excavation was discontinued before completion
##
- Depth of shaft in rock is shown in brackets where nominal water seepage was permitted
7
GROUND SURFACE SETTLEMENT
The ground surface settlement from the excavation was monitored around the shafts to ensure that it
did not exceed the specified maximum value of 25 mm including the measurements taken on seawall
copings adjoining the shafts. In general this limit was not exceeded but at Chai Wan production shaft
where there was a high ingress of water into the shaft the settlement values were more than 25 mm.
This shaft was located on land recently reclaimed from the sea and the long term consolidation
settlement was still in progress at the time of excavation. It was therefore difficult to conclude whether
the contribution from shaft excavation alone was responsible for the excess settlement. In any event
there was no sensitive structure around this shaft at the time apart from the gantry crane foundations
which were underpinned to compensate for the subsidence.
8
CONCLUSIONS
The aim of this paper is to present the design and construction aspects of the deep shafts in Hong Kong
SAR as a case study with particular emphasis on ground related difficulties and how these were dealt
with in order to complete the works successfully. It is hoped that the problems highlighted and the
227
solutions described in this paper could provide valuable documented experience to the construction
planning of similar shafts in the future.
REFERENCES
Barton N., Lien R. & Lunde J. (1974) Engineering classification of rock masses for the design of
tunnel support. Rock Mechanics, Vol. 6, No. 4, pp. 183-236.
GEO, Geoguide 4 (1992), Guide to Cavern Engineering, Geotechnical Engineering Office, Civil
Engineering Department , Kong Kong, pp. 76-78.
Pakianathan L. J., Kwong A. K. L., McLearie D.D., Chan W. L. (2002). Pipe Jacking: Case Study on
Overcoming Ground Difficulties in the Hong Kong SAR Harbour Area Treatment Scheme. Trenchless
Asia 2002, 12-14 November 2002, Hong Kong.
228
DTSS Shaft R2: Shaft and Tunnel Excavation in

Weathered Bukit Timah Granite
O. Sigl
GEOCONSULT ASIA SINGAPORE, Singapore
G. Jedlitschka
GEOCONSULT ASIA SINGAPORE, Singapore
J.-M. Wehrli
ED ZBLIN AG, Singapore
ABSTRACT: The structures around Shaft R2 are part of Contract T-06 of the Singapore Deep Tunnel
Sewerage System (DTSS). Shaft R2 was constructed using secant bored piles as temporary retaining
wall system. The system was designed as a closed ring. The structural system however was challenged
after several piles were found significantly out of tolerance during excavation. The tunnel connecting
to the main sewer tunnel was excavated by sequential excavation method and supported by sprayed
concrete lining. The settlements measured during tunnel advance have been evaluated using influence
lines and trend lines in order to assess the deformation trends and to estimate the settlements at the
crossing with the 600m high pressure gas main. Based on this evaluation procedure it was possible to
obtain early information allowing implementation of appropriate contingency measures, such as
sealing of tunnel lining by grouting and installation of groundwater re-charge wells, in order to limit
and control the settlements.
1 INTRODUCTION
The structures around Shaft R2 are part of Contract T-06 of the Singapore Deep Tunnel Sewerage
System (DTSS). In the year 2000, design and construction of DTSS contract T06 was awarded to Ed.
Zblin AG. Shaft R2 which is located at the junction of Thomson Road with Lornie Road, provides a
structure for permanent access to the sewer and connects a link sewer to the main sewer. The main
sewer tunnel is constructed by earth pressure balanced (EPB) TBM with a cutter head designed to
advance also through sections of high strength granite. The 3.9 m diameter segmental lining will
finally be lined with a 150mm thick corrosion protection lining (CPL) consisting of high performance
concrete and high density polyethylene (HDPE) membrane resulting in a final sewer diameter of 3.6m.
Permanent structures at Shaft R2 comprise a 3 m diameter access shaft with a finished floor level at
27 m below ground level, a service chamber in the shaft, the connection to a 800 mm diameter link
sewer and the 58 m long connection tunnel providing access and connecting the link sewer to the main
sewer tunnel.
A circular secant pile shaft is used for the temporary works of the shaft. For the connection tunnel, the
temporary tunnel lining for initial ground support is 5 m wide and 4 m high in order to accommodate
both, the permanent access tunnel and the link sewer. The connection tunnel was constructed
according to the principles of the NATM with 250 mm sprayed concrete lining. Although the
connection tunnel excavation started in very soft ground conditions at the intersection with the shaft, a
significant length had to be excavated in competent rock by drill and blast.
Main
229
Tunnelling was carried out in very close proximity to two piers of the MacRitchie road viaduct and
below the 600 mm diameter high pressure transmission gas main, which is following Lornie Road. At
the crossing with the access tunnel the gas main is installed in a depth of approx. 8 m below surface.
However immediately after the crossing the installation depth is reduced to approx. 2 m below ground
with two sharp bends, which makes the situation more critical. The temporary works of shaft and the
connection tunnel were successfully completed in September 2002.
2 GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS
The ground conditions at the shaft location and along the tunnel are derived from soil investigation
boreholes.
At the shaft location, subsurface condition can be described as follows. A 5 m thick layer of fill
material is overlying an about 5m thick layer of very soft, highly compressible peaty clay of the
Estuarine Deposit (E). Beneath the peaty clay are layers of loose sand (F1). The F1 layer however
does not cover the entire area but is concentrated at localised stretches such as the erosion valleys of
ancient rivers or creeks.
These materials are underlain by the residual soil and completely weathered material of the Bukit
Timah Granite, referred to as G4 material, which is extending all the way down to the shaft invert at
about RL 79.5 m. The level at the ground surface is about R.L. 107.5 m. These materials of the Bukit
Timah Granite are predominantly clayey silt and further distinguished into residual soil G4 (RSG4)
and completely weathered G4 Bukit Timah Granite (CWG4).
The residual soil G4 material is typically occurring within the first 10 m and of medium stiff
consistency with SPT N-value ranging from 8 to 13. It is followed by the stiffer completely weathered
G4 material, which in turn is followed by the rock-like highly fractured, moderately to slightly
weathered granite of the G2 material. At the shaft location, G2 is occurring not far below the tunnel
invert. Groundwater permeability of G4 and G2 materials are significantly different. It is known from
previous experience that increased groundwater inflow have to be expected at the interface zone
between these two materials.
Relevant geotechnical design parameters used for tunnel design are shown in Table 1 below. Idealised
ground conditions are given in Figure 1. The design ground water table is at the ground surface. In
addition a uniform surcharge load of 22.5 kN/m2 is considered in both, the shaft as well as the
connection tunnel lining design.
The soil types encountered at the shaft are given in Table 1 below.
Table 1
Soil Types and Geotechnical Design Parameters
Typical depth
Geotechnical unit
USC Symbol
Average
Youngs modulus Ec
[m]
SPT N300
[MPa]
0.0 5.0
Fill (A)
CH/CL
4
1.75
5.0 10.0
Estuarine (E)
Pt
2
0.9
7.0 12.0 *
Loose fluvial sand (F1)
SM/SC
5
7.5
10.0 24.5
Residual soil granite material MH
10 - 35
10 47
(RSG4)
24.5 28.0
Completely weathered granite SM
60
90
material (CWG4)
Below 28.0
Jointed rock (G2)
n.a.
n.a.
500
* Depth is based on boreholes in the vicinity of the shaft, loose fluvial sand (F1) was not encountered directly
at the shaft location
As can be seen from Figure 1 below, competent jointed granite of the G2 layer is coming up along the
tunnel eventually extending above tunnel crown level at the connection with the main sewer tunnel.
230
Figure 1 Ground conditions Borehole information and section through shaft and access tunnel
3 MONITORING
3.1 Monitoring
Since tunnel excavation will be carried out in very soft ground conditions, comprehensive monitoring
instrumentation is installed in order to capture a continuous and clear understanding of the settlements
created by shaft and tunnel construction.
Figure 2 Typical monitoring array for access tunnel construction
The monitoring layout consists of surface settlement points, deep settlement points, inclinometers and
convergence monitoring sections in shaft and tunnel to monitor the behaviour of ground and
temporary support during shaft and tunnel excavation. In addition, piers of the MacRitchie road
viaduct structure are monitored in three dimension using theodolite and optical prism. Piezometers and
231
water-stand-pipes are installed to monitor the effect of the construction works on the ground water
regime.
However, since the tunnel excavation had to underpass a very busy road and the high pressure gas
main emphasis was laid on the evaluation of settlement monitoring and means of estimation of
deformations ahead of the actual excavation face were developed.
3.2 Recharge Well System
Owing to the presence of up to 5 m peaty clay (Estuarine) and other compressible layers of the
Kallang formation and the risk of de-watering with subsequent consolidation settlements was
recognised in the design process of temporary lining structures. Therefore, apart from a detailed
analysis to optimise the excavation staging in order to limit the exposure time of unsupported faces, a
system of re-charge wells was installed.
The recharging targeted the layers of loose sand (F1) underlying the highly compressible peaty clay in
order to avoid triggering of consolidation settlements. Since the F1 layer does not occur directly above
the connection tunnel, additional re-charge wells were located close to the excavation and with direct
pressurised recharge into the G4 materials.
The operation of the recharge well system during shaft and tunnel excavation confirmed the
recharging capacity and showed that the system could successfully control and minimise groundwater
drawdown occurring during the works.
4 ACCESS SHAFT
4.1 General
For the temporary access shaft with an internal diameter of 7.4 m and an excavation depth of
30 meters, circular arrangement of secant bored piles was used as temporary retaining structure. The
shaft comprised 40 nos. 900 mm bored piles. Every second pile was unreinforced.
The shaft bottom was closed with a 1.1 m thick base slab, designed to carry the full groundwater
pressure.
In order to provide sufficient stiffness for the break out of the connection tunnel, the base slab and a
RC ring-beam above the opening were designed to strut the shaft and support the tunnel opening.
Figure 3 Access shaft Section
232
4.2 Design Approach

The temporary shaft is designed as circular shaft without any intermediate walers except one concrete
waler on top of the piles and one ring-beam above the opening for the connection tunnel. It was
decided to design the shaft structure as a closed ring only and the piles were not designed and
reinforced for the installation of intermediate walers. However in the unfortunate case of piles going
out of tolerance resulting in hoop action disturbed or lost a second internal cast in-situ lining might be
required as contingency measure.
Required bored pile diameter and over-cut was determined based on piling tolerances and resulting
design hoop stresses in the ring of secant piles. As a result the minimum required piling tolerance in
radial direction was 1:200, which was guaranteed by the piling contractor.
At the opening for the connection tunnel, the piles next to the tunnel opening were heavily reinforced.
This approach allowed the reinforcement in the bored piles passing through the future tunnel opening
to stop short in order to allow easier and faster breaking out.
4.3 Shaft excavation
Penetration of bored piles was 30 m below ground surface. This was about 3m below shaft formation
level and the pile toes were expected to be just above rock level. Therefore, the pile penetration was
considered sufficient to seal-off inflow of groundwater and soft material both potentially present at the
soil rock interface.
However, unexpected ingress of groundwater and soil occurred when excavation had reached already
ring beam level (approximately 24 m below ground level). It turned out that below this level,
verticality of the secant bored piles was not sufficient and a gap between the piles had formed
allowing water and soil to flow into the excavation. Since the structural system of a closed circular
ring was no longer given, some of the piles started to develop bending cracks. Therefore, it was
immediately decided to backfill the shaft 5 m up to RL 85 m.
After exploring several options for remedial measures and considering the fact that the gaps between
the piles are at one side of the connection tunnel opening, it was decided to install a grouting curtain at
the outside and a continuous internal lining from backfill level (approx. 5 m above the ring beam at the
crown of the access tunnel) down to formation level. This secondary RC lining was cast in stages
following the shaft excavation steps. Before excavation proceeded, grouting at the outside of the shaft
all around the perimeter was carried out to seal the shaft and avoid any further water and soil ingress
during re-excavation.
Figure 4
View into the shaft and deviation of installed secant piles
The most serious gap was located just beside the excavation line of the opening for the connection
tunnel.
233
The internal cast in-situ lining was designed to provide the structural system of a closed ring again. In
the section below the ring beam the subsequent opening for the access tunnel had to be taken into
account. Vertical deep beams adjacent to the opening, were designed to transfer the lining load to the
base slab below and the ring beam on top of the opening.
Figure 5 Break out from shaft into access tunnel
5 ACCCESS TUNNEL
5.1 General
Once the shaft was successfully excavated and the base slab cast the bored piles were hacked and
connection tunnel excavation started.
The shaft base slab was designed to carry the full groundwater pressure load. However, openings were
provided to allow temporary groundwater drainage into the shaft in order to draw groundwater away
from the tunnel excavation face during the most critical excavation stages until the excavation cycle is
fully developed and lining ring closure is achieved.
Figure 6 Access tunnel Temporary initial ground support Design and Application
234
5.2 Design of Initial Support

Initial ground support lining for the connection tunnel lining was based on finite element analyses
using the program code PLAXIS. Based on the results of these analyses, the required thickness of the
initial shotcrete lining was determined. The calculation resulted in 250mm thick shotcrete.
Since the rock head was expected to gradually enter into the excavation rising from below the tunnel
invert up to levels above the crown as the tunnel progresses, two different types of initial ground
support lining were designed and installed during excavation based on the actual requirements.
Type 1 for soft ground with curved lining in the invert, 250 mm thick shotcrete and full round lattice
girder.
Type 2 with flat invert for the case rock is 1m or more above the tunnel invert with lattice girder in top
heading and side walls but omitted in the invert.
For tunnel excavations in soft ground, maintaining the stability of the current excavation face is one of
the most important issues. Face stability is mainly controlled by the advance length and the height and
width of excavation stages. Therefore, in order to maintain face stability at conservative levels
forepoling was required along most of the tunnel length, the excavation was split into two stages, top
heading and a combined bench/invert. The advance length was fixed at 1.0 to 1.2m.
5.3 Tunnel Excavation
After installation of 4.5m forepoling rods in the tunnel crown, excavation was carried out in 1m lining
advances. Excavation was carried out in top heading and bench/invert stages. Each excavation stage
was immediately followed by application of shotcrete sealing and installation of temporary lining.
Decisions on particular adjustments to the ground support measure were made by the Senior
Tunnelling Engineer in close co-operation with the contractors construction team. These adjustment
were governed purely by actual ground conditions and groundwater inflows encountered as well as
settlement measured at the ground surface and adjacent structures.
Figure 7 Access tunnel Installation of temporary ground support, drilling of blasting holes
5.4 Monitoring during construction

The close proximity to sensitive structures such as the road viaduct piers and the high pressure gas
main required an extremely flexible approach to evaluation procedures of monitoring results, which
was orientated on actual soil behaviour encountered during excavation and the measured construction
impact.
Monitoring evaluation solely based on comparison of monitoring results to pre-defined trigger values
was judged to be unsuitable at a very early stage. Therefore, an evaluation procedure based on
235
influence lines rather than time histories was developed. The basic schematic and processes involved
in such a procedure are explained and presented below.
During tunnel excavation, settlement points placed along the tunnel axis will start to show settlements
when the excavation face has reached a certain distance to the excavation face. After this point in time
settlements will gradually increase with the face approaching further and passing the particular
monitoring point. The maximum settlement will be reached when the face has left the influence zone
for this particular monitoring location.
It is clear that settlements are controlled by deformations actually occurring at excavation level, which
in turn mainly depend on the local ground conditions (soil strength and stiffness) but are seriously
influenced by excavation and ground support method employed.
It is common knowledge that in normal ground and excavation conditions, about 50% of soil
deformations have already occurred before the excavation face actually reaches to this location. Such
pre-deformations can only be captured by subsurface instruments such as extensometers, but remain
undetected by convergence monitoring carried out inside the tunnel excavation.
However, the 50% figure described above may be significantly increased in cases of tunnels in soft
ground, short tunnel lining ring closure but insufficient face stability conditions resulting in large
amounts of soil deformation ahead of the face. Therefore, in critical and sensitive situations, face
stability conditions should be assessed on a conservative basis in order to limit pre-deformation to a
minimum.
If, based on this approach, monitoring evaluation are displayed along the tunnel axis the result is a line
for each particular date (influence line). At a particular monitoring point, marking the settlement
measured at the time when the excavation face passed this location and connecting these points yields
a line which is in the following referred to as a trend line. In a situation with steady ground response as
the tunnel advances, this trend line appears in the diagram as a horizontal line. If the deflections are
getting worse the line dives down if deformations improve the line tends to go up.
Figure below is showing the excavation progress (tunnel advance) over time. It is indicating the
advance rate and clearly shows excavation stoppages.
Construction Progress
09.09.02
S-6116
S-6120
S-6122
S-6126
S-6127
S-6129
S-6133
S-6134
S-6135
50.0
55.0
S-6139
02.09.02
26.08.02
- 600 mm Gas Main -
19.08.02
Date
12.08.02
05.08.02
29.07.02
22.07.02
Stop of excavation work to
seal tunnel
15.07.02
08.07.02
01.07.02
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
35.0
40.0
45.0
60.0
Chainage [m]
Figure 8 Excavation progress
Based on the principles presented above, the monitoring results measured during excavation of the
connection tunnel plot as the following diagram, where the trend line is indicated with the label
trend.
As can be seen from the below diagram, the influence lines are indicating that with increasing tunnel
advance the settlement increments are increasing, resulting in a trend line with a distinct downwards
trend.
236
Great concerns were raised in view of the approach to the gas main crossing, since extrapolation of
settlements indicated that if the trends continue to follow this pattern, settlements are likely to exceed
the prescribed limits at the gas pipe location.
Settlement Influence Lines above Crown 17.6.02 to 18.7.02
10
S-6116
0
S-6120
S-6122
S-6126
S-6127
S-6129
S-6133
S-6134
S-6135
S-6139
- 17.06.02 - 24.06.02 -
-10
Settlements [mm]
- 01.07.02 -
- 600 mm Gas Main - 08.07.02 -
-20
-30
- 15.07.02 -
TRENDLINE
-40
-50
17.06.02
24.06.02
01.07.02
08.07.02
15.07.02
trend
-60
-70
14.0
19.0
24.0
29.0
34.0
39.0
44.0
49.0
54.0
59.0
Chainage [m]
Figure 9 Monitoring results and influence line until 18.07.2002
Detailed assessment based on the shape of the influence line and considering also the shape of each
settlement history over time, it was concluded that the groundwater inflow into the tunnel was playing
a significant role in the settlement situation.
In fact, significant ground water inflow through the excavation face was encountered during
tunnelling. In addition ground water inflow occurred also through the finished tunnel lining further
back behind the excavation face. Therefore, the judgement on site was to temporarily stop the
excavation, go back and seal the tunnel by secondary grouting through the lining and install and
activate additional recharge wells in the vicinity of the tunnel.
The consequences can be seen in the continuation of the settlement diagram indicating a distinct
change in the tendency of the influence line. Please refer to figure below.
10
S-6116
0
S-6120
S-6122
S-6126
S-6127
S-6129
S-6133
S-6134
S-6135
S-6139
- 17.06.02 - 24.06.02 -
-10
Settlements [mm]
- 01.07.02 -
- 600 mm Gas Main - 08.07.02 -
-20
- 19.08.02 -
-30
- 15.07.02 - 22.07.02 -
-40
- 12.08.02 -
-50
-60
-70
14.0
- 05.08.02 -
- 29.07.02 -
17.06.02
01.07.02
15.07.02
29.07.02
12.08.02
trend
TRENDLINE
19.0
24.0
29.0
34.0
39.0
44.0
49.0
54.0
24.06.02
08.07.02
22.07.02
05.08.02
19.08.02
59.0
Chainage [m]
Figure 10 Monitoring influence line after grouting measures
With the improved control of groundwater inflow into the tunnel the trend was reversed and the gas
main was crossed within the required settlement limits. However, close to the end of the connection
tunnel a TBM maintenance chamber had to be constructed in order to carryout maintenance on the
TBM cutter head once the TBM has arrived at this location. Owing to the construction of the
237
maintenance chamber perpendicular to the connection tunnel, the shotcrete lining had to be removed
and replaced. This operation resulted again in temporarily increased ground water inflow which
immediately showed its results in the trends of the influence line.
10
S-6127
S-6129
S-6133
S-6134
S-6135
S-6139
-10
- 600 mm Gas Main -
Settlements [mm]
-20
TRENDLIN
- 19.08.02 -
-30
- 22.07.02 -
-40
- 12.08.02 -
-50
- 26.08.02 -
- 05.08.02 -
- 29.07.02 -
- 23.09.02 - 02.09.02 -
-60
17.06.02
01.07.02
15.07.02
29.07.02
12.08.02
26.08.02
09.09.02
23.09.02
- 09.09.02 - 16.09.02 -
-70
-80
32.0
34.0
36.0
38.0
40.0
42.0
44.0
46.0
48.0
50.0
52.0
54.0
56.0
58.0
24.06.02
08.07.02
22.07.02
05.08.02
19.08.02
02.09.02
16.09.02
trend
60.0
62.0
Chainage [m]
Figure 11 Monitoring influence lines after temporary increased groundwater inflow
Nevertheless grouting was carried out again in order to achieve better sealing of the tunnel lining and
the connection tunnel was eventually successfully completed.
6 CONCLUSIONS
Both, the work shaft as well as the access tunnel have been completed successfully in weathered Bukit
Timah Granite.
Following particular methods and systems have been employed successfully:
Circular bored pile shafts may be designed for rings structure only, however contingencies have to
be considered in case some of the piles are out of tolerance disturbing the ring action.
Ground water recharge system to control groundwater inflows due to excavation and eventually
control both, short-term as well as long-term settlements
Reinforced sprayed concrete linings with detailed design of excavation sequences in order to
control settlements occurring ahead of the excavation face and in the tunnel section with lining
ring not yet closed
Evaluation of monitoring results using influence lines in order to quickly respond to settlement
rends which otherwise would not be evident from the ordinary time history diagrams
238
Soil-Structure Interaction between Existing and New

Bored Tunnels
A.M. Hefny, H.C. Chua, J. Zhao
ABSTRACT: The development of congested large cities implies a need to make effective use of
underground space. Therefore, multiple tunnels in the development areas have to be constructed more
often in close proximity to the existing tunnels. Prediction of stresses induced in the existing tunnels is
therefore essential. A numerical study using the finite element method program PLAXIS was
implemented to predict the effect of the excavation of new bored tunnels on the stresses induced in the
lining of existing adjacent tunnels. The effects of tunnels relative position, tunnels proximity, and
Volume Loss have been studied in details. Observation of the results demonstrates that a new tunnel
excavated above the crown of an existing tunnel would reduce the bending moment induced in the
lining of the existing tunnel. However, the bending moment will increase substantially if the new
tunnel is excavated beside the existing tunnel. Larger Volume Loss would also induce higher bending
moment in the lining of the existing tunnel after interaction with the new adjacent tunnel and therefore
safety and planning purposes can be affected by these factors.
1
INTRODUCTION
In Singapore, the rapid development of land has indirectly increased the congestion situation of the
underground tunnels. As a result, tunnels might have to be constructed in close proximity with each
other to accommodate transportation system, communication and utility networks such as water
supply and sewerage system. In such cases, interaction between existing and new adjacent tunnels
must be evaluated to ensure that excessive stresses are not developed in the lining of the existing
adjacent tunnels.
Peck (1969) developed a simple empirical procedure to predict the ground surface settlement due to
the interaction effect for closely spaced tunnels. Reduced-scale physical model testing of closely
spaced tunnels in clay were reported by Kim et al. (1998). Their study showed the important
interactions that occur between the adjacent tunnels. Yamaguchi et al. (1998) reported the groundtunnel interactions of four shield tunnels driven in close proximity with each other for the MisasagiEast Contract, Kyoto City, Japan. They reported change in stresses in the pre-existing tunnel lining
due to excavation of the new adjacent tunnels. However, there is no much attempts have been made to
study the various factors that affect the interaction between closely spaced tunnels.
The objective of this paper is to study the effect of the different factors affecting the change in bending
moment and axial force in a pre-existing tunnel due to the excavation of a new adjacent tunnel. In
particular, the relative position of the two tunnels, the distance between the two tunnels and the
Volume Loss are studied in more detail.
Main
239
MODEL SIMULATION STUDIES
The two-dimensional finite element method program PLAXIS (Brinkgreve, 2002) was adopted in this
numerical study. Full-face excavation of the pre-existing and new adjacent bored tunnels with the
lining supporting the tunnels immediately after the excavation were modelled. In this analysis, typical
lining parameters of North-East Line MRT Tunnel in Singapore were adopted. Table 1 summarizes
the properties of tunnel lining. The main analysis is performed on tunnels of 6.0m in diameter (D) with
a cover-to-diameter ratio of 3.5 for the existing tunnel. The ground is considered elastic with
parameters as suggested by Orihara et al. (2001) for the marine clay layer at New Dhoby Ghaut
Station for MRT North-East Line as shown in Table 2.
Table 1 Properties of elastic tunnel lining (after Sebastian & Nadarajah, 2000)
Parameter
Symbol
Value
Unit
Thickness
t
0.275
m
Weight
w
6.6
kN/m/m
Youngs modulus
El
32000
MN/m2
Poissons ratio
l
0.2
Table 2 Properties of soft marine clay (after Orihara et al., 2001)
Parameter
Symbol
Value
Unit weight
16
Coefficient of earth pressure at rest
0.625
Ko
Youngs modulus
Es
6
0.495
Poissons ratio
s
20
Shear strength
Cu
Friction angle
22
Ground water level
G.W.L.
-2
Unit
kN/m3
MN/m2
kN/m2
o
INFLUENCE OF TUNNELS ANGULAR RELATIVE POSITION
This study was performed to investigate the effect of the angular position of a new tunnel relative to a
parallel existing tunnel. The relative position was measured by the angle between the center-tocenter line and the crown-invert line of the existing tunnel as shown in Figure 1. An angle of 0o
represents a new tunnel directly above the crown of an existing tunnel, while an angle of 90o
represents a new tunnel excavated beside and at the same depth as the existing tunnel. In this study,
the distance between tunnels was kept constant at three times the tunnel radius (centre-to-centre). All
the soil and lining properties were unchanged throughout the analysis. Results of two cases of Volume
Loss (VL of 0% and 2%) are presented in this section due to the fact that the results generated are
sensitive to Volume Loss. The case of Volume Loss of 0% represents an ideal perfect excavation case
while the case of Volume Loss of 2% represents an upper bound for 93% of the Volume Loss values
measured during the construction of North-East Line of Singapore Mass Rapid Transit System
(Shirlaw et al., 2001).
240
0o to 180o
New Bored
Tunnel
Existing
Tunnel
Figure 1 Influence of tunnels angular relative position
Figure 2 and Figure 3 show respectively the maximum axial force and maximum bending moment
induced in the existing tunnel, before and after interaction with the new bored tunnel for angular
relative position ranging from 0o to 180o, for the two cases of Volume Loss (VL of 0% and 2%).
Case 1: No Volume Loss (VL of 0%)
Figure 2 shows that when the new tunnel is driven above the existing tunnel, the existing tunnel
experiences a decrease in the maximum axial force. This can be attributed to the decrease in vertical
pressure acting on the existing tunnel due to the removal of a mass of soil above the tunnel. It can be
seen from Figure 2 that the excavation of the new tunnel beside or below the existing tunnel has
negligible effect on the maximum axial force induced in the lining.
It can be seen from Figure 3 that the influence of angular relative position of the new tunnel on the
bending moment induced in the existing tunnel is significant compared to the axial force. Figure 3
shows that for the case of no Volume Loss, there is a decrease in the maximum bending moment
induced in the existing tunnel after interaction with the new tunnel when the new tunnel is excavated
above the existing tunnel with relative position from 0o to about 45o. This can be attributed to the
decrease in vertical pressure acting on the existing tunnel after the new tunnel is excavated. When the
new tunnel is excavated below the existing tunnel, the bending moment in the existing tunnel
substantially increases. This can be attributed to the fact that the excavation of the new tunnel below
the existing tunnel reduces the ground stiffness in the vertical direction which leads to larger vertical
deformation to the lining and therefore the bending moment increases. In this case, the maximum
change in bending moment in the existing tunnel was about 30% of that before interaction with the
new tunnel.
Case 2: Volume Loss (VL of 2%)
It can be seen from Figure 3 that for the case of Volume Loss of 2%, the position of the new tunnel
relative to the existing tunnel has significant influence on the maximum bending moment. The
maximum bending moment induced in the existing tunnel after interaction with the new tunnel
increases when the new tunnel is excavated at the relative position of about 45o to 135o, i.e. when the
new bored tunnel is at the position relatively near the springline of the existing adjacent tunnel. The
maximum increase in bending moment is about 50% of the value before excavation of the new tunnel.
This increase in bending moment in the existing tunnel can be attributed to the decrease in horizontal
earth resistance after excavating the new tunnel close to the springline of the existing tunnel. The
decrease in the horizontal earth resistance increases the deformation of the tunnel and hence the
bending moment increases.
241
Relative Positions of New Bored Tunnel (Degree)

112.
157.
0
22.5 45 67.5 90
5
135
5
180
Maximum Axial Force (kN/m)
-750
VL=0%
-800
VL=2%
-850
-900
Existing Tunnel Before

Interaction VL=0%
-950

Interaction VL=2%
-1000
-1050
Figure 2 Variation of maximum axial force (existing tunnel after interaction) with relative position of new bored
tunnel
Maximum Bending Moment

(kNm/m)
140
120
100
VL=0%
80
VL=2%
60

Interaction
40
20
0 22.5 45 67.5 90 113 135 158 180
Relative Positions of New Bored Tunnel (Degree)
Figure 3 Variation of maximum bending moment (existing tunnel after interaction) with relative position of new
bored tunnel
INFLUENCE OF DISTANCE BETWEEN EXISTING AND NEW BORED TUNNELS
In this study, the new and existing tunnels are located at the same depth ( = 90o). The distance
between the two horizontally parallel tunnels was varied between 2.5 to 10 times of tunnel radius (R),
centre-to-centre, as shown in Figure 4. All the soil and lining properties were kept constant during the
study as given in Table 1 and Table 2. Results of two cases of Volume Loss (0% and 2%) are
presented in Figure 5.
R
Existing
Tunnel
New Bored
Tunnel
2.5R to 10R
Figure 4 Influence of distance between existing and new bored tunnels
242
Figure 5 shows that for the case of Volume Loss of 2%, the proximity of the new tunnel to the existing
tunnel has significant effect on the bending moment induced in the existing tunnel compared to the
case where there is no Volume Loss in both tunnels. For the case of 2% of Volume Loss, the
excavation of the new tunnel may lead to substantial increase in the maximum bending moment of the
existing tunnel. As the distance between the two tunnels decreases, the increase in the maximum
bending moment induced is larger. It can also be seen from Figure 5 that the critical distance between
the two tunnels below which the bending moment increases substantially is about five times of tunnel
radius (centre-to-centre). An increase in maximum bending moment of about 30% occurs when the
new tunnel is excavated at a distance of three times of tunnel radius (centre-to-centre). Besides, it
should also be noted that no additional bending moment is induced in the lining of existing tunnel for
the case of zero Volume Loss.

(kNm/m)
150
140
130
120
VL=0%
110
VL=2%
100
Interaction
90
80
70
60
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Distance Between Tunnels (Radius)
11
Figure 5 Variation of maximum bending moment (existing tunnel after interaction) with distance of new bored
tunnel horizontally parallel with the existing tunnel
INFLUENCE OF VOLUME LOSS
The study of influence of Volume Loss was conducted with the new bored tunnel positioned beside
and at the same depth as the existing tunnel at a distance of three times of tunnel radius (centre-tocentre). The study was performed for Volume Loss ranging from 0% to 8% in both tunnels. In other
words, the same workmanship quality was assumed for both tunnels. All the soil and lining properties
were kept constant as those given in Table 1 and Table 2. The resulting maximum bending moment
induced in the existing tunnel after interaction is summarized in Figure 6.
It can be seen from Figure 6 that the Volume Loss has a significant effect on the bending moment
induced in the existing tunnel. For the case of Volume Loss of about 0.5%, no change in the value of
maximum bending moment occurs. For the case of Volume Loss less than 0.5%, there is a slight
decrease in the maximum bending moment after interaction. However, for cases of Volume Loss
greater than 0.5%, the higher the value of Volume Loss, the larger the maximum bending moment
induced in the existing tunnel after interaction.
For a typical case of Volume Loss of 2%, the increase in maximum bending moment in the existing
tunnel after interaction is about 30% for the case where the distance between tunnels is three times of
tunnel radius (centre-to-centre).
243

(kNm/m)
250
200
Interaction
150
Existing Tunnel After

Interaction
100
50
4
6
Volume Loss (%)
10
Figure 6 Variation of maximum bending moment with Volume Loss
CONCLUSIONS
A numerical study to investigate the effect of new bored tunnels on the bending moment and axial
force induced in the lining of existing adjacent tunnels has been performed. The influence of tunnels
relative position, distance between tunnels and Volume Loss has been studied in detail. The finite
element method program PLAXIS was adopted in the investigation. From the results of this
investigation, the following conclusions may be drawn:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
The position of the new bored tunnel relative to the existing tunnel, the distance between the new
and existing tunnels and the Volume Loss have significant effect on the bending moment induced
in the existing tunnel after interaction with the new adjacent tunnel.
There is a decrease in the maximum bending moment induced in the lining of existing tunnel
when the new tunnel is excavated above the existing tunnel.
For cases of small percentage of Volume Loss (less than about 0.5%), the excavation of the new
tunnel below the existing tunnel leads to an increase in the bending moment in the lining of
existing tunnel.
For cases of Volume Loss greater than 0.5%, the excavation of the new tunnel beside the existing
tunnel may lead to significant increase in the bending moment of the existing tunnel.
The decrease in distance between tunnels may lead to substantial increase in the bending moment
induced in the existing tunnel. The critical distance between the two tunnels below which the
bending moment increases substantially is about five times of tunnel radius (centre-to-centre).
The increase in the bending moment of the existing tunnel after interaction with a new tunnel in
very close proximity (2.5R centre-to-centre) is about 50% of that before interaction for the case
of Volume Loss of 2%.
As the Volume Loss increases, the bending moment induced in the lining of existing
tunnel increases.
REFERENCES
Brinkgreve, R.B.J., 2002. PLAXIS 2D Version 8. A.A. Balkema Publishers.
Kim, S. H. and Burd, H. J. and Milligan, G. W. E., 1998.
Model testing of closely spaced tunnels in clay.
Geotechnique, 375-388.
Orihara, K. and Chan, M. L., Chabayashi, K. and Okamoto, S., Teo, P. T. P and Tan, C. G., 2001. Excavation
of New Dhoby Ghaut Station for MRT North East Line. Proceedings of Underground Singapore 2001,
Singapore, 29-30 November 2001, Session 5.
Peck, R. B., 1969.
Deep Excavation and Tunnelling in Soft Ground. Proceedings Of The 7th International
Conference Of Soil Mechanics, Mexico, State-of-art Volume, 225-290.
244
Peck, R. B., Hendron, A. J. and Mohraz, B., 1972.

State of the art of soft ground tunneling. 1st North A M.
Rapid Excavation and Tunnelling Conference, Chapter 19.
Sebastian, P and Nadarajah, P., 2000.
Construction of North East Line tunnels at Singapore River Crossing.
Tunnelling in soft ground. Proceedings of the international conference on tunnels and underground
structures, Singapore, 191-198.
Shirlaw, J.N., Ong, J.C.W., Rosser, H.B., Osborne, N.H., Tan, C.G. and Heslop, P.J.E., 2001.
Immediate
Settlements Due to Tunnelling for the North East Line. Proceedings of Underground Singapore 2001,
Singapore, 29-30 November 2001, Session 3.
Yamaguchi, I. and Yamazaki, I. and Kiritani, Y., 1998.
Study of Ground-Tunnel Interactions of Four Shield
Tunnels Driven in Close proximity, in Relation to Design and Construction of Parallel Shield Tunnels.
Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, Vol 13, No. 3, 289-304.
245
Design of TBM Work Shaft and TBM Launching

Chamber
O. Sigl
Geoconsult Asia Singapore
B. Stacherl
Geoconsult Asia Singapore
ABSTRACT: Contract T03 of the Singapore deep tunneling system (DTSS) comprises a 6.0 m ID
main tunnel, a number of access shafts, lateral tunnels as well as structures on the surface. The main
tunnel is currently being constructed by means of an earth pressure balanced shield machine. The
tunnel boring machine (TBM) was launched from a 7.6 m diameter launch chamber, constructed by
means of New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM) at the bottom of a 12 m diameter 32 m deep work
shaft. This paper focuses on the design of the large diameter work shaft and the TBM launch chamber.
Design and construction methods employed for the work shaft were significantly influenced by the
proximity to an existing MRT depot and a highway interchange with depressed road, which was
concurrently under construction. Due to the presence of the MRT test track in the depot area, stringent
performance requirements have been established with regards to the construction methods employed
and ground settlements, requiring groundwater recharging and ground treatment in the vicinity of the
shaft.
1 INTRODUCTION
The T03 contractor Kumagai Gumi SembCorp Joint Venture, chose to drive the main tunnel by a
7.16 m diameter earth pressure balanced Kawasaki shield TBM, supported by a pre-cast concrete
segmental lining. The tunnel was successfully completed in December 2002. In early 2001, the
Kawasaki earth pressure balanced shield machine was launched from the 7.6 m ID TBM launch
chamber for the 5.2km long main tunnel drive.
The launch chamber was constructed at the bottom of the about 34m deep work shaft by means of
NATM (New Austrian Tunneling Method) using sequential excavation and a temporary sprayed
concrete lining. The two neighbouring DTSS contractors will drive their TBMs into this work shaft so
forming a junction where two auxiliary tunnels and three main sewer tunnels meet. The design and
construction of the work shaft and all adjacent underground structures were apart from the locally
very poor ground conditions mainly dictated by the proximity to the Bishan MRT Depot and the
concurrent construction of the depressed road of the CTE Braddell Road Interchange. The depressed
road underpass crossed above the DTSS Tunnel immediately in front of the TBM launch chamber. For
the layout of structures around the work shaft refer to Figures 1 and 2.
The major limitations imposed by the presence of the MRT depot were stringent requirements with
regard to allowable groundwater lowering, in the vicinity of the works and ground treatment for shaft
construction.
2 GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS
At the surface, the site is generally covered with a fill material of clayey silt texture with some sand
and gravel. Soil investigation carried out at the work shaft showed the presence of two main
formations, a recent alluvial deposit, commonly termed as the Kallang formation, overlying the Old
Main
246
Alluvium. The various members of the Kallang formation encountered include estuarine deposits
(peaty clay), present near the ground surface, with an extremely high water content.
Figure 1 Structures at the work & access shaft Plan layout with measured settlement isolines
Figure 2
Section through the work shaft and depressed road
These layers are overlying the upper and the lower marine clay, which are very soft to soft clays. In
between are layers of sand (F1) and sandy clay (F2). The soil types encountered at the shaft are shown
in Figure 2 and described in Table 1 below. The Old Alluvium below the Kallang formation is
247
generally dense to very dense with SPT N-value up to 100 or greater, but with a shallow intermediate
layer of about 1.5 m to 6 m thickness of highly weathered to completely weathered material of the Old
Alluvium. The 34 m deep work shaft had to be excavated through all of the above soil layers despite a
distinctive local history of consolidation settlements due to presence of compressible soil layers in
particular the estuarine and marine clay.
Based on these conditions, two principal initial support systems was chosen for the work shaft. One
was for the soft soils of the Kallang formation in the upper part of the shaft, and the other for the more
competent layers of the Old Alluvium in the lower section. The main focus when choosing the support
system in the Kallang formation was on the control of ground movements, water leakage and
consolidation settlement. The F1 sand and the highly weathered upper layers of the Old Alluvium
(HWOA) are known to have potentially high permeability. Such considerations played a significant
role in the design of ground treatment measures to prevent soil erosion and consolidation problems
during excavation in this highly sensitive area.
The TBM launch chamber had to be excavated at the lower shaft section, in Old Alluvium with a
cover of approximately 2 m to the slightly weathered, and about 5 m to the highly weathered layers of
the Old Alluvium. Previous experience from tunneling in Old Alluvium along with the interpretation
of soil investigation results in the vicinity of the work shaft indicated that NATM using sequential
excavation and sprayed concrete linings was the most suitable and economic tunneling method for the
lower shaft section and the TBM launching chamber.
Table 1
Soil Types and Typical Geotechnical Design Parameters
Typical depth
Geotechnical unit
USC Symbol
Average
[m]
SPT N300
0.0 1.5
Fill (A)
5
1.5 5.0
Estuarine clay (E)
OH
1
5.0 8.0
Marine clay (M)
CH
1
8.0 10.0
Fluvial clay (F2)
CH/CL
5
10.0 13.0
Marine clay (M)
CH
1
13.0 15.5
Fluvial sand (F1)
SM/SC
5
15.5 18.5
HWOA highly
SM
10
weathered)
18.5 21.5
WOA (weathered)
SM/SC
24
21.5 27.5
OA
SM
>80
> 27.5
OA (cemented)
MH
>100
Youngs modulus
Ec (MPa)
4.3
1.8
2.2
4.3
2.2
5.0
8.7
21
69
87
Permeability tests (falling and rising head tests) were conducted in the area of the shaft at various
depths for all soil layers encountered. The coefficients of permeability obtained from the tests were in
the range of 10-6 to 10-7 m/s for the F1 material and the sandy layers of HWOA and only
approximately 510-9 m/s for the more clayey HWOA. Both of those values were lower than expected.
The values for Old Alluvium were between 10-8 and 610-8 m/s.
3 WORK & ACCESS SHAFT
3.1 General
Due to the proximity of the shaft works to the MRT test track, a number of limitations and
requirements were imposed on the works, and were incorporated in the contract documents. These
requirements related to the limitation of displacements for the test track and had to be considered in
conjunction with a history of consolidation settlement in the area of the shaft. The works to be carried
out were located within the MRT reserve.
The main requirements and limitations for the design and construction of the structures to be built at
the shaft were as follows:
No significant lowering of the groundwater table or reduction of pore pressure at depth
Mandatory ground treatment to limit wall deflections in all soil layers
Mandatory ground water recharge well system
Water leakage into shaft to be very small for both initial support and final lining
Limitation of vibrations caused by construction equipment to 15 mm/s peak particle velocity
248
Table 2
Displacement Limits for MRT Test Track
Criterion
Value
Max. settlement
15mm
Twist
1:1000
Increase in rail gauge
+15 mm
Decrease in rail gauge
-2 mm
Lateral displacement
14 mm
Longitudinal level
1:2500
3.2 Initial Shaft Support

Two support systems were adopted for the upper and lower section of the 32 m deep shaft, namely:
Upper section (022.5 m depth): Sheet piles and steel walers in combination with jet grouting
Lower section (>22.5 m depth): Shotcrete and wire mesh
The initial support of the upper part of the shaft, which was located in the soft soil layers of the
Kallang formation, consisted of 23 m long sheet piles arranged in a circle of approx. 12 m diameter,
and steel walers at 2.25 2.5 m spacing. The sheet piles were installed using silent piling equipment
(hydraulic jacking system) in order to limit the vibration effect on adjacent MRT structures to the
specified levels. In addition, high pressure water jetting at the sheet pile toe was used to facilitate
driving in the more competent layers of weathered (WOA) and lightly cemented Old Alluvium (OA).
By this means it was possible to install the sheet pile into soil layers of SPT(N300) of about 60.
In addition to the sheet pile wall, jet grouting was used in the soil layers of the Kallang formation and
HWOA down to a depth of 21 m below ground level. The purpose of the jet grouting treatment was to
limit wall displacements and to cut off seepage into the shaft excavation by reducing the permeability
of the soil. The jet grouting zone was formed by two intersecting rows of jet grouting columns
arranged at the outside of the sheet pile wall. The design diameter of the columns to be achieved in the
Kallang formation was 1.5 m, thus forming a 2.5 m thick ring of jet grouted soil around the sheet pile
wall. The ground treatment works were performed using triple tube jet grouting system. A
comprehensive testing programme for the treated ground was established in order to verify compliance
with the design requirements.
The requirements set by the design for soil treated by jet grouting were as follows:
Unconfined compressive strength (UCS): 500 kPa
Undrained Youngs modulus:
90 MPa (initial loading) and 220 MPa (un/re-loading)
Coefficient of permeability:
k 110-8 m/s
Based on the above limits, the testing program included determination of bulk and dry density,
moisture content, unconfined compressive strength, stress / strain relationship (Youngs modulus). The
test program also included in-situ packer tests to determine the in-situ permeability of the treated
ground. The requirements regarding compressive strength, stiffness and permeability of the treated soil
were achieved with comfortable margins.
After the test program confirmed the success of the ground treatment measures, excavation within the
circular sheet pile wall was carried out in stages dictated by the spacing of the walers. Excavation near
to the toe of the sheet piles was carried out in 1 m stages with concurrent installation of stiffening
rings of reinforced shotcrete installed directly against the sheet pile wall. The sheet pile toe was
supported by a 1.35 m wide cast in-situ concrete footing, to provide stability during the critical stage
of excavation right underneath the sheet pile toe.
Owing to the number of openings at the bottom of the shaft, a thorough study of the most feasible
ground support system was carried out. Originally, the shaft bottom initial support was intended to be
supported by reinforced cast in-situ concrete. However, owing to the complicated geometrical
conditions related to the intersection of many tunnels of different size, the use of shotcrete was found
to be more feasible. Since the shotcrete lining offered savings and speeding up of the construction
program, it was chosen to provide ground support for the lower shaft section.
249
The initial ground support of the lower portion of the shaft consisted of shotcrete reinforced with wire
mesh, with additional rebars where required. The presence of five large openings at the shaft bottom
required a 1m thick stiffening ring above the openings, which was carried out in cast in-situ reinforced
concrete (see Fig. 3).
The excavation of the lower shaft portion was carried out in stages of 1.0 1.3 m depth with
concurrent installation of shotcrete and wire mesh. When excavating directly underneath the sheet pile
toe, these advances were further sub-divided on plan into four sub-stages. Subsequently the number of
sub-stages was reduced to two and later to one respectively as the excavation progressed further away
from the sheet pile toe.
Soft eyes with a reduced shotcrete thickness were provided in the regions of future openings:
TBM launch chamber
Back shunt tunnel
De-aeration chamber
TBM break-in of two adjacent contracts (T-04 and T-06)
The back shunt tunnel, opposite of the TBM launch chamber was constructed due to requirements for
the marshalling of muck cars during TBM operation, and was backfilled before starting excavation of
the de-aeration chamber. The shotcrete lining around the openings was reinforced by rings of
increased shotcrete thickness (up to 1m) with increased rebar reinforcement. Until the arrival of the
TBMs of the adjacent contracts, only two openings in the shaft lining at one time. Once the other two
TBMs have broken in, the shaft will accommodate a total of four openings at the bottom of the shaft
ranging from about 2.5 to 7.7 m in diameter (see Figure 2 and Figure 6).
Figure 3
Initial support, upper and lower shaft section with ring beam
3.3 Recharge Well System

The contract documents specified the mandatory installation of a recharge well system around the
work shaft in order to control and recover any unintended groundwater drawdown due to shaft and
tunnel excavation. The layout of the recharge system was designed based on the results of the in-situ
permeability tests carried out as part of the additional soil investigation.
A total number of 11 wells were installed around the shaft and along the site boundary to the MRT test
track area. The recharge wells were 300 mm in diameter and approximately 23 m deep. The screened
section of the wells extended from 12 m depth all the way down into the firm Old Alluvium, but
effective recharging was considered to take place only in the F1 and HWOA layers.
After installation of the recharge wells, pumping tests were conducted in order to verify the
effectiveness of the system, to confirm the design assumptions and the need for installation of
250
additional wells prior to shaft excavation. Monitoring of adjacent wells, water standpipes and
piezometers was carried out during the tests and crucial parameters back-calculated. The parameters
included permeability, well efficiency and the radius of influence of each well. The pumping tests
showed that the recharging capacity of the system was adequate to recover short-term groundwater
drawdown and to avoid propagation of such drawdown towards the MRT test track. The recharging
capacity of the system was estimated at approximately 4 l/min based on a recharging water head of 1
m, which set the limits for acceptable leakage into the excavation.
The operation of the recharge well system during shaft and tunnel excavation confirmed the
recharging capacity and showed that the system could successfully recover drawdown that occurred
during the works. Figure 4 above is showing the distinctive drop in porewater pressures after
switching off the recharge well system for about three days, and the subsequent recovery when the
system was in operation again. Referring to Figure 1, the maximum settlements monitored at the MRT
test track were in the order of 10mm.
Water Level (m, Reduced Level)
103.00
102.75
102.50
102.25
102.00
101.75
101.50
Piezometer
Stand pipe
Recharge Wells NOT

in Operation during
this period
101.25
101.00
09/04/2001
Piezometer
Piezometer
16/04/2001
23/04/2001
30/04/2001
07/05/2001
Date
Figure 4
Pore water pressure measurement results
3.4 Final Shaft Lining

The final lining of the shaft will be installed after arrival and retrieval of the other two TBMs. The
finished internal diameter of the shaft will be 8.5 m. The final shaft lining consists of cast in-situ
reinforced concrete, the thickness varying from 750 mm at the bottom to 500 mm at the top.
The contract documents also specified a corrosion protection lining (CPL) system consisting of a
primary plastic membrane (primary CPL of HDPE or PVC min. 2.5 mm thick) and a secondary
concrete lining to be installed inside of the bored tunnel segmental lining and the shafts. The
permanent structural concrete lining and the CPL secondary lining are combined to one member
allowing for sufficient concrete cover to reinforcement bars behind the primary CPL.
This shaft will form the junction of four main tunnels. Therefore the shaft bottom needs to be formed
in such a way as to properly channel the various incoming flows to minimise turbulence. To achieve
this, a special benching of C60 high strength fibre reinforced concrete is provided at the shaft bottom.
The lower section of the shaft was designed with the help of a three-dimensional finite difference
analysis model using the FLAC3D programme, modelling the creation of openings in the shotcrete
251
lining in accordance with construction stages and associated tunnel excavations, (See Figure 5 and
figure 6). The model also incorporated volume elements to model the surrounding ground, using a
simple elastic constitutive law. The main focus in this analysis was on the structural effects of the
openings and associated tunnelling activities upon the initial lining of the shaft.
3.5 Design Approach
3.5.1 Initial Ground Support
The main objectives for the design of the initial shaft support were minimisation of displacements and
control of seepage and consolidation. The design paid particular attention to these key factors. The
initial support design has been based on the results of numerical analyses performed for both, the
upper section, where sheet piles were used as well as the lower section with sprayed concrete lining.
The analysis for the upper section was carried out using a two-dimensional finite element model. The
model was based on plain strain conditions and considered the fact that actual construction tolerances,
along with other factors may result in considerable deviation from an ideal axisymmetric state of
stresses. All excavation stages, sheet piles, walers and ground treatment were incorporated in the
model. The structural design of the polygonal waler members was based on a separate plane frame
analysis. The finite element analysis was also used to investigate consolidation effects due to shaft
excavation. Surface settlements due to excavation of the upper shaft portion were directly obtained
from the finite element analysis and were the basis for a detailed construction impact assessment.
The lower section of the shaft was designed based on a three-dimensional finite difference analysis
model (FLAC) modelling all construction stages including the creation of openings in the shotcrete
lining and associated tunnel excavations. See Figure 5.
Back
shunt
T04
T06
TBM T06
Soft eye
Shaft
Back
shunt
TBM T04
Soft eye
T03
Launch
Chamber
Figure 5 Section through FLAC-3D analysis

model
Figure 6.
Soft eyes in the lower shaft section
The model also incorporated volume elements to model the surrounding ground, using a simple elastic
material law. The main focus in this analysis was on the structural effects of the openings and
associated tunnelling activities upon the initial lining of the shaft.
3.5.2 Final Support
The structural analysis of the final shaft lining was carried out using a three-dimensional finite element
analysis model using the FLAC program code. The lining was modelled as shell elements and the
surrounding ground by radial and tangential spring elements. The stiffness of the spring elements
considered the actual stiffness of each soil layer within the model boundaries.
252
The 3D-model, incorporating all permanent openings in the shaft lining, gave a fairly accurate picture
of the structural behaviour of the lining, thus providing an economic solution with regard to lining
thickness and reinforcement detailing.
As already mentioned above, the contract documents specified a corrosion protection lining (CPL)
system consisting of a primary plastic membrane (HDPE or PVC min. 2.5 mm thick) and a
secondary concrete lining. The CPL system was designed for the full hydrostatic pressure.
4 TBM LAUNCH CHAMBER
4.1 Excavation and Initial Support
The approximately 10m long TBM launch chamber was designed for the TBM to be assembled and to
commence excavation of the 5.2 km long drive towards the receiving shaft. The internal diameter
varied from 7.6 to 7.8 m, leaving a gap of approximately 200 mm to the outside of the TBM shield at
the top, and allowing up to 750 mm space at the bottom for welding works to be carried out during
TBM assembly.
In addition to the TBM launch chamber, a back shunt was constructed in opposite direction to
facilitate mucking during TBM operation. The back shunt was approximately 10 m long with an
internal diameter of 3.5m. The design of the back shunt was based on the same principles as the TBM
launch chamber and hence is not further mentioned in this paper.
It is one of the main principles of the NATM to tolerate a certain level of ground displacements,
thereby utilizing the contribution of the ground to the support of the excavated cavity. However,
although the Old Alluvium proves to be very suitable ground for NATM tunnel construction,
excessive shear strain and prolonged exposure prior to installation of support, resulting in significant
strength decrease, have to be avoided by appropriate design of excavation and support installation
sequences.
The initial tunnel support and excavation sequences were designed to address these factors.
Excavation was carried out in three separate stages (top heading, bench and invert), which followed
each other at the closest possible distance in order to minimize ground movements. The round length
of top heading and bench was 1.0m, the invert was excavated in 2 m rounds.
Face stability considerations were an integral part of the design of excavation sequence and subdivision of headings. Since the tunnels are below the groundwater table, seepage pressures could cause
instability of the working face due to reduction of shear strength by pore water pressures. Therefore,
drainage/probe drillings were carried out and maintained at least 3 m ahead of the face in order to
reduce pore pressures.
Ground support elements consisted of sprayed concrete, applied immediately after excavation, wire
mesh reinforcement and lattice girders. The lattice girders were mainly used as profile control, but
were also in place if depending on ground conditions forepoling would be required.
4.2 Design Approach
Design calculations were carried out based on the considerations presented above. The structural
design of the shotcrete lining was based on a bedded beam model, simulating the lining as beam
elements and the interaction with the ground by spring elements.
Owing to the primary objective of minimising displacements, the loads considered for lining design
were close to the full overburden pressure. The fact that the vertical cover of firm Old Alluvium (SPT
N>80) was only about 2 m, strongly suggested load assumptions that resulted in a robust lining
structure. Load reduction, due to arching, was taken into account but was kept to a minimum.
The sequencing of excavation and support application is a very important factor in the design and
construction of NATM tunnels. In this particular case, the initial ground support lining was designed
based on the use of sprayed concrete and a staged excavation consisting of top heading, bench and
253
invert. Following this basic excavation sequence, sprayed concrete was installed sequentially,
requiring great care when forming construction joints and reinforcement laps. See Figure 7.
Figure 7
TBM launch chamber under construction
Based on the results of the structural analysis, a 350 mm thick shotcrete lining with wire mesh, T8 at
150 mm centers, was required for the large TBM launching chamber. Face stability was checked for
drained and undrained conditions in order to define the optimum sequence and sub-division of
headings, specifically addressing the behaviour of the Old Alluvium.
The maximum settlements monitored at ground surface around the shaft were in the range of 40 to
45mm. At the MRT test track, ground settlements in the range of about 10mm were recorded, which
was within the required limits. See settlement isolines presented in Figure 1.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The work shaft and the TBM launch chamber have been completed successfully in Singapore Old
Alluvium. The following methods have been employed successfully:
Jet grouting to control sheet pile wall deflections in advance of the shaft excavation
Ground water recharge well system to control and reverse porewater pressure drops due to
excavation and eventually successfully control and limit short-term as well as long-term
settlements
Sequentially installed reinforced sprayed concrete lining for a large diameter TBM work shaft and
TBM launching chamber in Singapore Old Alluvium, resulting in only relatively small ground
surface settlements.
254
Use of reinforced sprayed concrete to provide reinforcement around tunnel eyes where the
geometrical arrangements allow only very limited space for support structures between the tunnel
openings
255
Centrifuge Modeling of Tunnel-Pile Interaction in Clay

X. Ran, C.F. Leung, Y.K. Chow
Center for Soft Ground Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore
ABSTRACT: Centrifuge model studies on tunnel-pile interaction in sand and in clay have been carried
out at the National University of Singapore. This paper presents the results of a typical centrifuge
model test to investigate the pile responses due to adjacent tunnel excavation in normally consolidated
clay. The tunnel excavation process is simulated by dissolving the polystyrene foam placed inside a
model tunnel lining using an organic solvent while the centrifuge is in-flight. Strain gauges attached
along the model pile shafts are used to measure the induced bending moment and axial load profiles of
the piles. The results are compared with earlier tests on piles in sand.
1 INTRODUCTION
With the rapid growth in population and development, new tunnels are often constructed close to
existing structures in metropolitan areas. The impact of tunnel excavation on adjacent buildings
supported on pile foundations is often a serious concern for geotechnical engineers. At present, the
mechanism of tunnel-pile interaction is not well understood as relatively few published case histories
as well as numerical and experimental studies on such topic are available in literature. This poses great
difficulties to tunnel designers and often results in very conservative and costly solutions for such
problems in practice.
Loganathan et al. (2000) carried out a limited number of centrifuge model tests to investigate pile
behavior due to nearby tunnel excavation. To further evaluate the problem, an extensive research
program is currently in progress at the National University of Singapore (NUS) to examine the pile
responses due to tunneling using centrifuge modeling technique. In the present study, the method
proposed by Sharma et al. (2001) for the simulation of tunnel excavation in centrifuge flight has been
adopted and modified. Centrifuge model studies on the response of a single pile due to tunneling in
sand have been completed. Detail results are given in Feng (2003) and some test results are presented
in Feng et al. (2002). The present study investigates the behavior of a single long pile in clay and the
study will be extended to include short piles and pile groups in the future. In this paper, detail
centrifuge model set-up, measured soil deformations, and tunneling-induced pile responses of a
partially collapsed tunnel lining case are presented. The results will be compared with those in sand.
2 TUNNEL-PILE INTERACTION STUDIES IN SAND
Feng et al. (2002) presented the results of typical centrifuge model tests on the responses of a single
pile due to nearby tunnel excavation in sand. It is observed that the measured ground surface
settlement trough due to tunneling generally follows the classical Gaussian distribution. The
magnitude of soil settlement increases with depth from the ground surface till the tunnel crown
elevation below which the soil movement magnitude decreases significantly. Feng et al. established
that for a long pile with its base located below the tunnel, excavation can cause significant induced
bending moment and lateral deflection as well as negative skin friction and additional pile vertical
movement on the pile. Both the maximum pile induced bending moment and negative skin friction
occur at the tunnel centre-line elevation. For a pile located fairly close to the tunnel (say within 1.5
Main
256
tunnel diameters), the magnitudes of maximum induced bending moment and negative friction are
found to be a substantial proportion of the respective ultimate bending moment and axial load capacity
of the pile, The practical implication of this finding implies that only limited additional axial and
lateral load could be applied on the pile under working condition.
3 TUNNEL-PILE INTERACTION STUDIES IN CLAY
As clay is the predominant soil in Singapore, the earlier studies on tunnel-pile interaction in
sand have been extended to that in clay. Figures 1 and 2 show a photograph and a sketch of
the centrifuge model setup, respectively. The tests were conducted at 100g on the NUS
centrifuge (Lee et al., 1991). The container used in the tests is made of stainless steel and has
internal dimensions of 525 mm 200 mm 490 mm (length width height). One sidewall of the
container is made of a thick transparent Perspex plate, which enables image acquisition by the high
resolution CV-M1 camera attached to the platform. All the inner walls of the container are greased to
minimize the soil/container friction. Table 1 gives details of test parameters and configuration of a
typical test in prototype scale.
LVDTs
Lasers
Piles
Tunnel
Beads
Fig. 1 Centrifuge test set-up
Fig. 2 Sketch of experimental set-up

(All dimensions in mm)
Table 1 Test parameters (prototype scale)

__________________________________________________________________________________
Tunnel diameter
Tunnel depth
Ground Depth
Pile distance from tunnel
centre-line
__________________________________________________________________________________
6m
15 m (C/D=2)
27 m
6 m (1 tunnel diameter)
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Tunnel lining
Equivalent EI of
Pile width
Pile length Bending rigidity (EI) of
thickness
tunnel lining
(Square shape)
Piles
__________________________________________________________________________________
20 mm
1.85108 kNm2
1.26 m
23.5 m
2x106 kNm2
__________________________________________________________________________________
257
4 SAMPLE PREPARATION
A 20-mm thick sand layer was first placed at the base of model container to facilitate bottom drainage
during tests. A thin geotextile was then placed on top of the sand. The clay used is normally
consolidated kaolin clay. To form the clay, kaolin powder was first remoulded into slurry form at
water content of 120% (1.5 times the liquid limit) in a vacuum drum mixer. The clay slurry was then
poured into the container to a predetermined height. The container was then shifted to a loading frame
and the sample was preconsolidated under a uniform loading pressure of 20 kPa for six days. This
would result in a thin layer of over-consolidated clay at the top such that the clay is sufficiently stiff
and would not heave during subsequent consolidation in the centrifuge.
When the preconsolidation stage was completed, six Linear Vertical Displacement Transducers
(LVDTs) were employed to measure the ground settlement and four Pore Pressure Transducers (PPTs)
were inserted into the sample to measure the pore water pressure at various locations. The container
was put on the centrifuge and accelerated to 100g. After the measured ground settlement and pore
water pressure readings stabilized, the centrifuge was stopped and the sample was removed from the
centrifuge for the next stage of sample preparation.
5 MODEL TUNNEL AND PILES
The model tunnel core is made of polystyrene foam. A hot heating wire and two coaxial guide plates
were used to cut the foam to a 60 mm diameter circular tunnel. The model tunnel lining is made of
brass foil and manufactured by wrapping a rectangular brass foil around a 60 mm diameter cylinder
and soldering the joint with tin solder and an electronically soldering gun. The foam was pushed into
the tunnel lining and two tubes were inserted into it for subsequent supply of Acetone and ventilation
respectively. The tube was connected to an Acetone reservoir with a hydraulic-driven valve. Through
the tube, Acetone could be released in-flight to dissolve the foam inside the model tunnel lining
simulating the process of tunnel excavation. The entire model tunnel was wrapped by a latex
membrane to prevent any intrusion of soil particles and water. The model tunnel is 200 mm long (20 m
in prototype scale), which was the same as the container width.
The model piles were fabricated using square aluminum tubes of 8 mm external width and 6 mm
internal width. Both piles are 250 mm in length and attached with 10 pairs of strain gauges along the
shafts. The stain gauges were protected by a thin layer of epoxy. The final external pile width is 12.6
mm. The simulated prototype pile width is hence 1.26 m. The pile bending moment and axial force
were calibrated separately. Both were conducted by applying load in an ascending order and recording
the corresponding strain gages outputs simultaneously. The stress/strain relationship was then
determined for the respective case.
6 HYDRAULIC VALVE
The hydraulic valve included a hydraulic cylinder and a hose with one end connected to the model
tunnel and the other end to the Acetone container. The rod of the hydraulic cylinder could be controlled to move forward and backward according to the input signal from the control room. The hose
was tied to the free end of the rod with a hose clip so that it could be driven by the rod in-flight. Figure
3 illustrates the details of the device and its connections.
The function of the valve is to change the potential level of the hose to achieve holding or releasing
acetone automatically. During the hold phrase, the rod and the hose were retracted to a higher
potential level than that of acetone in the container. Hence, acetone was stopped by the centrifugal
gravity and remained at its original potential level. On the contrary, pushing the rod and hose forward
to a lower potential level could release the acetone to the model tunnel.
7 EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP AND PROCEDURE
After the consolidation of clay was completed, the surface free water was drained out to avoid clay
swelling during model preparation. Both the front and back walls of the container were removed and
replaced by two wooden walls with 60 mm-diameter circular openings according to the model tunnel
258
position. A stainless steel tube (60 mm in diameter, 0.8 mm wall-thickness) was used to excavate a
cylindrical cavity through the two openings. At the same time, the model tunnel was inserted into the
cavity manually. The wooden walls were then removed and small black mark beads were pushed into
the frontal clay in a 20 mm20 mm grid in order to measure the subsurface soil movements, see Figure
1.
Fig. 3 Details of hydraulic valve controlling tunnel excavation
The movements of the beads could be traced in-flight by the CV-M1 2/3 CCD progressive high scan
resolution image processing camera with an accuracy of a pixel-to-pixel spacing of less than 0.1 mm.
The original walls were fixed back to the container after lubricated with transparent vacuum grease.
Then, the model piles were pushed into the soil at desired locations with the help of the loading frame
piston and a pile guide plate. During a test, a LVDT and two non-contact laser transducers (NAIS
LM10, model ANR1250) were used to measure the vertical settlement and lateral deflection of the pile
head, respectively.
8 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
After all the set-up was completed, the sample was reconsolidated in the centrifuge at 100g. The
reconsolidation process lasted for at least three hours until the measured pore water pressure and
surface settlement readings stabilised. The hydraulic valve was then opened to let the organic solvent
flow into the tunnel. The tunnel excavation process could be observed through CCTV camera in the
control room. After the polystyrene foam was dissolved, only the brass foil was left in place to
simulate the tunnel lining. As soon as the tunnel excavation process started, all the PPTs experienced
drops in readings, indicating that the generation of negative excess pore water pressure due to
tunneling process.
For the test presented in this paper, the brass lining (20 mm thick with an equivalent EI of 1.85108
kNm2 at 100g) was not strong enough to support the soil and the tunnel partially collapsed during
excavation. This test condition represents a critical situation in practice. According to Sharma &
Bolton (1995), brass foil linings thicker than 0.075 mm (model scale) at 150 g did not deform enough
to induce a measurable settlement trough at the surface and were found intact with no evidence of any
buckling during excavation in saturated sand. Feng, et al. (2002) also reported that only the softest
brass foil lining (5 mm thick with an equivalent EI of 4.677107 kNm2 at 100g) would collapse in dry
sand.
The forgoing comparisons of the three cases indicate that the tunnel lining stiffness required to prevent
tunnel collapse in clay is much larger than that in sand under similar overburden pressure above the
tunnel crown. Similar phenomena were also found in many field measurements (Ward & Pender
259
1981). Zhou et al. (1998) concluded that the low supporting pressure for the stability of sand around a
tunnel is mainly due to the arching effect based on centrifuge tests. Evidence of soil arching, however,
was also observed in tunneling in clay as the magnitude of soil settlement decreased from the tunnel
crown level to the ground surface and tension cracks due to shear failure appeared nearby the tunnel
crown and spring. Therefore, it might be deducted that the sandy soils involved in these tests have
much stronger arching effect than that in clay, which in turn resulted in lower stress acting around the
tunnel. Deep down, the tunnel lining was wished into place in this case, representing a fullycontrolled tunnel excavation i.e. no soil displacements occurred before introducing lining. Thus, it
could be considered as an upper-bound condition because soil displacements generally cause ground
unloading. However, owing to the complexity of the problem, especially various soil types,
construction methods, tunnel geometry and depths, etc. encountered in different tunneling projects, it
would not be practical to quantify the relationship of the ground loading on tunnel lining between sand
and clay.
For the case of a single tunnel in green field, the ground surface settlement Sv trough immediately
after tunnel construction follows a Gaussian distribution function (Peck, 1969) as follow:
(1)
= S
max
y2
exp
2i
where,
Smax = Maximum ground surface settlement on the tunnel centre-line,
y = Horizontal distance from the tunnel centre-line,
and i = Offset from the tunnel centre-line of the inflection point.
The volume loss, Vt, is the amount of ground lost in the region close to the tunnel. For convenience, it
is usually expressed as a percentage of the surface settlement trough volume divided by the excavated
area of the tunnel. For the circular tunnel in this case, the volume loss is
V = 2 iS
max
R 2
(2)
where,
2 iS
= Volume of surface settlement trough (per meter length of tunnel), which is obtained by
max
integrating
equation (1); and
= Radius of tunnel.
Figure 4 shows the measured ground surface settlement trough immediately after completion of tunnel
excavation. The measured surface settlement trough follows the Gaussian distribution curve fairly well.
The maximum tunneling-induced surface settlement is 0.43 m in prototype scale and the corresponding volume
loss is determined to be 28.2%.
Figure 5 illustrates the tunneling-induced surface settlement troughs measured from tests conducted in
sand and clay with similar volume loss. It is evident that the two settlement troughs are markedly different. The sand settlement trough is much narrower than that of clay, which indicates a different failure mechanism. In clay, the deformation of the soil propagated gradually upwards and outwards from
the tunnel to the ground surface. However, failure in sand propagated sharply and almost vertically
from the tunnel to the ground surface. These different mechanisms suggest that tunnel failure in sand
may cause more severe damages to the structures above and nearby the tunnel; while in clay; it can
cause differential settlement spreading a wider range.
260
Both the piles used to measure bending moment and axial force were long floating piles with free
heads and tips. They were placed at 6 m on either side of the tunnel longitude axis symmetrically. Figure 6 shows the tunneling-induced pile bending moment profile and Figure 7 shows the tunnelinginduced
pile axial force due to tunnel excavation. The maximum bending moment of 902 kN occurred
approximately at the depth of tunnel center along the pile and was less than the pile bending
moment capacity. The induced axial load increased downwards from the pile head, and
reached its maximum value 1292 kN at approximate the depth of tunnel center. The measured
induced maximum bending moment and axial force are well below the respective capacity of 3000
kNm and 2500 kN, respectively.
Distance From Tunnel Central Line (m)
Distance From Tunnel Central Line (m)

-20
-15
-10
-5
10
15
-20
20
-15
-10
-5
10
15
20
Settlement (m)
Settlement (m)
-0.3
-0.2
-0.6
-0.4
-0.9
-1.2
-0.6
Measured
Measured Settlement Trough in Clay of This Test
Gaussian Curve
Surface Settlement Trough in Sand (Feng, et al. 2002)
Fig. 4 Surface settlement trough due to tunneling
Fig. 5 Comparison of Surface settlement

trough in clay and in sand due to tunneling
Bending Moment (kNm)

-500
500
1000
Axial Force (kN)

0
1500
Depth Below GL (m)
-10
Tunnel axis
-15
-15m
Depth Below GL (m)
-5
500
1000
1500
-5
-10
-15m
-20
-20
-25
-25
Fig. 6 Tunneling-induced bending moment
Tunnel axis
-15
Fig. 7 Tunneling-induced axial force
261
Compared with earlier tests done in sand at NUS (Feng, et al. 2002), the trend of pile responses due to
tunneling in clay is similar. The vertical soil movement above tunnel was downwards till the tunnel
elevation during tunneling. This induced negative skin friction on the pile till the tunnel centre-line.
The soil movement below tunnel was much smaller and this explains why the axial load at pile tip was
positive.
A LVDT resting on the top of the pile head was used to measure the vertical pile head settlement. The
measured pile head settlement is 96 mm in prototype scale. Since the pile was floating in soft clay
instead of penetrating into a rigid stratum, it would behave essentially as a friction pile. Hence, the
vertical settlement of the pile depended highly on the vertical soil movement along the pile shaft. As
mentioned, the upward soil movement below tunnel was much smaller than the downward soil
movement above the tunnel. Furthermore, the soil/pile contact length above the tunnel was also longer
than that below the tunnel. These may explain the large vertical settlement of the pile.
The lateral pile head deflection was measured by two laser displacement transducers projecting to the
pile head extension and back-calculated from geometry. The measured pile head deflection is 24 mm
in prototype. Figure 8 shows the lateral pile deflection profile due to tunneling. It was observed that
the tunnel lining was squeezed by the soil pressure during tunneling and shrank inwards.
Consequently, the lateral soil movement in the entire vertical section was toward the tunnel with
magnitude varying with depth. In addition, the pile translated laterally since it has not been restrained
at both ends. From the observations of the mark beads with the same offset to the tunnel as the pile, it
was found that the lateral deflection of the pile basically followed the lateral soil movement trend,
showing that the pile apparently behaved as a flexible member and deflected together with the soil.
It should be noted that the bending moment and axial load measured in this test are additional load.
These induced loads do not include the working load, which the piles were designed principally for.
Thus, tunneling-induced load could be critical for the piles in this case
Pile Lateral Deflection (mm)
0
10 20 30 40 50
Depth Below GL (m)
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
Fig 8.Tunneling-induced lateral
deflection
9 CONCLUSIONS
Centrifuge model tests have been performed to investigate the pile responses due to tunnel excavation
in normally consolidated kaolin clay. Results of a typical test with weak tunnel lining are presented in
detail in this paper. The following observations are made:
262
1)
The tunnel lining stiffness required to prevent collapse of a tunnel in clay is much larger than that
in sand under similar overburden pressure above the tunnel crown. This is due to the low stress
acting on the tunnel linings in sand contributed by the strong arching effect of sandy soils.
2)
The surface settlement trough in clay follows the Gaussian distribution curve. However, the surface
settlement troughs due to tunnel excavation in sand and in clay are markedly different. This could result in
different impacts to nearby structures due to tunneling.
3)
For piles in both sand and clay, the maximum induced bending moment and axial load of the pile
occurred approximately at the depth of the tunnel centre-line. The axial load of the pile increases
downwards from the pile head till the depth of tunnel horizontal centre-line, and then gradually
reduces below the tunnel centre-line.
4)
For a free-headed single pile floating in soft clay, the vertical pile settlement due to large volume
loss could be very significant. The lateral pile deflection basically followed the lateral soil movement trend, showing that the pile apparently behaved as a flexible member and deflected together
with the soil.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to express their gratitude to the laboratory officers in the NUS Geotechnical Centrifuge Laboratory who had assisted in carrying out the experiments.
REFERENCES
Feng, S. H., Leung, C. F., Chow, Y.K. and Dasari, G.R. 2002. Centrifuge modelling of pile response due to tunneling. Proc. Fifteenth KKCNN Symposium on Civil Engineering, Singapore, G31-G36.
Feng, S.H., 2003. Centrifuge modeling of tunnel-pile interaction. M Eng thesis submitted for examination, National University of Singapore.
Lee, F. H., Tan, T. S., Leung, C.F., Yong, K.Y., Karunaratue, G. P. and Lee, S. L. 1991. Development of geotechnical centrifuge facility at the National University of Singapore. Proc., Int. Conf. Centrifuge 91, Boulder,
USA, 11-17
Loganathan, N., Poulos, H.G. and Stewart, D.P. 2000. Centrifuge model testing of tunneling-ground and pile deformations. Geotechnique, Vol. 50, No. 3, 283-294
Peck, R. B. (1969). Deep excavations and tunneling in soft ground. Proc. 7th International Conference Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Mexico City, State of the Art Volume, 225-290.
Sharma, J.S., Bolton, M D. and Boyle, R.E. 2001. A new technique for simulation of tunnel excavation in a centrifuge. Geotechnical Testing Journal, Vol. 24, No. 4, 343-349.
Sharma, J. S. and Bolton, M.D. 1995. A new technique for simulation of collapse of a tunnel in a drum centrifuge. Technical Report No. CUED/D-Soil/TR286, August 1995.
Ward, W. H. and Pender, M. J. 1981. Tunneling in soft ground General Report, 10th International Conference
on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Stockholm, Vol. 4., 261-275.
Zhou, X. W., Pu, J. L. Yin, K. T., Bao, C. G. and Sakajo, S. 1998. A study of stability and failure mechanism of
sand around a tunnel. Proc. International Conference Centrifuge 98, Tokyo Japan. Vol. 1, 727-732.
263
SESSION 7
SITE INVESTIGATION
&
MONITORING
Main
Site Investigation Practice: LTAs Experience and Some

New Initiatives for Improving Local Practice
S. L. Chiam, J.C.W. Ong, A.S. Ling, E.S. Huang
Land Transport Authority of Singapore
ABSTRACT: The Land Transport Authority (LTA) is one of the leading government agencies involved in the infrastructural development of Singapore. In recent years, several major projects have
been implemented and numerous site investigation works were carried out. This paper presents an
overview of the approach adopted by LTA in the planning and conduct of site investigation works.
The paper also briefly describes the major initiatives implemented recently by LTA that are related to
improving the local site investigation practice, to better characterize the ground and establish appropriate engineering parameters for use by designers and constructors. The initiatives include the conduct of field assessment trial to assess performance of contractor, application of weathering classification approach outlined in BS5930 (1999), improvements to logging of borehole, implementation of
good sampling and field testing practices, and compilation of a Site Investigation Handbook.
1 INTRODUCTION
Site investigation forms an integral part of the design process of a project, where information and data
gathered are used in the engineering study and analyses. The site investigation works involved significant expenses, and the investment on expertise, effort and time. It is therefore of vital importance that
the site investigation works are properly planned, conducted and managed by competent personnel using the appropriate soil exploration techniques and good practices. This paper focuses on the new initiatives implemented recently by LTA, with the aim of raising the quality standards of the site investigation contractor working on LTAs projects.
2 PLANNING OF SITE INVESTIGATION WORKS
A phased approach is usually adopted in the design development process to establish the geological
and engineering properties of the geo-materials that may affect large civil engineering project such as a
rail project. The pre-construction site investigation works are usually conducted in more than one
phase with increasing degree of details and focus towards the needs of the project. The information obtained from desk study carried out at the early stage of the project can be used for a preliminary appreciation of the site and ground conditions, preparing a preliminary estimate of cost and developing
plans for more detailed explorations. The information gathered includes available geological publications and historic boreholes acquired from both internal and external sources such as local government agencies and consultants.
For the case of a tunnel project, the site investigation works would focus on the preferred tunnel route
for construction. The final phase would cover tunnel shaft, cross passages, station entrances and areas
where anomalies were detected during the earlier phase. The site investigation may also be used to explore the interaction between the proposed tunnel and other existing buried structures.
Main
267
The spacing of the borehole is dependent on information gathered from the initial desk-study and
amended as more information was assembled from preliminarily site investigation phase. The spacing
between borehole is generally wide apart in Phase 1 of site investigation (say 300-200 m) and at closer
spacing of 75-50 m in the final phase. On the depth of borehole to be terminated, it should extend well
below, say one diameter below the tunnel level or deeper where variability in the ground is encountered or base of the geological formation found close to the tunnel level.
In the planning of a site investigation programme there is a need to consider others factors such as how
much investigation to conduct. This is important as the owner needs to balance the cost of investigation against the potential claims if inadequate investigation is carried out. The more investigation carried out will generally provide more knowledge about the subsurface conditions. However, there is a
limit to the amount of knowledge to be gained with increasing effort of site investigation. It will come
to the stage where further investigation works is no longer economical.
A review on the site investigation conducted for the North East Line (NEL) and the contractors claims
relating to unforeseen ground conditions was carried out recently by Shirlaw and his co-workers
(2003). The study revealed that the overall number of boreholes drilled for NEL was considered adequate for identifying the ground stratigraphy along the route except for few localised areas where Fort
Canning Boulder Bed (FC) was present. The FC is not shown on the geological map of Singapore by
PWD (1976). However, this material has been reported found underlying much of the Central Business
District.
The pre-tender borehole programme for NEL is between 0.5 to 0.8 m/m (i.e. borehole length per twin
tunnel length) at a site investigation cost of between 0.5 to 1% of tunneling cost. The average borehole
spacing is about 36 m. The study has concluded that this figure is generally adequate to keep claims to
a low level. The study also revealed that the claims relative to the civil cost for bored tunneling sections were 4 times of cut-&-cover sections. This is not surprising as major problems were encountered
during tunnelling through the weathered rocks of Jurong Formation and Bukit Timah granite. Based on
the claim lodges, it was found that close to 90% of the claims was due to the behaviour of the ground
being different to what was anticipated although the ground stratigraphy had been correctly identified
from the boreholes. This might suggest some aspects of the sampling and testing on the weathered
rocks was inadequate to establish the engineering behaviour of the weathered rocks. In order to enable
more accurate characterization of the weathered rocks there is a need to improve the site investigation
programme to reduce the risk of encountering unforeseen conditions. Some of these improvements are
described in the following sections.
3 NEW INITIATIVES
3.1 Field Assessment Trial
The Authority recognizes the importance of obtaining good quality site investigation data. Recently,
LTA implemented field assessment trials to assess the performance of the contractors supervisors and
drilling operators prior to assigning jobs to them. The field assessment trial covered drilling, sampling,
common in-situ tests, logging of the borehole, housekeeping and safety aspects. The trial has helped
LTA to correct some of the bad site investigation practices of the local contractors and sieved out unskilled operators to be deployed at the site. A total of 32 teams of drillers and operators from two term
contractors engaged by LTA for site investigation works were assessed. The details on the field assessment and its findings are reported in an earlier paper by Chiam & Joshua 2003. With the conduct
of the assessment trials, LTA is able to keep a registry of the approved drilling personnel and supervisors whom are allowed to work on LTAs sites.
3.2 Logging of Borehole
The logging of the borehole conducted by LTAs contractors adheres to the recommendations of BS
5930 with slight modification to the presentation scheme. A 4-line approach has been adopted for the
logging of the ground as it helps to form a systematic basis for recognition and description of the soils.
It is based on the following sequence:
268
1st line Field strength/compactness, discontinuities, bedding

2nd line Matrix colour, secondary colour, particle shape, particle size, grading
3rd line Principal soil type, plasticity, modifiers
4th line Stratum name (geological formation)
The soil descriptions appearing on the borehole log should be prepared by a geologist or engineering
geologist, and should base on inspection of the samples retrieved, drillers logs, site engineers logs,
in-situ tests, laboratory tests and laboratory descriptions. Below are some examples of the soil descriptions using the 4-line approach.
Example 1
Firm, medium-bedded, fissured, weathered
Grey, mottled pale red and brown
CLAY of high plasticity with shells
Marine Member (KALLANG FORMATION)
Example 2
Dense to very dense, thickly-bedded, weathered
White, brown, yellow, very coarse
Clayey SAND with some mica and feldspar
Residual Soil (BUKIT TIMAH FORMATION)
Example 3
Stiff, thinly bedded, weathered
Yellow
CLAY of intermediate plasticity with some laterite stones
Residual Soil (BUKIT TIMAH FORMATION)
3.3 Rock Weathering Classification
A major area of revision was made to the classification of weathered rocks in the latest version of BS
5930 (1999) where the code provides recommendations on the various approaches to be used for classifying weathered rocks. LTA recognizes the classification system adopted for the past rail projects is
a local, simplified system that follows neither the original version of BS 5930 nor the revised version.
The simplified system, using terms such as G1 to 4 and S1 to 4, mixes mass and material classifications, and mixes materials with quite different engineering behaviour. This resulted in some site investigation contractors providing the borehole logs that included only the simplified classification system
symbols, but not the detailed description of the material recovered from the borehole.
LTA has issued a Guidance Note on the application of the revised BS 5930 to the weathering of the
rocks of Singapore to the local site investigation contractors in Sept 2001. This Guidance Note is to be
read in conjunction with BS 5930 and intended to ensure consistent application of the Standard by the
contractors. With the application of new BS code, all the site investigation work carried out by LTAs
contractors would follow the approach as outlined in Section 6 of BS5930. It is essential that Approach 1 (a factual description of the material, including comments on weathering) of Figure 19 of
BS5930 (1999) is followed in all cases. This step is MANDATORY under the Standard.
The weathering grade classifications, at a material scale, should also be shown on the borehole log.
These classifications should base on Approach 2 (for Bukit Timah Granite, Gombak Norite and Jurong
Formation) and Approach 4 (for Old Alluvium), also shown in Figure 1 (extracted from BS 5930
Figure 19) This Guidance Note would ensure careful description and classification of the weathered
rock retrieved from site investigation.
269
Fig. 1 Description and classification of weathered rock for engineering purpose (extracted from BS5930)
For Bukit Timah Granite and Gombak Norite, it is particularly important to distinguish between
Grades III, IV, V and VI (where present) as there is a significant difference in the engineering behav-
270
iour of each of these grades. The weathered granite in Singapore, typically has a thick mantle of residual soil, with only limited underlying Grade V and/or Grade IV materials. In order to identify these
during site investigation, careful and frequent sampling has to be carried out once the SPT value
reaches 30 blows. The proposed basis used in assessing the weathering grade is shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Weathering classification for Bukit Timah Granite and Gombak Norite
Weathering classification for Bukit Timah Granite and Gombak Norite

Grade
Basis for assessment
Intact strength, unaffected by weathering. Not broken easily by hammer rings

when struck. No visible discolouration.
II
Not broken easily by hammer rings when struck. Fresh rock colours generally
retained but stained near joint surfaces.
III
Cannot be broken by hand. Easily broken by hammer. Makes a dull or slight

ringing sound when struck with hammer. Stained throughout.
IV
Core can be broken by hand. Does not slake in water.

Completely discoloured.
Original rock texture preserved, can be crumbled by hand. Slakes in water.

Completely discoloured.
VI
Original rock structure completely degraded to a soil, with none of the original
fabric remains. Can be crumbled by hand.
Table 2 Weathering classification for Jurong Formation
Weathering classification for Jurong Formation

Grade
Basis for assessment
Intact strength, unaffected by weathering.
II
Slightly weakened, slight discolouration, particularly along joints.
III
Considerably weakened & discoloured, but larger pieces cannot be broken by

hand. (RQD is generally >0, but RQD should not be used as the major criterion
for assessment).
IV
Core can be broken by hand or consists of gravel size pieces. Generally highly
to very highly fractured, but majority of sample consists of lithorelics. (RQD
generally = 0, but RQD should not be used as the major guide for assessment).
For siltstone, shale, sandstone, quartzite and conglomerate, the slake test can
be used to differentiate between Grade V (slakes) and Grade IV (does not
slake).
Rock weathered down to soil-like material, but bedding intact. Material slakes
in water.
Rock degraded to a soil in which none of the original bedding remains.
V
VI
The Jurong Formation includes a variety of sedimentary rocks that have been subjected to a variable
degree of metamorphism. The Formation also includes the Pandan Limestone. The rocks of the Jurong
Formation exhibit a wide range of strength in the Fresh State, and many have weathered in different
ways. The generally weaker mudrock has weathered in a way that is best described by Approach 4,
while the stronger sandstones and conglomerates have weathered in a way more like Approach 2.
Where the rock is thinly bedded, which is the case in much of the Formation, it is considered impractical to apply different approaches. It is proposed to use Approach 2 for the Classification of the Jurong
Formation wherever it is thinly bedded, and in all cases to Sandstone, Quartzite, Siltstone, Shale and
Conglomerate. Where mudstone or Pandan Limestone are predominant in an area, then Approach 4
271
may be used for the mudstone and Approach 5 for the Limestone. The methods for assessing the
weathering grade under Approach 2 are given in Table 2.
The Old Alluvium is an alluvial deposit that has been variably cemented, often to the extent that it has
the strength of a very weak or weak rock. The upper zone of the Old Alluvium has typically been affected by weathering, and it is important that this weathering is described and classified. The use of
Approach 4 of BS 5930 is recommended. Table 3 gives guidance on the typical SPT values for different weathering grades, although the final classification should be based on an assessment of both SPT
and careful inspection of samples recovered. Where possible, correlation with the SPT values should
be verified by comparing with any nearby large scale exposures of the Old Alluvium. Care must be
taken in the SPT testing to ensure a representative test result, and classification should not be based on
SPT alone.
Table 3 Weathering classification for Old Alluvium
Weathering Classification for Old Alluvium

Class
Classifier
Characteristics
A
Unweathered
Original strength
Slightly reduced strength
Partially
Weathered
Distinctly
weathered
Destructured
Residual
Indicative SPT,
Blows/300mm*
>50 (cannot usually be
penetrated by CPTs with
20t load capacity)
Further weakened
30 to 50
Greatly weakened, often mottled,

bedding disturbed
No bedding remains
10 to 30
<10
Another area of change is the naming of the material underlying much of the Central Business District
of Singapore which has variously been termed as Singapore Boulder Bed, Bouldery Clay and S3.
It has traditionally been included as part of the Jurong Formation, hence the use of the S3 classification. It is now generally agreed that this deposit is of colluvial origin and is therefore not in-situ Jurong
Formation rock. Samples from this deposit should be described, as appropriate, using the methods outlined for soils and rocks in BS 5930 (1999). The use of the term S3 should be discontinued, as should
the use of alternating S2 and S4 (currently used by some contractors). The material is important
enough to be given a separate Formation name, and it has been decided through a meeting among the
local site investigation contractors and consultants that Fort Canning Boulder Bed is an appropriate
term to be used.
3.4 Rock logging
The logging of the rock core should be carried out as soon as the core is retrieved from the ground by
an experienced geologist or engineering geologist. The information recorded includes RQD, TCQ,
fracture per metre run and core loss, if any. The information on the core stratigraphy and features of
engineering interest should be recorded by the geologist to an appropriate level of precision, prior to
the core being selected for testing. These information are important as it may give some clues on the
conditions at which the rocks were first formed.
4 IMPLEMENTATION OF GOOD SITE INVESTIGATION PRACTICE
4.1 Soil Sampling
The field assessment trials had shown that for soft clay sampling (e.g. in marine clay), the hydraulicoperated piston sampler (HP) provides a better quality sample than conventional piston sampler. The
HP-sampler comprises of a thin-wall tube attached to the piston sampler housing which is pushed into
the soil hydraulically using water pressure to obtain the undisturbed sample. The sampling tube used is
similar to the common thin-walled sampler (TW). The use of thin-wall tube to sample soft soils is not
272
encouraged as it creates considerable disturbance to the sampled soils. The recovery is also poorer
compared to the piston type of sampler.
For medium to stiff residual soils, sampling is often carried out by pushing TW sampler into the
ground. In situation where sandy or gravelly soils are encountered, hammering method is often employed by contractors to obtain an acceptable sample recovery. This invariably will affect the quality
of sample collected and its strength test results. Effort is taken to get the contractor to identify clearly
the manner in which samples are collected as this can help the Engineer when selecting the appropriate
laboratory tests to conduct and interpret the test results at a later stage. In the borelog, TW* is used to
indicate the sample collected using the hammering method while TW is used to denote push-in
method.
When stiff soil is encountered, thick-walled samplers (U) are commonly used. To obtain undisturbed
samples, Mazier sampler should be used as thick wall samples are obtained by driving the U-tube into
the ground. In order to minimize sample disturbance during the sampling, both TW and U samplers
must have sharp cutting edge, tapered outwards. It is important that site supervisors conduct inspection
at the start of each working day, as a routine check on the conditions of all the samplers to be used.
Rejected samplers are to be removed from site at the earliest opportunity.
It is important to ensure the sample tubes are properly placed at the site after sampling. One of the new
measures implemented at site is to provide a specially constructed sample holding-rack. This is found
to be very effective in the control and prevention of accidental disturbance to the sampled soils. The
rack also aid in the waxing process of the sample collected. At the end of the drillings day, all sample
tubes are placed horizontally onto slotted racks lined with cushion before being transported to the
laboratory for extrusion and testing.
4.2 SPT
The accuracy of the SPT test is closely related to the drilling team and the process in which they conduct the test. It is therefore necessary to implement certain check measures at site to ensure that the test
is carried out properly and consistently, and in accordance to the International Standards for Field
Testing.
The measures include:
- check hammer weight and drop height for compliance
- mark out penetration depth clearly on the drilling rod
- provision of trip catcher
- provision of guide rod for proper control of hammer drop
- check condition of SPT sampler; blunt SPT shoe should not to be used
- check size of drilling rods used for the test as heavier rod will result in higher N-value
- use mechanical counter to facilitate accurate counting of SPT N-value
It is a norm to take at least 3 soil samples from the split spoon sampler, i.e. at top, middle and bottom
level to aid identification of the soils and any stratum change. These samples are kept in air-tight plastic containers with appropriate labels. It is encourage that sieve analyses conducted using the SPT
samples where undisturbed samples cannot be obtained as the sieve results could provide a better description of the soil stratum than based on observations.
4.3 Field Vane Test
The Field Vane Test is often conducted after soil sampling to obtain its in-situ shear strength. Geonor
vane of size 65 x 130 mm is commonly used. For firm clay soils, the vane size of 55 x 110 mm is used.
The shearing is carried out at a standard rotation of 0.1 degrees per second which is about 1 revolution
of the vane turning handle per second. The vane test requires close supervision as the results are often
affected by the manner in which the test is conducted at the site.
273
Below are some bad practices commonly encountered at the site:

- vane blade often left exposed (i.e. not inside vane shield) and prone to damage
- drilling did not stop at least 500 mm above test depth to enable vane rod to extend down to the test
depth; result in some disturbance to the soils at test depth
- vane rod not extended sufficiently above ground to waist level to enable the rotating of vane handle to be made more comfortably; result inconsistent shearing speed
- vane rod not securely clamped to the casing; result in movement of blade prior to shearing
- inconsistent in counting of vane rotation
- vane equipment not properly calibrated
4.4 Rock Coring
The objective of rock coring is to obtain intact sample truly representative of in-situ material, one that
is of sufficient length and without any artificially induced fracture. The rock cores can be obtained by
rotary drilling method and the size of core normally taken is 50 mm diameter. It is important to recognise that appropriate type of core bit should be selected to match the type of rocks likely to be encountered as this could affect the quality of the rocks retrieved. The coring bits commonly used are either
diamond-impregnated or tungsten carbide as they provide longer wear resistance and bit life. Diamond-impregnated core bit is suitable for used in granite or abrasive rocks. For sedimentary rocks or
soft and friable strata, the larger surface-set diamond multi-step core bit is recommended.
Some good practices are recommended:
- ensure the rig is not experiencing uplift during the coring process
- check drill rods do not wobble during rotation; due to rod not clamped concentrically within the
chuck of the hydraulic unit
- check conditions of tapered core spring or core lifter behind the core bit as this is used to grip the
rock core contained within the inner lining; can affect the core recovery
- after obtaining the rock cores, cores are wrapped in proper plastic sheet to keep sample intact and
prevent moisture loss
4.5 Rock Storage
All rock cores are to be properly stored in a box of suitable size that minimize the movement of the
cores when the box is closed and during transportation. Below are some good practices on the storage
of the rock cores:
- small wood or styrofoam spacers to insert tightly into slot between cores from successive
runs
- wooden or styrofoam spacer-blocks of appropriate length to be placed where core run could
not be recovered or washes off
- the space created by core runs that had been removed for testing should be replaced by
wooden or styrofoam spacer-blocks, clearly indicating whether the samples were taken for
core test or point load index test
- all core runs are to be properly wrapped with thick transparent wrapper
- the core box to be labelled appropriately for easy identification and retrieval
274
4.6 General Work Practices

Borehole Setting Up - The location of the borehole is determined on site through surveying followed
by cable & services detection. Surveying shall be carried out by a registered surveyor. Cable and services detection shall be conducted by licensed workers. The buried services include electrical cables,
telephone cables, sewer pipes, gas pipes and water pipes.
Environmental - The surrounding environment should not be adversely affected by the processes of the
site investigation works. The drilling mud shall not be disposed at the site namely into any drainage
channels or open ground that is not considered as proper disposal area. It is to be stored in a suitable
container at the site while awaiting off-site disposal.
Site Safety - There are 3 main aspects of concern and they are: Public, Workers and Equipment. The
members of public and contractors workers must be safeguarded against all forms of injury during
fieldworks. When working on public roads, the Contractor is required to comply with the LTA Handbook - Code of Practice Traffic Control at Work Zone. The Contractor shall display the appropriate
types of barricades, blinker and reflective posts, and be familiar with their layout while working on
public roads. As majority of the site investigation works are located on road side-table, it affects pedestrian more than vehicular traffic. The work site needs to be well barricaded with prominent signs
displayed.
For workers safety, the Contractors workers should practise good housekeeping. All work tools and
equipment to be neatly arranged to prevent tripping, damage to tools/equipment, and for convenient retrieval. Equipment are to be properly installed and operated according to their instructions and purpose. Through the proper use of equipment and machinery at the site, it helps to reduce unnecessary
downtime and also reduce accidents and injury to the workers.
5 CONCLUSIONS
An overview of the approach adopted by LTA in the planning and conduct of site investigation works
have been discussed in the paper. Some new initiatives and guidelines on good site investigation practices are also presented. It is important for contractors and consultants to recognize that certain levels
of control are required in the fieldworks in order to obtain good quality site investigation results and
reports for design purpose. They could consider adopting the initiatives as described in this paper. Although the paper may not cover every aspects of the site investigation works, it would certainly helps
in raising the current standards of site investigation works carried out locally.
REFERENCES
BS 5930:1999. Code of Practice for Site Investigations. British Standards Institution.
Chiam, S.L. and Ong, C.W. 2003. Study on Effects of Sampling Operations in Marine Clay of Singapore. 12th
Asian Geotechnical Conference. Singapore.
Chiam, S.L., Ong, J., Ling, A. S. and Huang, E. S. 2003. Site Investigation Works Handbook. Land Transport
Authority, Singapore.
Guidance Note on Weathering Classifications and Descriptions. 2001. Land Transport Authority, Singapore.
PWD. 1976. The Geology of the Republic of Singapore, Public Works Department, Singapore.
Shirlaw, J.N., Chua, G.L., Seetoh, H.H. and Yip, S.F. 2003. An Assessment of the Site Investigation for the
North East line, based on a review of Contractors Claims. RTS Conference, Singapore.
275
A Review of the Rock Mass Classification System and

Applicability to Machine Tunnelling
Q. M. Gong, X. H. Zhang, J. Zhao, J. G. Cai
ABSTRACT: The main rock mass classification systems and their application scopes are listed in this
paper. The used classification parameters and their application frequencies in all listed rock mass
classification systems are presented. Based on the statistical results, rock strength, joint density and
joint conditions are utilized to classify rock mass in almost every rock mass classification system. It
shows the three parameters express the key intrinsic characteristics forming the rock mass. The various
joint spacing, joint aperture and rock strength classifications are compared in different rock mass
classification systems. Tunnel boring machine (TBM) tunneling is becoming a common tunneling
method. In order to predict and evaluate the performance of TBM, some of existing rock mass
classification systems are used to establish a correlation with the corresponding TBM performance.
The review indicates that the correlation between these rock mass classification systems and TBM
performance is poor. A new rock mass classification scheme for tunnel boring will be proposed in the
future.
1 INTRODUCTION
A rock mass is composed of rock material and discontinuities. It is a complex geological unit, because
there is great diversity both in the composition of the rock material and in the nature and extent of its
discontinuities. Its formation and evolution are controlled by the surrounding geological environment.
Its behavior is of similarity under similar geological and engineering characteristics. In order to
improve engineering design and engineering management, it is necessary for engineers to classify rock
mass according to rock mass characteristics and engineering behavior. Bieniawski (1989) outlined the
objectives of rock mass classification. It is still the guideline of rock mass classification for
engineering applications.
Various classification systems have been employed in rock engineering since Terzaghi (1946)
proposed the first one for tunnelling with steel support. Rock mass classifications have become the
backbone of the empirical design approach. They are mainly applied to tunnel support design and
slope stability analysis. Only QTBM modified by Barton (2000) on the basis of Q-system has been
proposed to predict TBM performance.
TBM tunnelling is becoming a commonly used approach for tunnel excavation. In order to predict and
evaluate the TBM performance, rock mass classification systems are used to correlate rock mass
classes and TBM performance. TBM performance usually includes penetration rate, advance rate,
TBM utilization and cutter wear. The correlations between different rock mass classes in different rock
mass classification schemes and TBM performance are reviewed in this paper. The applicability of the
existing rock mass classification schemes for TBM performance is discussed.
2 ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
Some of the main classification and characterization systems are listed in Table 1. The corresponding
expression form, application scopes and classification parameters of these classification systems are
Main
276
also listed in this table. The main expression form of rock mass classification includes numerical and
descriptive form. Their main applications focus on the design of support in tunnels and mine, general
characterization and communication, assessment of excavatability. In all of the listed rock mass
systems, the following parameters are most frequently applied: joint density (joint spacing or
frequency and persistence, RQD and block size), joint conditions (joint infill and alteration), joint
orientation, rock strength (rock compressive strength, tensile strength and shear strength and point load
index and angle of internal friction), rock mass stress field, groundwater condition, weathering, rock
mass strength, swelling, rock material (rock name, rock type and mineral content index, density),
geological structure. Also, some of the features, such as Youngs modulus of elasticity, cone indenter
index, Cerchar index, Shore scleroscope hardness and specific energy index, cutter life index, quartz
content, porosity, and block shape have been used in rock mass classification systems.
Based on the statistical results, as shown in Figure 1, rock material strength, joint density and joint
conditions are used to classify rock mass in almost all rock mass classification systems. It shows that
rock material strength, joint density and joint conditions are key rock mass characteristics. The various
joint spacing and aperture classifications are shown in Figures 2 and 3 respectively. The rock strength
classifications are compared in Figure 4. These parameters reflect the main intrinsic properties of rock
mass which include the structure and components of rock mass. However, since the behavior of rock
mass is estimated under the action of engineering conditions, the corresponding engineering factors
may be incorporated into rock mass classification.
frequency
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
nt
joi
s
g
g
n
h
n
al
th
re
ss
sity
t i o rengt
ion
eri
llin
tre
itio therin treng
ctu
den o n d i t r i e n t a
d s cond
we k mat
tru
s
st
a
s
n
s
e
s
k
u
l
c
s
o
w
nt
roc
roc ogica
gro water
nt
ma
joi
joi
l
ock
nd
r
u
geo
gro
parameters
Figure 1 Application frequency of the classification parameters

1
10
Very close
close
Very closed
jointed
Closely
jointed
Very closed
jointed
III
5
4
10
200
moderate
ISRM
1981
Skinner
1987
Massive
0-I
McFeatSimth 1986
20
40 60 100
Joint spacing, cm
Bieniawski
1973
Very wide
Widely jointed
I3
Very wide
Blocky
to
massive
Moderately
jointed
I
400 600 1000
wide
wide
Modera
Moderately
-tely to
jointed
blocky
II
4
100
moderate
Closely
jointed
IV
40 60
close
Very close
20
Shinji et al
2002
1
200
Figure 2 Various joint spacing classifications
277
Bruland
1998
400 600 1000
Table 1 Some of the main classification and characterization systems

Name of classification
Rock load
Reference
Terzaghi, 1946
Main applications
For design of tunnels mainly
supported with steel sets
Stand-up time
Luffer, 1958
For design of support and
excavation in tunnels
The new Austrian
Rabcewicz et al. Descriptive and
For design of support and
tunnelling method
1972; Muller, behaviouristic form excavation in tunnels
(NATM)
1978
Tunnelling concept
The rock quality
Deere et al.,
Numerical form
Core logging; used in other
designation
1988
classification systems
The unified rock
Williamson &
Descriptive form
For use in communication
classification system
Kuhn, 1988
Geotechnical description ISRM, 1981
Descriptive form
For use in communication
The size-strength
Franklin,1986
classification
Classification of the rock Hwong 1978
mass structure
Rock structure rating
Skinner, 1988
(RSR) classification
Form
Descriptive and
behavioristic form
Description form
Numerical form
Used mainly in mining
Descriptive form
For use in all geological

engineering
For design of tunnels mainly
supported with steel sets
Numerical form
Rock mass rating system Bieniawski,

(RMR)
1973, 1989
Numerical form
For design of support in

tunnels and mine
Q system
Barton et al.,
1974
Numerical form

underground excavations
Integrated mass system

(IMS)
JH method
McFeat-Smith,
1986
Shiji et al, 2002
Descriptive form
The geological strength

index
Hoek et al.,
1997

underground excavation
underground excavation
For general characterization,
design of support
Numerical form
Numerical form
278
Parameters
Joint spacing or frequency, rock mass stress field and rock swelling
(descriptive)
Rock strength, joint spacing and persistence (descriptive)
Rock strength, deformability and swelling, weathering, joint spacing and
persistence, geological structure, rock stress condition and excavation
dimensions (descriptive)
RQD
Weathering, strength, discontinuity, and density
Rock name, layer thickness and discontinuity spacing, the uniaxial
compressive strength of the rock material and the angle of the friction of the
fractures
The strength of intact rock and the spacing of discontinuities
Block size and shape, shear strength of discontinuities, strength of rock
block (descriptive and numerical)
Rock type origin, rock hardness, geological structure, joint spacing, joint
orientation, direction of tunnel drive, joint condition, and amount of water
inflow
Uniaxial compressive strength of rock material, rock quality designation
(RQD), spacing of discontinuities, condition of discontinuities,
groundwater conditions, and orientation of discontinuities
RQD, Number of joint sets, roughness of the unfavorable joint or
discontinuity, degree of alteration or filling along the weakest joint, water
inflow, and stress condition
Joint spacing, weathering grade and water inflows
Uniaxial compressive strength, weathering, spacing of joints, condition of
joints, joint orientation, ground water, alteration by water
Joint surface roughness, filling and weathering, rock block size
Table 1 (cont.) Some of the main classification and characterization systems

Name of classification
The rock mass index
(RMi) system
Reference
Palmstrom,
1995, 1996
Form
Numerical form
Rock mass classification

for coal measures rocks
(RMCR)
Yasar, 2001
Numerical form
A classification system for Kirsten, 1988

the characterization of the
excavatability of soils and
rocks
QTBM
Barton, 2000
Numerical form
Numerical form
Main applications
For general characterization,
design of support, TBM
progress
For determining the cost and
time for construction of coal
mine and choosing
excavation methods and
support system
For assessment of
excavatability and selection
of construction machines
Parameters
Joint roughness, joint alteration, joint size and termination, density of
joints, rock material strength
Mineral content index, uniaxial compressive strength, uniaxial tensile
strength, youngs modulus of elasticity, shear strength, cohesion of rocks,
angle of internal friction, point load index, cone indenter index, Cerchar
index, Shore scleroscope hardness and specific energy index
Strength of the ground, RQD, joint set number, relative ground structure
number, joint roughness rating and joint alteration rating
For prediction of PR and AR RQDo, joint set number, joint roughness number, joint alteration number,
of TBM tunnelling
joint water reduction factor, stress reduction factor, cutter load, rock mass
strength, cutter life index, quartz content, porosity, tunnel size, average
biaxial stress
279
<0.1 mm very tight

0.5-2.5 mm open
2.5-10 mm moderately wide
>10 mm wide
0.1-0.25 mm tight
0.25-0.5 mm partly
open
1-10 cm very wide

ISRM
10-100 cm extremely wide
1981
> 1 m cavernous
Slightly
rough
sruface,
Slickensided surfaces or gouge <5mm,
slightly to continuous
highly
weathered
walls
No separation,
very rough
surface, not
continuous,
unweathered
wall rock
Softening or
low-friction
Tightly healed to silty-, or clay mineral
and
sandy-clay coatings, small coatings,
small
clay-fraction (non-softening) quantities of
swelling
clays
Separated
2
3
Joint aperture, mm
Bieniawski
1987
Zones or bands
of disintegrated
or crushd or
Barton
infills of silty- or 1987
sandy clay (no
rock wall contact
when sheared)
Non-softening to softening
clay mineral fillings, swelling
clay fillings (Rock wall
contact before 10 cm shear)
Partly and
mostly
separated
No separated
Or soft
gouge
>5mm,
continuous
Shinji
2002
Separated
Figure 3 Various joint aperture classifications

1
10
Very weak
Weak
Moderately Moderately
strong
weak
weak
Very low
strength
Low
strength
rock
soil
Very soft
rock
Soft rock
High
strength
Hard rock
Very hard
rock
Very low
Remolded with finger
pressure
Crater
quality
Dent
quality
2
moderate
Broken by
bare hand
Very high
strength
Deer & Miller

1966
Extremely
strong
Geological society
1970
Extremely
hard rock
Low Medium High

strength strength strength
Low
Coates
1964
Very high Extremely high Broch & Franklin

1972
strength
strength
high
Low strength moderate medium
Very low
Very strong
Very
strong
Strong
Medium
strength
Very low strength
Crushed by
a finger
Strong
Low Medium High

strength strength strength
Very low strength

Very weak
1000
100
high
Pit
quality
Very high
Very high
Rebound quality
4 5 6 7
by
Broken by Broken
Broken by
hammering
hitting each while holding hammering
other
by hand
Very high
strength
Jennings
1973
Bieniawski
1973
ISRM
1979
ISRM
1981
Williamson & Kuhn
1988
Yasar
2001
Can not be broken by Shiji

hammering
2002
10
100
Uniaxial compressive strength, MPa
1000
Figure 4 Various strength classifications for rock (after Bieniawski, 1989)
3 APPLICABILITY OF ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS TO MACHINE TUNNELLING

Morimoto and Hori (1986) assessed the effect of rock mass on TBM excavation rate for the Headrace
Tunnel of the Hayakido Hydro Power Station. Rock masses composed of gneisses were divided into
five classes as listed in Table 2. Although the results were considerably scattered, the trend of average
280
excavation rate is obvious. The excavation rate at the rock mass classes of B and C was higher, and
was lower at the rock mass classes of A and E.
Table 2 Criteria for geological rock evaluations
Rock mass classes
A
B
C
D
E
Geological conditions
Fresh, hard, with few cracks. Crack planes fresh and tight. Tunnel wall stable
Fresh and generally hard, but cracks slightly numerous. Crack planes fresh and mostly
tight, but slightly loosened in cases. Tunnel wall stable
Slightly weathered, cracks also slightly numerous. Crack planes hold clay films or show
brown color due to oxidation in places. Falls seen here and there.
Slightly weathered, cracks developed at small spacing and crack planes often hold clay.
Numerous falls and supports required at greater part of length.
Severe weathering, brittle as whole, and cracks developed at small spacing.
Decomposed granite-like weathering advanced along cracks or clay intercalated.
Numerous falls with partial bulging of tunnel wall. Supports required through entire
length.
Innaurato et al. (1991) utilized the uniaxial compressive strength ( c ) and Rock Structure Rating
(RSR) to predict TBM penetration rate. The analysis was based on 112 tunnel sections, which can be
considered homogeneous with regard to TBM work. The correlations among the penetration rate (PR),
c and RSR are shown in Figure 5 and Equation (1).
PR = c
0.437
0.047 RSR + 3.15
(1)
Laughton and Nelson (1996) classified rock masses into 36 classes, representing combinations of
block size rank (four classes), degree of alteration or weathering (three classes), and level of water
inflow at the heading (three classes). For penetration rate, combinations of block size and weathering
are used to classify rock conditions. The impact of water inflow on penetration rate is not obvious.
TBM Utilization is a function of rock mass class including the impact of water inflow and support
class.
Based on the performance of TBMs used in the Frasnadello and Antea Tunnels, Barla (2000) pointed
out that the penetration rate evaluated for the small diameter TBMs seems to better relate to the rock
mass rating (RMR) than observed for the large diameter TBMs. The direct correlation between the
machine penetration rate and the rock mass rating (RMR) was poor, as was the correlation between the
specific energy and RMR. TBM performance reached a maximum in the rock mass rating range 40-70
while slower penetration was experienced in both extremely bad and extremely good rock masses
(Sapigni et al., 2002). Even considering the same TBM machine and the same RMR class, lower
penetration rates were experienced in strong rocks. The results show the rock mass rating only takes
into account part of factors affecting TBM performance.
Alber (1996 and 2000) used rock mass strength (cm) shown in Equation (2) to evaluate the specific
penetration (SP) shown in Equation (3). The relationship between cm and SP is that SP increases as
the rock mass strength decreases down a rock mass strength of about 15 MPa. Because rock masses
with very low strength are often dominated by closely spaced discontinuities, the formation of rock
chips between two discs may be hindered in those highly fractured rock masses. Single blocks may be
ripped out of the face and reground.
cm = c s
where s = exp
( RMRTBM 100 ) 9
SP =
(2)
and RMRTBM = 0.84 RMR + 21 .
P
( RPM ) Fn
(3)
281
where SP = specific penetration; P = penetration (cm); RPM = revolution per minute and Fn =
thrust per cutter (MN).
1
10
200
58 100 230
1000
2.5 m/h
3.0 m/h
150
3.5 m/h
(MPa)
100
4.0 m/h
76
63
50
3.7
3.64
40
50
60
RSR
70
78 80
Figure 5 Equal penetration rate curves as function of c , Q and RSR ratings for a 3.5m diameter tunnel (After
Innaurato et al., 1991)
Sundarm et al. (1998) studied the correlation between Q value and TBM performance in the Kelinchi
Transfer Tunnel. The field penetration index (Rf, (kN/cutter)/(mm/revolution)) gave higher correlation
with the RQD/Jn, and lower with Jr/Ja and lowest with Jw/SRF. For RQD > 75%, the breakage of the
rock mass mainly depended on the material properties, and when RQD < 75%, the breakage is
facilitated by the presence of discontinuities where crack propagation or rock mass failure takes place
along the pre-existing weak planes. Rf is sensitive to the spacing of discontinuities within the range of
6-20 cm.
Integrated Mass System (IMS) has been extensively applied to study correlation between TBM
performance and rock mass classes in Hong Kong (McFeat-Smith et al., 1993 and 1999; Gradnori et
al., 1995). A basic trend is that with the increase of rock mass classes from 1 to 5, the predicted
penetration rate increases, but the distribution overlaps to a large extent. When the penetration rate is
normalized by thrust per cutter, the correlation is better, but it is still considerable scatter. IMS does
not take into account the intrinsic strength and brittleness of the rock material that may turn out to be
the important parameters. McFeat-Smith (1999) found that reasonable relationships exist between IMS
rock classes and machine utilization. Table 3 shows the machine utilization measured for each IMS
rock class from six TBM excavated tunnels and a range of TBM types and sizes ranging from 3.35-9.8
m diameter for igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rock types.
Table 3 Machines utilization for IMS rock classes
IMS
Utilization
1
45
2
40
3
30
4
20
5
15
4 DISCUSSIONS
Rock mass classification, regarded as an empirical method, has become a backbone of support design
of tunnels. There are tens of rock mass classification systems that have been proposed for tunnel
support design, communication, and tunnel excavation and slope stability. In all these rock mass
classification systems, rock strength, joint spacing or frequency and joint conditions were adopted to
be parameters. These are the main intrinsic properties of rock mass that affect and control rock mass
deformability and stability. Rock strength, joint spacing or frequency and joint conditions were
classified into different classes in different rock mass classification systems, as shown in Figures 2, 3
and 4. The main reasons are that these classification systems originated from different case studies in
282
different areas. The applicability of these rock mass classification systems mainly focused on the
certain scopes of rock mass quality and rock engineering type.
With the development of tunnel boring machines, TBM excavation method is now extensively used to
excavate rock tunnels. How to predict and evaluate TBM performance has become a research topic.
Work has been done to try to set up a relationship between rock mass quality and TBM performance.
In these studies, the rock mass classification systems used to characterize rock mass quality mainly
include RSR, RMR, Q system and IMS. The results show that with the increase of rock mass quality,
the penetration rate generally decreases. However, very poor rock mass does not facilitate the
penetration rate. With the increase of rock mass quality, TBM utilization will increase generally.
Although the trend is obvious, the results of TBM performance overlap too much corresponding to
rock mass classes. Even with the same rock mass classes and TBM specifications, the TBM
performance is different (Innaurato et al. 1991, Sapigni et al. 2002). The correlation between rock
mass classes and TBM performance is poor. The existing rock mass classification systems may either
not include the parameters affecting the TBM performance or include too many parameters that are not
correlated to TBM performance. These rock mass classification systems also do not take into account
the engineering properties, for example, the properties of tunnel boring machines that influence the
performance of TBM.
Based on the interaction mechanisms between rock mass and TBM cutterhead, a new rock mass
classification scheme will be proposed by authors. In the new rock classification system, the
classification parameters include strength and brittleness of rock material, spacing and orientation of
joints. Incorporating the parameters of TBM operation, the rock mass classification scheme will be
used to predict and evaluate TBM performance.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The main rock mass classification systems are listed in this paper. Rock strength, joint spacing and
joint conditions are almost used in every classification system. They are the basic parameters
expressing the structure and component of rock masses. Because these system are mainly originated
from tunnel support design and stability evaluation, the correlation between rock mass classes and
TBM performance is poor. A new rock mass classification scheme for tunnel boring will be proposed
based on the interaction between rock mass and TBM cutterhead.
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284
Engineering Properties of the Old Alluvium Soil

J. Chu, P. P. Goh, S. C. Pek,
I. H. Wong
MITIC Associates, Singapore
ABSTRACT: A laboratory study on the engineering properties of the Old Alluvium (OA) soil at the
Eastern part of Singapore is presented in this paper. Good quality undisturbed Mazier samples were
retrieved and used for consolidation, triaxial and direct simple shear tests. The consolidation and
strength deformation behaviour of OA are presented.
1 INTRODUCTION
In conjunction with a construction project at the Eastern part of Singapore, a site investigation into the
Old Alluvium (OA) soil was carried out. The project was situated on a site that was reclaimed about
10 years ago. The soil profile at the site, as detected from the borehole, is schematically shown in Fig.
1. The top 12 m was sand fill that was deposited during land reclamation. Below the sand fill were
seabed soils which consisted of a 11 m thick of marine clay/fluvial sand layer and a 41 m thick stiff to
hard sandy clay layer that is locally known as the Old Alluvium (OA). The OA is one of the major
geological formations in Singapore. It consists of lightly cemented Pleistocene sediments which lie to
the north and north-eastern part and also to the north-western part of the Island of Singapore. It is
typically poorly-graded clayey sands or sand-clay mixtures. Clays and sandy clays are encountered
less frequently. The soil consistency is generally
medium dense to very dense for the sands and stiff
to hard for the clayey soils (Tan et al., 1980). The
OA soil at this site is very deep and has not been investigated in previous projects. As a result, the geotechnical properties of the OA soil at this site have
not been fully established.
Figure 1 Soil profile as identified from a borehole at

the Eastern part of Singapore
A site investigation programme was thus carried out

to characterise the geotechnical properties of the OA
soil. It was difficult to conduct in-situ tests at this
site because the OA soil was too hard and deep to
push in a cone penetrometer using the ordinary rig.
Even when an in-situ test could be conducted, the
suitability of the existing interpretation methods to
the OA soil was yet to be verified by reliable laboratory tests or back calculations, as the correlations
used in the interpretation methods were not established for the OA soil. It was difficult to conduct
laboratory tests either. First, it was difficult to take
good quality undisturbed samples as the OA soil
was very hard and sandy. Mazier samples had to be
used. The Mazier sampler is a double tube coring
sampler which is supposedly able to obtain samples
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285
with the least disturbance for hard soil. Second, after efforts were made to take good quality samples,
the samples were difficult to be trimmed into testing specimens. Furthermore, the OA soil at this site
was quite heterogenic. The soil properties and compositions changed from location to location even
within the same layer. To overcome some of those difficulties, direct simple shear (DSS) tests were
conducted in addition to consolidation, triaxial, and other physical properties tests.
2. SAMPLE TESTED AND PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Figure 2 Variations of (a)Liquid Limit (LL), Plasticity Limit (PL), and Water Content, and (b) Unit Weight with depth in
OA for a borehole
The samples used for this study was taken from the same borehole. Five tubes of Mazier samples,
MZ1 to MZ5, were taken from the OA layer from a depth ranging from 38 to 56 m below the ground
surface (see Fig. 1). The basic physical properties of the OA samples are summarized in Table 1. The
variations of liquid limit (LL), plastic limit (PL), water content (WC), and unit weight () with depth
are plotted in Fig. 2. The grain size distribution curves of the 5 samples are shown in Fig. 3. Based on
the grain size distribution, it was identified that the five samples came from two distinct layers. The
MZ1 and MZ2 samples were taken from a relative cohesive soil layer. Their grain size distribution
curves are similar and the fines contents were 41% and 37% respectively for MZ1 and MZ2. The
samples in MZ3, MZ4, and MZ5 were part of the second layer where the soil consisted of mainly
granular soil with a fines content of 10%, 9%, and 7%. According to the Unified Soil Classification
System (USCS), the soil in layer 1 can be classified as clayey sand (SC). The soil in layer 2 is in the
borderline case and can be classified as well graded sand and clayey sand (SW-SC). Owing to the
high plastic nature of the soil, even the SW-SC soil could be sampled and wire trimmed without causing any obvious disturbance. The microstructure of OA was also examined using scanning electron
microscope (SEM) analysis. The SEM taken for MZ2 and MZ3 are shown in Fig. 4. MZ2 is a cohesive type of OA and MZ3 is a granular type. This is reflected by the SEM shown in Fig. 4. The cementation, if any, appears to be weak. X-ray diffraction tests were also conducted to identify the minerals in the soil. The possible minerals found in the OA are the Silicon Oxide and Potassium Iron
Aluminum Silicate. The presence of oxygen is due to the oxide from the silicate or oxides of aluminium or iron, which are the most abundant common oxides (other than quartz) in the earth.
286
Table 1 Physical properties of Old Alluvium at the eastern part of Singapore

Depth
(m)
Liquid
Limit
(%)
Plastic
Limit
(%)
Unit
Weight
(kN/m3)
Plasticity
Index
(%)
Type
of
Fines
Water
Content
(%)
Fines
Content
(%)
MZ-1
38.5 39.5
50.76
26.47
21.65
24.29
CH
24.00
41.33
MZ-2
40.5 41.5
50.87
25.94
21.08
24.93
CH
19.24
37.00
MZ-3
45.0 46.0
31.39
15.87
19.77
15.52
CL
17.70
10.17
MZ-4
51.0 52.0
32.42
16.83
19.62
15.59
CL
17.50
9.20
MZ-5
55.0 56.0
37.79
20.33
19.30
17.46
CL
19.02
7.37
Sample
No.
% Passing
% Retaine d
100.00
90.00
20
80.00
70.00
40
60.00
50.00
60
40.00
30.00
MZ1
MZ3
MZ5
20.00
10.00
MZ2
MZ4
80
100
0.00
0.001
0.01
0.1
10
100
Figure 3 Grain size distribution curves
Figure 4 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) analysis of the OA samples
The chemical properties and the soluble components in the filtrate are summarized in Table 2. Concentration of potassium and chloride are the highest as compared to the other metal elements and anions respectively. However, the concentration of all the metal elements and anions are still within the
287
lower range. Therefore, the pH of the filtrate is slightly lower than neutral water of pH 7 due to the
higher concentration of chloride and potassium. It should be noted that the results for the elements
present are different from that analysed from the XRD test, as the concentrations represent the soluble
proportion of the elements in OA.
Table 2 Summary of chemical properties, concentration of elements and anions
Description
Chemical
Properties
MZ-5
pH
6.891
Conductivity (ms/cm)
0.248
Voltage (mV)
Metal
Elements
Anions
10
Iron (ppm)
2.358
Magnesium (ppm)
0.826
Potassium (ppm)
24.135
Sodium (ppm)
1.374
Calcium (ppm)
6.763
Chloride (ppm)
38.23
Nitrite (ppm)
0.09
Nitrate (ppm)
0.34
Phosphate (ppm)
0.08
Sulphate (ppm)
3.40
3. ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION TESTS

0.50
MZ2
MZ5
MZ3
Void ratio, e
0.45
0.40
0.35
10
100
1000
10000
Vertical stress, v ' (kPa)

Figure 5 e-log v curves obtained from oedometer tests on samples MZ2, MZ3, and MZ5
The one-dimensional consolidation tests were conducted using oedometer under step loads increased
gradually from 70 to 2260 kPa. The end of primary (EOP) consolidation method was used. The
preparation of oedometer specimen involved pushing a 63 mm diameter oedometer ring into a 76 mm
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diameter cylindrical sample. The sample could have been disturbed during this process as a relatively
great force had to be exerted to push the oedometer ring into the relatively hard samples. The void ratio versus effective vertical stress, the so-called e-log v curves as obtained from oedometer tests on
samples MZ2 (from layer 1), MZ3 and MZ5 (from layer 2), are shown in Fig. 5. Other compressibility
and consolidation properties are presented in Fig. 6.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 6 Consolidation properties of OA soil: (a) compression index Cc and recompression index Cr; (b) coefficient of consolidation cv; (c) coefficient of volume compression mv; (d) coefficient of permeability k.
4. K0 CONSOLIDATED UNDRAINED DIRECT SIMPLE SHEAR TESTS

A NGI type of direct simple shear (DSS) apparatus (Bjerrum and Landva, 1966), as shown in Fig. 7,
was used in the experimental study. The 73 mm diameter and 20 mm high circular disk specimen was
enclosed in a rubber membrane and confined in a stack of metal rings. The use of metal rings allowed
the specimens to tilt (Fig. 8b) rather than to slide along a predetermined failure surface. The
CKoUDSS tests were conducted in two stages: consolidation and shearing. In the consolidation stage,
the specimen was Ko consolidated under the in-situ effective vertical stress. After consolidation, the
specimen was sheared undrained at a rate of 0.036 mm/min. The undrained condition was imposed by
maintaining the vertical displacement at zero, a technique commonly adopted by other researchers
(Bjerrum and Landva, 1966; Ladd and Edgers, 1972; Ladd, 1986; Chu et al., 1999). This was
achieved by adjusting the vertical stresses accordingly. The change in the vertical stress can be considered as the change in pore pressure (Chu et al., 1999).
289
Figure 7 Direct simple shear apparatus
(a) Consolidation stage
(b) Shearing stage
Figure 8 Stress conditions in direct simple shear test
The stress conditions experienced by the specimen during both the consolidation and the shearing
stages are shown in Fig. 8. Through consolidation, the in-situ stress state, i.e., the effective vertical
overburden stress, vo, and the corresponding horizontal stress, Kov, was applied. During the shearing stage, a horizontal shear stress, , is applied, causing the specimen to tilt gradually as shown in Fig.
8. This is different from the direct shear test, where the shear displacement is developed along a predetermined horizontal slip surface. Therefore, theoretically the DSS test is superior to the direct shear
test.
The CKoUDSS tests were carried out on all the five Mazier samples. The results obtained from the
tests on samples MZ2 and MZ5 are presented in Fig. 9. From the vertical displacement versus horizontal displacement curves shown in Fig. 9a, it can be seen that a zero vertical displacement control
was well executed. The shear stress versus shear displacement and the effective normal stress versus
shear displacement curves are plotted in Figs. 9b and 9c. The differences in the stress-strain behaviour
for MZ2 and MZ5 are obvious. In the test for MZ2, which had a fines content of 37%, the shear stress
quickly reached a peak and then reduced to a well-defined residual value. The pore water pressure
increased, which is reflected by a reduction in the effective normal stress, n, and approached constant
at the residual state (Fig. 9c). On the other hand, in the test for MZ5, which had a fines content of 7%,
the shear stress increased gradually with shear displacement until the end of the test, and the pore water pressure increased initially (corresponding to a reduction in n in Fig. 9c) and then showed a tendency to decrease.
290
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 9 Results of CK0DSS tests on samples MZ-2 and MZ-5: (a) vertical displacement vs. horizontal displacement curves; (b) shear stress vs. horizontal displacement curves; (c) effective normal stress vs horizontal
displacement curves.
291
The undrained shear strength, cu, as determined by CK0DSS tests for samples MZ1 to MZ5 under their
in-situ effective vertical stresses are shown in Fig. 10(a). It can be seen that, as expected, the cu shows
a trend of increasing with depth. The cu/vo ratio as measured at the effective overburden stress is
plotted versus depth in Fig. 10(b). The cu/vo ratio does not show much variation with depth, indicating that the OCR for all the five samples was rather similar.
c u/ 'v 0
c u (kPa)
100
200
300
35
35
40
40
45
45
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
50
0.2
0.4
0.6
50
55
55
60
60
(a)
(b)
Figure 10 (a) cu versus depth profile; (b) cu/vo versus depth
5. CONSOLIDATED UNDRAINED TRIAXIAL TESTS

Isotropically consolidated undrained (CIU) triaxial tests were also conducted at the in-situ effective
overburden stress to measure the undrained shear strength and effective strength parameters. The results of the 5 CIU tests on samples MZ1 to MZ5 are shown in Fig. 11. The stress parameters used in
Fig. 11 are defined as q = 1 3 and p = (1 + 23)/3. The effective cell pressures used for the five
tests were 400, 400, 450, 500 and 550 kPa for MZ1 to MZ5 respectively. The stress-strain curves
generally show a moderately overconsolidated behaviour, as can be seen from the effective stress paths
shown in Fig. 11c, except the test for MZ2. The results of MZ2 are abnormal, as the effective path exceeds well beyond the failure line defined by other tests (Fig. 11c). The stress-strain curve (Fig. 11a)
also shows a behaviour which is different from the results for MZ1, although the samples of MZ1 and
MZ2 belong to the same layer of OA.
In fact, all the five samples were different, at least in colour, as shown in Fig. 12, although they are
from the consecutive tubes of one borehole. This illustrates the range of diversity and heterogeneity of
the OA soil. This has made it very difficult to compare the results obtained from the 5 different tubes.
Nevertheless, the effective stress paths show convergence toward one failure line, as shown in Fig.
11c. Therefore, the effective friction angle may be determined as 40 to 410. Within the effective stress
range shown in Fig. 11c, the effective cohesion is zero. From the stress-strain curves shown in Fig.
11a&b, the undrained shear strength at its in-situ effective overburden stress can also be calculated using the peak deviator stress values. The undrained shear strength, cu, and effective stress friction angle, , calculated from each test are plotted against depth in Fig. 13.
292
(a)1800
Deviator stress, q (kPa)
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
MZ-1
200
MZ-2
0
0
10
12
14
(a)
Axial strain, a (%)

1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
MZ-3
400
MZ-4
200
MZ-5
0
0
10
12
14
Axial strain, a (%)
(b)
2000
Failure line
1500
1000
MZ-1
MZ-2
MZ-3
500
MZ-4
MZ-5
0
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Effective mean stress, p' (kPa)
(c)
Figure 11 Results of CIU tests on the 5 OA samples: (a) deviator stress versus axial strain curves for MZ1 and
MZ2, (b) deviator stress versus axial strain curves for MZ3, MZ4 and MZ5, (c) effective stress paths
293
Figure 12 Specimens after the CIU tests
Figure 13 Undrained shear strength and effective stress friction angle profiles obtained from CIU tests
The results of DSS and CIU tests are compared in Fig. 14 together with SPT results, plasticity index
and water content. It has been generally observed that the cu obtained from DSS tests are lower than
that of CIU tests for clays. However, the differences between the cu obtained from DSS and CIU tests
shown in Fig. 14b appears to be too large. The effective stress friction angles obtained from DSS is
also smaller than that from CIU tests, as shown in Fig. 14a. Part of the reasons accounting for the differences could be due to (1) the specimens in the DSS tests were K0 consolidated, whereas the specimens in the CIU tests were isotropically consolidated; and (2) the use of an effective consolidation
stress as large as the effective overburden stress could be too much higher than the effective mean
stress. Further research needs to be conducted to investigate the differences in DSS and triaxial CU
tests. The cu to SPT N value ratio, cu/N, is about 3 and 13 based on the DSS and triaxial CU results, respectively.
294
Undrained S hear
S trength, Cu (kPa)
Friction Angle, ' ( )

20
30
40
60
Water Content (%)
S PT Blow Count, N
40
1000
50
60
10
70
20
Plasticity Index, PI (%)

30
10
30
30
30
35
35
35
35
40
40
40
40
45
45
45
45
30
CU Test
500
DSS Test
CU Test
DSS Test
20
30
35
50
Depth (m)
50
Depth (m)
45
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
40
50
50
50
55
60
(a)
55
55
55
55
60
60
60
60
65
65
65
65
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Figure 14 Comparisons of results obtained from direct simple shear (DSS), consolidated undrained (CU) tests
and SPT tests
6. CONCLUSIONS
The OA soil at the site studied was very hard and only Mazier samplers could be used to retrieve relatively good quality samples. The soil varied considerably in the five consecutive tubes of samples.
Nevertheless, it can be generally classified into a cohesive OA and granular OA type depending on the
fines contents. The plasticity index of the OA soil ranges from 15.5 to 28.6%. The concentration of
soluble metal elements and anions was low. The SEM of the soil does not indicate a strong cementation in the soil. The permeability of the soil was in the order of 10-10 m/s even for the granular OA
soil. The compressibility of the soil was generally low. The Cc determined from oedometer tests was
in the range of 0.08 to 0.09 and the Cr was in the range of 0.02 to 0.04. The cu to SPT N value ratio,
cu/N, is about 3 and 13 based on the DSS and triaxial CU results, respectively. The cu/v0 ratio ranges
from 0.3 to 0.4 based on the DSS tests and from 1.0 to 2.0 based on the triaxial CU tests. The effective friction angle ranges from 32 to 350 as determined by the direct simple shear tests and from 40 to
410 by the triaxial CIU tests.
REFERENCES
Bjerrum, L. and Landva, A., 1966. Direct simple shear tests on Norwegian quick clay. Geotechnique, 16(1), 120.
Chu, J., Choa, V. and Bo, M. W., 1999. Determination of undrained shear strength of clay by direct simple shear
tests. Proceedings 11th Asian Regional Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering,
Hong et al. (Eds), 49-52.
Ladd, C. C. 1986. Stability evaluation during staged construction, Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE,
117(4), 540-615.
Ladd, C. C. and Edgers, L., 1972. Consolidated-undrained direct simple shear tests of cohesive soils, Research
Report R72-82, No. 284, Dept. of Civil Engineering, MIT, Mass.
Ladd, C. C. and Foott, R., 1974. New design procedure for stability of soft clays, Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, 100(7), 763-786.
Tan, S. B., Loy, W. C., and Lee, K. W., 1980. Engineering geology of the Old Alluvium in Singapore. Proc. 6th
Southeast Asian Conference on Soil Engineering, 19-23 May, Taipei, 673-684.
295
Investigating the Henderson Road Fault Zone

S. Moe
Soil & Foundation (Pte) Ltd
J. Ong, S. L. Chiam and E. S. Huang
Land Transport Authority of Singapore
ABSTRACT: This paper describes an approach for investigating a fault zone for tunnelling purpose,
information collated from the study of geological maps and aerial photographs as well as field
observation and site investigation are used to determine the possible extent and nature of the fault.
The fault is observed to have a zone in which the rock strata were sheared off along several planes,
intensely fractured, mineralised and subsequently subjected to weathering processes which gradually
weaken and turned the rocks into soils.
1 INTRODUCTION
This paper describes the investigation, for a tunnelling project, of the Henderson Road Fault from
existing geological maps and reports, aerial photographs, field observations, geophysical surveys and
borehole investigations including laboratory tests on rock-core samples. Methods revealing the
general and detailed features as well as the perimeter of the fault zone are described with illustrations.
Factual data obtained indicate that the Henderson Road Fault is not a single planar fracture but
comprises of several planar fractures along which movements had taken place. The movement along
the planar fractures resulted in striated and shiny slicken-sided surfaces, and with intense brecciation
and pulvarisation along the planes of movement. Such conditions along these planes of movements
are collectively described as a fault zone (Compton, 1985).
2 DATA FROM GEOLOGICAL MAPS & AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS
2.1 Location, Length, Width & Vertical Extent
Figure 1(a) shows the location and length of the Henderson Road Fault. It occurs in a straight line,
striking at N40oE from the south-eastern tip of Labrador Park hill, through the Keppel Golf Club, and
along the Henderson Road up to Henderson Industrial Park. The fault is vertical or near-vertical with
a length of about 2.8km.
The geological map (Figure 1a) and aerial photograph (Figure 2) indicate that the dip and dip
direction of bedding are obviously variable within a zone running along the Henderson Road. The
lineament , the offset of ridges and valleys, and the drag effect on the bedding of faulted rock strata
are quite obvious within a zone of at least 200m wide.
The Henderson Road Fault was observed to have affected the whole sequence of rock strata in the
Jurong Formation. The fault is believed to have affected the rock strata to depths of several hundred
metres. In geological cross-section (PWD, 1976), the depths of similar faults in Jurong Formation has
shown to extend down to at least 250 metres. The width of the Henderson Road passage across Mt.
Faber-Telok Blangah hill range, measured from 1: 10,000 scale topographic map is about 100m.
Possible extents of this fault zone in three dimensions can be obtained with varying degree of
confidence from aerial photographs, geological and topographic maps as well as from field
observations.
The rock exposures were observed having highly variable dips with slicken-sided fractures occurring
at both sides of Henderson Road. This indicates that the fault zone is likely wider than the road. As
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296
the fault is about 2.8 km in length with a likely depth or vertical extent greater than 250m, this would
indicate having a proportional width of over 200m with the greatest dislocation occurring within the
road alignment.
2.2 Rock Strata
The folded rock-strata of Jurong Formation affected by the Henderson Road Fault are Tengah, Rimau,
Ayer Chawan and Queenstown facies. The boundaries of these rock-strata are not continuous across
the fault, as it has been truncated at the face of the fault plane as indicated in Figure 1(a). The variable
dip directions of rock-strata exposed on scarp slopes at both sides of the fault suggest that the width of
the fault is greater than the road passage.
2.3 Fault Pattern & Tectonic Stresses
In the geological maps of Singapore (PWD, 1976), faults are indicated in the rock strata of Jurong
Formation. These faults can be classified as dip, diagonal, and longitudinal faults, based on the fault
strike or trend that is either perpendicular, diagonal or parallel to the strike of the affected strata
(Figures 1a & 1b).
The Henderson Road Fault is classified as a dip fault as the fault strikes parallel to the dip direction of
rock-strata. The directions of tectonic stresses, S1, S2 and S3 being major, intermediate and minor
stresses acting in the NE-SW, vertical and NW-SE direction respectively, is responsible for the
folding, faulting and jointing of the rock-strata.
It is important to note that there is a relationship between the orientations of folds, faults and joints to
the regional tectonic structures. Understanding this relationship can help in the visualisation process
in recognising the fault features and their relationship to the fault plane and their positions in the
tectonic framework of the folded belt of Jurong Formation.
2.4 Topographic Features Along the Fault
The topographic features observed along the fault are shown in both Figure 1(a) and Figure 2:
-
A straight narrow valley bounded with scarp slopes found on either sides, the valley was formed
as a result of an intensely weathered fractured-zone caused by faulting
The ridge crest line of Mt. Faber was offset by the fault as indicated by arrows in the Figures
Offset valleys and ridges with valley on one side of the fault facing ridge on the other side, e.g. the
Telok Blangah Heights valley faces a ridge opposite Henderson Road and Telok Blangah Hill
being truncated exposing overturned folds facing a plain opposite Henderson Road.
3. FIELD OBSERVATIONS
The stretch of Henderson Road between Telok Blangah Road and Telok Blangah Way has features
that could suggest the occurrence of a fault in the area and also gave indications of the threedimensional extent of a fault-affected zone.
The following features which are consistent with faulting, (Compton, 1985 ; Billings 1973) have been
observed:
- A narrow straight long valley sided with steep walls with triangular facets (Figure 3a)
- Offsets of ridges and valleys (Figure 2)
- Signs of groundwater seepage and development of sag ponds at the base of scarp walls (Figure 3f)
- Abrupt increase in jointing and other secondary fracturing or brecciation of rocks
297
(a)
F ra c tu rin g P ro d u c in g
L o n g itu d in a l F a u lt &
Jo in ts
F ra c tu rin g P ro d u c in g
D ia g o n a l Jo in t S e ts
S2
S1
S3
S3
S1
S2
F ra c tu rin g P ro d u c in g D ip
F a u lt/Jo in t P la n e s
O R IE N T A T IO N O F F O L D & F A U L T / JO IN T
P L A N E S W IT H R E S P E C T T O D IR E C T IO N S
O F T E C T O N IC S T R E S S E S
T E C T O N IC S T R E S S E S C A U S IN G
F O L D & F A U L T / JO IN T S H O W N
IN T H E D IA G R A M O N T H E L E F T
(b)
Figure 1 (a) Geological map shows the Jurong Formation rock-strata being folded and affected by the
Henderson Road Fault (extracted from Sheet 6 City, Geological Map of Singapore, PWD (1976) Jt, Jr, Jac
& Jq being Tengah, Rimau, Ayer Chawan & Queenstown facies). Ridge crest lines, strike-slip movement
along faults, inclined borehole location (IBH) are indicated.
(b) Schematic diagram shows the tectonic stresses (S1 acting NE-SW direction, S2 vertical and S3 in NWSE horizontal direction) causing the folding, faulting & jointing of rock-strata forming the Mt Faber &
Telok Blangah Hill ranges.
298
Figure 2 Aerial photograph of the Henderson Road Fault Zone. The trace of the fault zone found along the
line FZ-FZ. V & R being valleys & ridges offset by the fault. Relative horizontal movement along the fault
is indicated by white arrows.
Variable attitudes of bedding, foliation or lineation in rock strata forming the bottom and sidewalls of the valley (Figure 3b,c)
Mineralization of common quartz and other metalliferous mineral in fractures usually well
interconnected and deeply-penetrated throughout the entire zone (Figure 3d)
Occurrence of slicken-sided fractures (Figure 3e), drags, mylonites and ultramylonites, flinty
crush-rock and pseudotachylite breccias and gouge along fault planes
Henderson Road is a straight narrow passage cutting across high ground. A series of offset ridges and
valleys were observed, e.g., at Telok Blangah Hill, rock-strata were exposed as over-turned folds
without corresponding features on the other side of the road. Another good example of an offset
would be Telok Blangah Heights facing the steep edge of the ridge on the opposite side of the road.
Silicification and mineralization in fractures are common processes that occur in fault zones. The
deeply penetrated, well-interconnected and upward diverging fractures serve as channels for the
hydro-thermal solutions moving upwards and in cavities, minerals such as quartz can be found
299
deposited. These processes are widely regarded as healing processes that fill and rejoin fractured
pieces together. Depending on the extent of heal-back, the fault zone may be sealed up completely or
partially. This natural remedial process re-strengthens the otherwise much weakened rocks.
The occurrence of numerous quartz veins, thick and thin, vertical and inclined, found in rock
exposures along the road indicates a deeply penetrated fractured zone. Variable dip directions of rockstrata exposed on the scarp slopes on both side of the road were observed, some with overturned folds,
slicken-sided fractures, weathered and eroded about 50m below the crest level of the Mt. Faber ridge.
Groundwater was also observed seeping out at the base of the slope at the eastern abutment of the
overhead bridge near Ban Sew San Temple.
4 GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
Resistivity and seismic geophysical methods have been used successfully in site investigation works
to provide images of the ground conditions in the form of variable geophysical properties such as
apparent resistivity and velocity of compression or shear waves through the different bodies of soils
and rocks (Bell, 1980). In the application to fault zone investigation for tunnelling purpose, these
methods have been shown to provide useful information pertaining to the lateral and vertical
variations of the ground strata due to the faulting. The geophysical images are able to provide clues on
the natural processes that had taken place as well as the prevailing ground conditions such as dry or
wet, soft or hard, zoned or layered, weathered or fresh, fractured or intact, shape and size of
physically different bodies.
4.1 Resistivity Profiling
A Resistivity Profiling survey was conducted across the Henderson Road Fault Zone and along Telok
Blangah Road (Figure 4).
The results of Resistivity Profiling (Figure 5) indicate that the width of fault zone is at least 40m and
bedrock highly weathered to a depth of 35 meters below ground level. The bedrock in the fracture
zone was weathered and eroded to form a U-shaped valley that filled up subsequently with soft peaty
clay and loose silty sand of the Kallang Formation. Weathering and erosion are two common
degradation processes that occur in fault zones. Weathering gradually weakens and turns the fractured
rocks into soils, which are later exposed to sub-aerial erosion. Thus the fault valleys are first
encroached by weathering and subsequently get eroded deeper and wider.
4.2 Surface Wave Seismic Survey
A Surface Wave Seismic survey was also conducted along the same line where resistivity survey was
conducted, across the fault zone and along Telok Blangah Road. Result from point B to point D is
presented in Figure 6. Preliminary results obtained showed signal interference due to vehicular traffic
and the source of energy input by drop-hammer found to be insufficient for obtaining feedback data
for depths greater than 20 meters below ground level. A higher source of energy input using
explosives should be used but this was not permitted at the area of the survey.
5 DRILLING EXPLORATION
Further information can be obtained by conducting exploratory borehole investigation through the
predicted fault zone. Skill and good workmanship are essential during soil sampling, rock coring, insitu testing as well as field logging of borehole data. In the investigation of a fault zone, inclined
boreholes are preferred over conventional vertical boreholes as these are more likely to intersect
300
planar faults. A good understanding of fault plane inclination and its orientation are necessary when
planning for the location to drill the inclined borehole such that it is perpendicular to the strike of fault
plane.
(a) A narrow straight pass through
(b) Exposure @41200N:46725E -
high ground - looking towards NE,

standing south of Telok Blangah Hts.
Quartzitic SANDSTONE with

lamination dipping @ 50o/240o
(c) Exposure @41250N:46825E Quartzitic SANDSTONE with

lamination dipping @ 30o/170o
(d) Exposure @41150N:46700E Quartz vein, about 2.5cm thick and

dipping @ 70o/220o
(e) Exposure @41425N:46875E

Overturned fold, axial plane dipping
30o/210o and slickensided fractures
dipping @ 85o/290o
(f) Groundwater seepage observed at

the base of slope @40825N:46525E
Figure 3 Field evidences of fault features along the Henderson Road fault zone
301
Henderson Rd.
TELOK BLANGAH ROAD

Fault Zone
Figure 4. Plan shows the location of resistivity & seismic survey points A- D, inclined borehole (IBH) and
the approximate width and orientation of the fault zone.
Fault Zone
Figure 5. Results of Resistivity Profiling indicate the occurrence of completely to highly weathered
sandstone and shale down to a depth of about 68m-RL. The fault zone is inferred to be about 50m wide
along the survey line marked by the deepest lower boundary of completely to highly weathered sandstone
and shale.
Fault Zone
Figure 6. Results of Surface Wave Seismic Survey indicate the occurrence of completely to highly weathered
sandstone and shale down to an elevation of about 72m-RL. The fault zone may be inferred to be about 50m
wide and marked by the U-shaped lower-boundary of the completely to highly weathered sandstone and
shale
302
To better observe the texture and structure of soil particles, soil specimens were hand-broken instead
of knife-cut. Soil samples obtained from the SPT split barrel are most suitable for observing relict
structure and texture of the pre-weathered rock. Important information such as the type, structure and
texture of soil including any presence of cementing material as well as the degree of weathering.
Visual observation of cores was carried out after removal of all dirt and the cores are wiped clean or
carefully washed with water. The minerals, textures, structures and weathering grade of rock would
then be seen vividly.
5.1 Rock Cores
Two boreholes were drilled at the Henderson Road Fault. The locations were predicted based on the
current understanding of the fault behaviour. One borehole is vertical and the other inclined, located
25m apart. The borholes are located inside the compound of Rosemount International School at
Telok Blangah Road.
Fault Zone
Some of the fault features revealed on the rock cores of the vertical borehole located at 28136.45N,
25429.74E and 103.09m-RL are:
-
Near vertical fractures with striated and shiny slicken-sides found repeatedly at 10.5, 15, 20.6 and
26 meters below ground level in sandy siltstone and fine-grained sandstone
Near vertical fractures associated with foliation observed in sandy siltstone at 24.9 and 31 meters
below ground level
Highly brecciated with quartz filled fractures at depths between 33.3 and 35.8 meters below
ground level in sandy siltstone
Micro-faults with visible offset laminations observed in sandstone at depths between 39.3 and
45.3 meters below ground level
The fault features found on the cores for the inclined borehole (30o from vertical towards S40oE)
located at co-ordinate 28138.56N, 25394.65E, 103.78m-RL (see Figures 4 & 7) are:
-
Obvious slickensides found on vertical fractures at 12.1, 14.9, 16.2, 16.8, 18.7, 23.8, 24.4, 25.8,
28.1, 30.6, 34.7, 36.8, 38.2, 42.8, 43.8, 58.7 and 65.2 meters along inclined borehole. These
vertical fractures were found to be striking at N40oE (core orientation was done by holding core
inclined at 30o from vertical and rotated on its axis so that the laminations/bedding dip towards
Southwest)
Occurrence of intense fracturing between 42.6 & 46.6m-abh, and between 63.5 & 65.5 meters
along inclined borehole
Occurrence of vertical quartz and calcite veins with preserved slickensides observed at 22.5, 27.3,
35.3, 42.6, 45.7, 56.3, 57.1, 58.4 and 65.0 meters along inclined borehole
Indurated or heated effects observed on argillaceous rock which turned to slaty shale occurring
between 23.6 and 56.6 meters along inclined borehole
5.2 Weathering Grade, RQD & Point Load Strength Index of Rock
The weathering grade, RQD and Point Load Strength Index are plotted against the depth for rock
cores obtained from 4 boreholes (2 located within Fault Zone and 2 outside) and are shown in Figure
8. The co-ordinates of 2 vertical boreholes located outside the fault zone are 28116.74N, 25264.56E
and 28053.70N, 25632.41E respectively. Comparison of the results at corresponding depths of 4
boreholes, showed that a higher weathering, lower RQD and Is(50) values can been seen in the rock
cores located in the fault zone. Figure 8 demonstrates the effectiveness of inclined boreholes in
intercepting more fault features in the near-vertical fault zone.
303
Laminations offset
by a microfault
@21.1m-abh
Slicken-sided
fractures
@30.6m-abh
Laminations offset by a
microfault @32.5m-abh
Dislocated quartz
veinlets @ 31.0m-abh
A slickensided fracture
@ 58.7m-abh
A microfault cavity
filled with quartz
@ 48.0m-abh
A slickensided fracture
@ 65.2m-abh
Laminations offset
by a microfault @
52.4m-abh
Figure 7 Rock cores from the inclined borehole located at 28138.56N, 25394.65E, 103.78m-RL and
inclined 30o towards S40oE. Rock-cores exhibit fault features such as laminations offset by micro-faults,
slickensided fractures, numerous vertical & inclined quartz and calcite veins. The abbreviation m-abh
means meter along inclined borehole starting from ground level.
6 SUMMARY & CONCLUSION

6.1 Summary of Findings
The methods used in the study to investigate the Henderson Road Fault Zone and information
obtained are summarised in Table 1.
304
Based on the results of the various investigation methodologies described above, the Henderson Road
Fault Zone can be characterised and summarised as follows:
- The fault zone is intensely fractured at its innermost 40-m width with rock cores that are mostly
non-intact to highly fractured (Fracture Index > 16/m), highly weathered, highly variable in
strength from very weak to moderately strong (UCS < 16.7 MPa and Is(50) < 1.86 MPa)
- The fill and soft soils deposited to a depth about 7.4m and it laterally thins out away from the fault
zone as observed from nearby boreholes
- Fractures are vertical and near-vertical striking at N40oE, with weak planes of well-developed
foliation or cleavage parallel to these shear fractures
- Over 60% of 54m of cores in inclined borehole had RQD less than 40%. Low RQD sections vary
from about 2m to 8m in thickness and form weak zones in the underlying rock-mass
- Weak planes of thinly laminated sandy siltstone and fine-grained sandstone dipping S50oW
- The Casagrande Piezometer installed at 10m-bgl in the vertical borehole indicate the piezometric
groundwater level at 2.9 meters below ground level and permeability of moderately weathered
fine-grained sandstone conducted between 24.4 and 25.4 meters below ground level was
measured to be 2.48 x 10-8 m/s
Table 1 Summary of information obtained for the Henderson Road Fault zone
Source
Aerial photographs
Information obtained
Fault zone is straight & vertical or near-vertical,
2.8km long & at least 200m wide.
Geological map
Fault zone is straight & vertical or near vertical,

2.8km long & at least 200m wide.
Field observations
50-100m wide fault zone is straight & dipping about 85o

towards S50oE with evident fault features (Figure 3) along
Henderson Road between Telok Blangah Way & Telok
Blangah Road.
Resistivity survey (Figure 5)
Fault zone at Telok Blangah Road was eroded to an

elevation about 92m-RL and filled with soft or loose soils,
completely weathered to about 86m-RL, highly to
moderately weathered to about 75m-RL. Faulting effect can
be seen reflected down to elevation of 53m-RL. The
completely to highly weathered zone is about 120 wide and
15m thick.
Surface wave survey (Figure 6)
Fault zone at Telok Blangah Road was eroded to an

elevation of about 92m-RL and filled with soft or loose
soils, completely weathered to about 85m-RL, highly to
moderately weathered to about 75m-RL. The completely to
highly weathered zone is about 120m wide and 14m thick.
Vertical
borehole(28136.45N:25429.74E)
located at Telok Blangah Road
Fault zone at this location was eroded to about 95.6m-RL

and filled with soils of Kallang Formation, highly
weathered to 80m-RL, moderately weathered to about 58mRL. Fault features were observed throughout the length of
the borehole.
Inclined
borehole(28138.56N:25394.65E)
located at Telok Blangah Road
Fault zone at this location was eroded to about 96.6m-RL

and filled with soils of Kallang Formation, highly
weathered to about 89m-RL, moderately weathered with
intermittent highly weathering zones down to about 50mRL.
305
Vertical Borehole About

212,6m East of the Fault Zone
Vertical Borehole About 212.6m

East of the Fault Zone
Weathering Grade
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
RQD (%)
4
3
2
1
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
12
10
8
6
4
2
Depth (m-bgl)
10
20
30
40
50
60
Weathering Grade
1
20
30
40
50
6
4
2
10
20
30
40
50
60
10
20
30
40
50
Depth (m-bgl)
Depth (m-bgl)
Depth (m-bgl)
Vertical Borehole Inside the

Fault Zone

Fault Zone

Fault Zone
60
60
50
10
50
40
30
20
10
0
40
12
80
70
60
RQD (%)
30
Vertical Borehole About 130m

West of the Fault Zone
100
90
10
20
Depth (m-bgl)
Vertical Borehole Aout 130m

10
Depth (m-bgl)
Vertical Borehole About 130m

100
60
12
90
10
80
RQD (%)
Weathering Grade
Ve rtic al Bore hole About

212.6m Eas t of the Fault
Zone
70
60
50
40
4
30
20
10
0
1
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
10
20
30
40
50
60
10
Depth (m-bgl)
Depth (m-bgl)
Inclined Borehole Inside the

Fault Zone
20
30
40
50
Depth (m-bgl)
Inc line d Bore hole Ins ide the

Fault Zone
Inclined Borehole Inside the

Fault Zone
12
100
90
10
80
RQD (%)
Weathering Grade
70
60
50
40
30
2
20
10
0
1
0
10
20
30
40
Depth (m-bgl)
50
60
0
0
10
20
30
40
Depth (m-bgl)
50
60
10
20
30
40
50
60
Depth (m-bgl)
Figure 8. Weathering grade, RQD and Point Load Strength Index plotted against depth of rock cores for 2
boreholes located inside and another 2 outside the fault zone. The abbreviation m-bgl means meter below
ground level.
306
6.2 Conclusion
The fault zone investigation in the Jurong Formation has demonstrated that one should commence the
study with a basic knowledge of the rock facies and fault patterns in relationship to the folding axis
before focusing on the extent of fracturing, weathering and erosion processes that had taken place
within the fault zone. The location of the fault occurrence can be confirmed from available aerial
photos, geological and topographic maps, site investigation papers or reports at the area of interest.
Field walk-about and observation of the fault features such as the nature of fractures and
corresponding orientation in rock outcrops, general topography of the area, presence of natural
drainage paths as well as the general observations of the surrounding environment need to be
conducted. Once the occurrence of fault is confirmed, further investigation by geophysical and
drilling techniques should be conducted.
Geophysical investigations should precede any borehole investigation. The geophysical investigation
results would indicate general areas of anomalies such as areas of deeply weathered profiles.
Resistivity profiling is recommended as the method is less affected by external factors such as
vibrations due to nearby traffic. Exploratory boreholes, both vertical and inclined would be positioned
to establish or confirm the fault zone. Through such investigations, the fault zone can then be
characterised by its relevant properties that are of engineering significance. These properties could be
used to assess the impact on the planning, design, construction, and even maintenance of the proposed
engineering structures.
REFERENCES
Bell, F.G. 1980. Engineering Geology and Geotechnics. London. Newnes-Butterworths.
Billings, M.P. (Modern Asia Edition) 1973. Structural geology. Japan: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Compton, R.P. 1985. Geology in the field. Singapore: John Wiley & Sons.
Goodman, R.E. 1993. Engineering geology. Singapore: John Wiley & Sons. Inc.
PWD. 1976. Geology of the Republic of Singapore. Singapore: Public Works Department.
307
Developing an Operational Automated Real Time Tunnel

Monitoring System
G. H. Tan
SysEng (S) Pte Ltd
K. G. Chua
Wisescan Engineering Services Pte Ltd
ABSTRACT: In cities with tunnel networks and adjacent construction works, the tunnels require real time
monitoring and immediate alert systems when their movements exceed their allowable limits. Automated
system provides reliable and consistent data. However the measured data are stored locally on site and can be
retrieved only at weekly intervals during the night when the trains are not operating. This valuable data is useful
as engineers use them to monitor the tunnel movements in almost real time during the critical phase of the
project. New innovative technologies of smart Remote Terminal Units, Wire-less communications and Mobile
phone SMS alerts are introduced to fully automate the system to send the measured data to the right person and
alert the responsible person for any corrective actions to be undertaken. The paper will discuss the integrated
multi-discipline system approach and the challenges in implementing an outdoor fully automated real time
tunnel monitoring system used in Singapore by exploiting Information Technology and Wireless
communication systems.
1 INTRODUCTION
In cities with operating tunnel networks, the construction works near these tunnels require real time
continuous tunnel monitoring systems. These systems provide these important data immediately for
decision making, and then sending out alerts if the tunnel movements exceed the allowable design
limits. A fully automated measuring system with real-time data communication system will provide
immediate reliable information to the relevant contractors, consultants and authorities simultaneously.
However in many cases, these automatically measured data are stored in the on-site system. These
data are retrieved manually during the night when the trains are not operating. Alternatively they can
also be manually retrieved via wire-less methods from the sites. As the measured data are retrieval
and analyzed manually, human errors and time delays do occur. Hence, this crucial information can
be up to 24 hours late and precious time can be lost if the movements deviate from their allowable
limits. New innovative technologies of smart Remote Terminal Units (RTUs), Wire-less
communications and Mobile phone Short Message Service (SMS) alerts are introduced to the
automated tunnel monitoring system. With these enhancements, the measured data are automatically
analyzed for the right persons and SMS alerts are sent to the persons for corrective actions. As
tunneling works 24 hours a day and 7 days a week, any monitoring required has to follow the same
tunneling effort to avoid expensive construction delays.
The paper will discuss an integrated system design approach and the challenges in implementing an
out-door fully automated tunnel monitoring system with immediate automatic data analysis and SMS
alerts used in Singapore by deploying eMonitoring systems (Tan 2000), which synergies both IT and
Wireless technologies together.
The Leica Total Station TCA2003 is the key instrument in the tunnel for the X, Y, Z coordinates
measurements using prisms mounted along the tunnel. This instrument has been used extensively
before and is a proven instrument for such monitoring applications. The first fully outdoor-automated
wire-less system was developed for the LTA C5423 Changi Airport Runway 1 project in 2000. This
paper discuss about the challenges in designing a robust automated real time tunnel monitoring
Main
308
system used in the LTA C825 Circle Line Tunnel Monitoring system (2002). The Infocomm
Development Authority of Singapore supported this project under the Call for Collaboration Program
on Mobile workforce solutions (IDA 2000) as an Innovative IT and wire-less Solution deploy in the
construction industry.
2 SYSTEM
In any system design, the functional flow of data can identify the critical component in the
information flow chain, as the weakness or the slowest component defines the limits of the system. As
a benchmark, two automated wireless systems performances are discussed. With the automation and
wire-less technologies accessible in Singapore, the benefits of deploying an automated tunnel
monitoring system can be achieved with immediate results rather than depending upon manual data
retrieval and manual analysis processes. Manual processes are unreliable, have high error rates and
slower response times to urgent alerts.
2.1 Automated Wireless system A with Manual data retrieval and manual alert system
Prisms
Leica
Total
Station
GSM
Modem
Manual Alert &

Broadcasting
Staff Retrieving
Data
RTU
Voice or
Pager Alert
Wire-less
GSM
Public
Network
Manual data upload
to Internet web site
for users to
manually download
Fig. 1 Measurement and Communication process steps of System A

The first system A (Figure 1) consists of Leica Total Station, RTU, GSM modem, a staff with a
computer dialing into the RTU to extract the measured data. He then analyze this data, call the end
users to alert them if the movements exceed the limit and then uploading these results to a Internet
web server for users to manually download. This system depends on the human to pull the
information from the remote site and then push the information to users. As the measurement cycle
has a wide time spread due to outdoor conditions, the time when the measurement cycle ends is not
exact. Hence the time at which the staff has to call into the RTU to extract the data is inconsistent, as
he does not know exactly when to call into the RTU. This can cause lapses in timely information to
the end users.
2.2 Automated Wireless system B with automatic data retrieval and automatic SMS alert system
Prisms
Leica
Total
Station
Smart
RTU
GSM
Modem
Automatic Data Retrieval,

Broadcasting & SMS Alert
Wire-less
GSM
Public
Network
SMS
Alert
Fully automatic data

transfer to end users
Internet email accounts
Fig. 2 Measurement and Communication process steps of System B
309
The second system B (Figure 2) consists of Leica Total Station, Smart RTU, GSM modem, an
automatic computer system which receives the measured data, automatically analyzing the measured
data, automatically Internet emailing the results to users and automatically SMS alert users when the
movements exceed the limit. This design is a fully automatic information push system from the
remote site to the users to achieve the fastest information flow for time critical monitoring.
2.3 Comparison of the two systems
Table 1 Comparison of Systems A and B
Table 1 shows the comparison of Systems A

and B in information flow. It identifies the
steps where humans are involved and they
form the weakest and inconsistent part of the
information flow chain. During the initial
monitoring setup phase, the flow of
information is less critical as during this
monitoring period is used to set the datum
line. As the work progresses into the critical
phase, the frequency of monitoring increases and the flow of information becomes faster. Hence
system reliability and respond time becomes important to avoid construction failures. As the humans
are involved in these demanding process steps, it is very difficult to maintain consistency in the
Quality and Timely information to the users.
For information to flow from the remote site to alert the end user, there are 6 process steps in the
information chain as shown in Table 1. If any of these steps are broken or delayed, then the
information system flow is disrupted. In any system, the human factor is always the weakest part as it
is not a consistent element. Hence system B is a more suitable system for a reliable automated tunnel
monitoring system such that the user has almost immediate data once the measurements have been
completed.
For long term continuous monitoring of critical assets, which requires 24 hours and 7 days operations
over 2 years, the manual effort is an expensive and not a practical solution to sustain as it imposes
challenges to the management, rotating work shifts and Quality of monitoring specialist teams.
3 DESIGN CHALLENGES FOR A FULLY AUTOMATED SYSTEM
3.1 Wireless communication in tunnel
At the monitoring site, the RTU sends the measured data to the office computer system using GSM
data network. Ideally, telephone line is a preferred choice due to reliability and speed advantages.
However in most MRT tunnels, the costs of cabling additional telephone lines to the temporary
monitoring sites are just too high to be considered. Hence wire-less GSM lines are more cost effective
for real time applications. It was found that the GSM signal disruptions are site dependent. This signal
disruption increases the time to transfer the measured data file as the number of error correction
increases within that transmission duration. For some cases, the signal disruption is so high that the
GSM signal line is cut off completely. A few possible causes for this interruption could be the train
attenuating the GSM antenna signals and the high EMI generated from the power lines overloading
the front-end amplifiers of the GSM modem. This requires a GSM line re-connection, hence restarting
the file transfer and delays the file transfer process. In a manual system, the human user intervenes if
the GSM signals level drops and the user just reconnect the line. In some cases relocating the GSM
antenna position improves the situation. However in a fully automated system, the challenges are
greater as the software and hardware error recovery methods must have intelligence builtin to handle
any exception events.
310
In a tunnel-monitoring site, the GSM RF signal strength levels are logged over a week and analyzed
for the signal disruptions, as during initial trials the file transferred took longer than expected from its
ideal time.
Fig. 3 GSM signal strength variation in time

Figure 3 shows that from midnight to 5 a.m., the signals strength are high and have little disruption
except at 2.20 a.m. when the power was switch off for maintenance purposes. In normal times when
the MRT trains move, the signals have frequent disruptions. By examining the signal strength levels
from 5 p.m. to 6 p.m. when the trains are more frequent, it can be seen that the signal disruptions
occur almost every 5 minutes, which coincides with train movement frequencies. This signal
disruption occurs almost every 5 minutes for the whole day except only when the trains are not
operating. Hence getting reliable GSM signal strength for data transmission posed a great challenge to
obtain real time automated data transfer from the tunnel.
3.2 Solution to the communication challenge in tunnel
Table 2 Transmission times and duration
Sometimes relocating the GSM antenna improves the

situation. But a more reliable technique is to develop a
robust communication protocol suitable for noisy
environment. The data packet transmission algorithm in
a circuit switched GSM data line configuration was
developed to overcome this challenge, which occurs
within the tunnel. With this method, only the affected
packet data, which has been corrupted, are resent only.
This data communication algorithm has help to ensure
that the on-site RTU data is always sent out of the
tunnel even in the event of high signal disruptions and
has set a new benchmark for real-time monitoring
systems.
For C825 Southbound tunnel monitoring project, there
are 24 (segments) x 4 (prisms) reference measurement
points and 204 (segments) x 4 (prisms) monitoring
points being measured three times per day. The
measured data file size is 95 Kbytes per measurement
cycle. Table 2 shows the consistencies in the transmission times and file transmission duration. Using
GSM data transfer in an ideal noise free condition, the time is only 1.5 minutes.
Before the data transmission algorithm was used, the timings to receive the file can be delayed up to 1
hour or more. Hence these unreliable receiving times are unacceptable to the users, as the real time
measured data could not be analyzed and alerts are late.
311
3.3 Automatic Supervisory system

In the automated system and without any human intervention operating for 24 hours day, automatic
supervisory systems are installed at the RTU and incoming PC system. An automatic supervisory
system consists of the monitoring modules for the RS485 lines, modems, RTU system status and RTU
Temperature. Upon the detection of problems in these, the software will activate the hardware reset
for the related nodule.
3.3.1 RTU Automatic Supervisory system
The following supervisory modules are introduced
to achieve higher reliability as outdoor conditions
have many unpredictable challenges when the
system suitable for indoor conditions moves to the
real outdoor conditions.
As the data communication from the Total station to
the RTU uses RS485, a RS485 data signal is
analyzed for response (Figure 4). If the data line Fig. 4 Total Station RTU sub-system
does not respond, the RS485 converter and Total
station is reboot. The RTU has a watch dog timer inside to check that the computer operating system
does not freeze. It does an automatic self re-boot if the computer freezes. This freeze can even occur
after installing UPS, surge protection, proper grounding as the freeze can occur due to Electro
Magnetic Interferences. The tunnel environment is not an ideal condition for electronics, and hence
the system is designed to cater for this operating condition. The GSM communication module is
interrogated for its signal strength and does a modem power reboot if it does not respond.
3.3.2 Incoming PC Automatic Supervisory system
The supervisory program monitors the
status of the incoming PC modem, LAN,
Internet and SMS transfer module Figure
5). The incoming PC has a watchdog
timer inside to ensure that the computer
does not freeze. It does an automatic
system re-boot if the computer freezes.
The SMS communication module is
interrogated for its signal strength and
does a power reboot if it does not respond.
Fig. 5 Incoming PC Automatic Supervisory system
3.4 Automatic Data Trend Analysis and Alert

Inside the tunnel, each tunnel segment has 4 prisms
mounted on its inner diameter. Due to mounting
constraints, the prisms are mounted in an uneven
angular positions as seen in Figure 6 (the bright spots
are the prisms reflection from the camera flash light).
During each measurement cycle, the prism X,Y,Z
positions are measured and then corrected with the
reference prisms. Only the X and Z-axes movements
are of major interests. The measured data are chart on
every cycle for its X and Z movements. The SMS alert
is triggered when the X or Z movements exceed 5.0
mm from its set datum limits.
312
For C825 Southbound tunnel monitoring project, there are 24

Fig. 6 Picture of Tunnel with prisms
(segments) x 4 (prisms) reference measurement points and
204 (segments) x 4 (prisms) monitoring points. There are
2,736 data points are analyzed automatically within 3 minutes
and if any of the points exceed their limits, the users get SMS
alerts within 1 minute. The process of analyzing the measured
data and users receiving the SMS alerts is achieved within 4
minutes. As there are a huge number of data points to analyze,
manual visual checks are very time consuming and prone to
errors, if there are 3 measurement cycles per day. Without
automatic data analysis and SMS alert, critical time might be
lost in using manual data analysis and manual alert system.
This in turn can cause expensive construction remedies and
delays.
This alert is a simple concept as it checks that the movements do not exceed their preset thresholds.
Once that limit has been exceeded, SMS alerts are automatically send out to assign users. Figure 7
shows the SMS alert screen, which gives the prism number, alert status, movement from its datum and
time. It is known that the SMS alerts can have hour time delays if they are sent to different service
providers during peak periods. The solution, to avoid these important SMS alerts in tunnel
movements, is to route these information directly to the dedicated end user service provider networks.
This reduces the cross Telco SMS delays from hours to a more consistent SMS delivery time of 30
seconds.
Figure 8 shows a typical chart and the trigger occurred in the segments in the right prism. However
there are no movements in the Left, Track and Crown prisms. Usually these single point movements
indicate false alarm after an extensive manual crosschecks with other prisms and past records. This reverification is still carried out manually. The current automatic algorithm analyzes only the
movements of that prism with respect to its own past movements in time. A more intelligent alert
analysis is required to avoid such false alerts. This can achieve by analyzing the prism movements
relationship to the prisms within the same segment as well as prisms along the adjacent segments, one
segment and another before that affected segment.
Future smarter structural cross checking algorithms
will be introduced as more automated tunnel
monitoring systems are introduced to avoid
overloading the users with SMS alerts. The proposed
algorithm will deploy more 3D numerical checks for
the following: Within the same segment
Movements in the 4 prisms shifting in space
Vertical Movements in the Crown and Track for
vertical loading
Horizontal Movements in the Left and Right for
horizontal loading
Cross-segments
Movements in the prisms along the same axes in
tunnel
313
Fig. 8 Chart of Tunnel Movement per cycle
The structural movement checks will help to reduce the false SMS alerts. The system will
automatically be analyzed for such information to be sent to the users to help them minimize false
alerts and work stoppages.
3.5 System Scalability
The current system design is suitable for handling a number of projects simultaneously. However it is
expected that by simply scaling and duplicating the individual systems for different monitoring
projects, the cost and effort to maintain the system will be high. The constraints for a scaling up
system are the number of physical telephone lines allocated by the service provider, data storage &
backup for multiple PCs, different operating system, different revisions of software, software version
control, end user interfaces, UPS, power stability and data security with site mirroring.
Figure 9 shows a scalable wireless networked automatic remote monitoring system based upon the
eMonitoring concept to overcome the limitations of the current multiple stand-alone systems. The
wire-less remote network system has the capacity to handle up to 128 automated remote RTUs for
tunnels and structures. It uses extensively the Wireless and Internet public networks infrastructure so
that the expansion of remote sites is easier to deploy and supported. By migrating the slower 9,600
bps Global System for Mobile communication (GSM) data line to the 33,600 bps General Packet
Radio Service (GPRS) communication, the speed of data transfer will be improved and as well as
provide a true on-line connection from the RTU back to the central server.
Prisms
GPRS
Modem
Total
Station
SMS
Alert
RTU
Wire-less
GPRS
Public
Network
GPRS
Modem
RTU
Central
Server
Fully automatic
data transfer to
end users
Internet email
Support up to
128 RTUs
Fig. 9 On line GPRS Wire-less Network Multi RTU Tunnel Monitoring System
4 CONCLUSIONS
With the wider market acceptance of wireless data communication and computer technologies,
automation for the construction industry can go beyond office automation. The business advantage of
using reliable remote wireless field monitoring systems in projects, which require real time
monitoring and alerts systems, is the minimizing of risk at construction sites by providing reliable and
timely information to the right people.
314
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank the Clients, Main-Contractors, Consultants and Supplier for the use
their material for this presentation. Special thanks to IDA and the staff of SysEng (S) Pte Ltd and
Wisescan Engineering Services Pte Ltd for work carried out in this project.
REFERENCES
IDA 2002. Mobile Workforce Call for Collaboration. Infocomm Development Authority of Singapore, May.
Tan, G. H. 2000. eMonitoring Systems, SysEng (S) Pte Ltd.
315
SESSION 8
EXCAVATION 2
Main
Performance of Basement Excavation for Singapore

Esplanade Car Park
T.Y. Poh
Meinhardt (S) Pte Ltd, Singapore
I.H. Wong
MITIC Associates, Singapore
ABSTRACT: The Esplanade car park, a two-level basement car park, was built to accommodate the
parking needs of the patrons for the Esplanade Theatre on the bay. The basements were constructed by
the top-down method, with excavation depths ranging from 10 to 11.4 m below the ground surface.
The performance of the basement excavation for the Singapore Esplanade Car Park is presented in this
paper. The excavation has been back-analyzed using a finite element program that incorporated the effects of cracking of the wall. Results of analysis indicate that cracking could result in a substantial reduction in the bending moments in the diaphragm wall, and a considerable increase in the lateral wall
deflection, especially for cases with large wall curvatures. These results suggest that after cracking is
initiated, the use of linear elastic methods and uncracked wall properties leads to smaller lateral wall
movement predictions but an over-prediction of bending moments, compared to an analysis that incorporates the effects of concrete cracking.
1 INTRODUCTION
The Singapore Arts Center, also known as the Esplanade was built to promote arts activities and performances in Singapore. In conjunction with this, a large underground car park, the Esplanade Car
Park was built to accommodate the parking needs of the patrons. The car park is 65 to 109 m wide and
184 to 224 m long and consists of two levels of basements. The basements were constructed by the
top-down method, with excavation depths ranging from 10 to 11.4 m below the ground surface. The
site, as shown in Fig. 1, is located at Raffles Avenue, next to the Marina Bay and the Singapore River,
and comprises thick deposits of soft soils. The south and west wall boundaries were supported by 1.0
m thick diaphragm walls while a 0.8 m thick wall was adopted for the north wall boundary as the soft
soils were thinner there. A temporary composite sheet pile (FSP III) and soldier pile wall was chosen
for the east wall boundary that connects the Esplanade Car Park to the Singapore Arts Center. The diaphragm wall lengths were deepest at the south wall boundary, where the combined thickness of the
soft soils was largest, with the wall lengths ranging from 33.5 to 35.5 m. For the west wall boundary,
the wall lengths ranged from 20.7 to 34.0 m, with wall lengths decreasing from south towards the
north wall boundary. The wall lengths for the north wall boundary ranged from 23.5 to 28.5 m.
The top-down method of basement construction was adopted as part of the roof of the car park was required to be used as part of the road extension of the adjacent Nicoll Highway, which was opened to
traffic before the whole basement was completed. The use of diaphragm walls facilitated the top-down
method of basement construction. The diaphragm walls also helped in the performance of the basement excavation as the site consisted of thick layers of soft soils. In addition, the diaphragm walls provided maximum economy as the walls served as both temporary and permanent ground supports.
The performance of the basement excavation for an instrumented panel of the Esplanade car park diaphragm wall is presented. The aspects of the performances evaluated include the lateral wall deflections and bending moments. Back-analyses using a modified version of the finite element program
EXCAV (Duncan and Chang 1977) that could incorporate the effects of cracking of the wall were also
carried out. The effects of concrete cracking on the behavior of the diaphragm wall are considered.
Main
319
125m
P50
n
xtensio
Strain gauges
Total earth pressure
456
5m
Inclinometers
Legend:
Water standpipes
P3
Raffles Avenue
ay E
Highw
Nicoll
Diaphragm walls
59 m
45
P19
50 m
45
99 m
Composite sheet pile and soldier pile

184 m
45
Figure 1 Plan layouts of basement excavation for Esplanade Car Park
2 BACK-ANALYSIS OF THE PERFORMANCE OF ESPLANADE BASEMENT CAR PARK

2.1 Section analyzed
The excavation section next to instrumented wall panel P3, was selected for back-analysis of the performance of the basement excavation of the car park. The panel was located at the south wall boundary
of the site, and is shown in Fig. 1. This section was selected because of the presence of a thick layer of
soft soil in this locality. The combined thickness of the soft soil layers is approximately 15 m. The excavation was 10.5 m deep and was retained by a 1.0 m thick, 35.5 m long diaphragm wall, with three
levels of slabs as props. The width of the wall panel was 6.7 m. The top, basement 1 (B1), and base
slab are at RL 102.2, 97.65, and 93.55 m with a thickness of 0.2, 0.5, and 0.8 m, respectively.
2.2 Ground conditions
The subsurface conditions next to this wall section consisted of fill overlying soft soil layers that in
turn was underlain by a medium dense to very dense clayey sand. The fill layer was a 5 m thick loose
to medium dense silty sand fill, with standard penetration test (SPT) N value ranging from 5 to 18. Directly beneath the fill was a 3 m thick layer of soft marine clay, followed by a 3 m thick medium dense
silty sand, a 2.5 m thick soft organic clay, a 4.5 m thick soft to medium stiff silty clay, and a 5.5 m
thick medium stiff marine clay. The medium stiff marine clay was in turn underlain by a medium
dense to very dense clayey sand layer. The SPT N value of this medium dense to very dense clayey
sand layer increased with depth, with N value of 11 at the top of the layer and N value of 115 at a
depth of 38 m below the ground surface. The medium dense to very dense clayey sand layer belongs to
the Old Alluvium Formation (Geology 1976). The ground surface was at RL 102.5 m. There was no
water standpipe installed adjacent to section. Other water standpipes show that the ground water level
across the site ranged from RL 101 to 102 m.
2.3 Construction sequences
The construction sequence adjacent to the instrumented panel P3 was as follows:
1. Construction of a 1.0 m thick, 35.5 m deep diaphragm wall (May 24, 1996)
2. Excavation to RL 102 m (stage 1; November 27, 1996)
3. Construction of top slab at RL 102.3 m (stage 2; early December, 1996)
4. Excavation to RL 97 m (stage 3; April 3, 1997)
5. Construction of B1 slab at RL 97.65 m (stage 4; mid April 1997)
6. Excavation to RL 92 m (stage 5; June 25, 1997)
7. Construction of base slab at RL 93.55 m (stage 6; end of July, 1997)
320
As the basement excavation plan area was very large, the main construction activities namely the excavation of the subsoil and the construction of the slabs were subdivided into sub-zones, with plan area
of approximately 30 to 40 m by 30 to 40 m.
2.4 Instrumentation and monitoring program
The monitoring instruments consisted of one wall inclinometer and twelve pairs of vibrating wire
strain gauges on the steel reinforcement. They were installed inside the wall during the construction of
the wall panel. The twelve pairs of the strain gauges were located at RL 102, 100, 98, 96, 94, 92, 90,
87, 84, 80, 76, and 72 m, respectively. The tip of the wall inclinometer was located at the same depth
as the toe of the wall
2.5 Finite element program used in analysis
A modified version of the finite element program EXCAV was used in the back-analyses. This program has been widely used and tested by a number of researchers such as Duncan and Chang (1977),
Broms et al. (1986), Wong and Broms (1989), and Wong et al. (1996). The program can be used to
simulate excavations in clay and sand under plane strain conditions. Four-node isoparametric elements
are used to model the soil medium. The walls and slabs have been modeled by structural beam elements. The program uses the hyperbolic model (Duncan et al. 1980) to simulate the nonlinear, stress
dependent, and inelastic behavior of the soils. The nonlinear stress-strain behavior of the soils are
modeled using a small linear incremental procedure with small loading or unloading steps.
The program can simulate the sequential nature of the excavation and strut installation. An increment
of analysis may consist of excavation of a layer of soil and application of loads. During any increment
of the analysis, structural elements such as struts may be inserted in the analysis.
The program can simulate the effects of the cracking of diaphragm walls by using a beam element with
a composite moment-curvature curve, consisting of a straight line followed by a hyperbolic curve, to
define the corresponding moment-curvature relationship for the diaphragm walls. For the backanalysis, the moment-curvature relationship of the diaphragm wall is derived based on Branson's
(1977) formula as outlined in the previous section as well as in Poh et al. (1997).
The performance of two instrumented case histories involving propped excavations supported by diaphragm walls in stiff residual soils have been back-analyzed by Poh et al. (1997) using the finite element program EXCAV. The analysis incorporated the effects of concrete cracking of the diaphragm
wall and the results of analysis agreed well with the measured values.
2.6 Soil parameter used in analysis
The procedures for estimating the soil properties used in finite element back-analysis have been described elsewhere by Wong et al. (1996) and Poh et at. (1997). A summary of soil parameters used in
the analysis is shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Soil properties used in finite element analysis for Esplanade Car Park
Soil Layer
Rf
su
Ei
(m)
(kN/m3)
(kPa)
(kPa)
0 - 3.0
18.0
51300
0.70
0.35
0
3.0 - 5.0
17.5
23400
0.70
0.35
0
5.0 - 8.0
15.0
18000
0.75
0.49
30
8.0 - 11.0
18.0
54100
0.70
0.35
0
11.0 - 13.5
16.0
20100
0.75
0.49
35
13.5 - 18.0
17.5
28300
0.75
0.49
45
18.0 - 23.5
16.5
30000
0.75
0.49
50
23.5 - 28.0
19.0
46200
0.70
0.35
0
28.0 - 31.5
19.5
96600
0.70
0.35
0
31.5 - 36.0
20.0
241000
0.70
0.35
0
> 36.0
21.0
310000
0.70
0.35
0
321
()
35
30
0
35
0
0
0
35
35
38
38
K
0.76
0.74
0.84
30.77
0.82
0.80
0.82
0.73
0.84
0.98
1.03
2.7 Finite element analysis

The excavation was analyzed under undrained and plane strain conditions based on total stress. The
analysis modeled a half width of the excavation where the left hand boundary of the mesh represents
the line of symmetry at the center line of the excavation. The finite element mesh is 150 m long, 52.5
m deep, and consists of 400 elements and 441 nodes. The soil properties used in the analysis are
shown in Table 1. A grade G40 concrete, with cube compressive strength fcu of 40 MPa (equivalent to
a cylinder compressive strength fc of 32 MPa, assuming fc = 0.8 fcu) was used for the diaphragm wall
panel. The compression and tension steel content of the wall panel was 0.38 and 0.76% of the gross
area of the wall section, respectively. The gross cover thickness of the wall (inclusive of a 30 mm sacrificial cover) was 75 mm and the moment of inertia of the wall of 8.14 x 10-2 m4 was adopted in the
analysis. Based on BS 8110 (BSI 1985), the modulus of concrete was taken as 28 GPa.
In the analysis, the walls and slabs were modeled as beam elements. The effects of construction of the
diaphragm wall are not considered. The analysis takes into account of the effects of cracking of the
diaphragm wall by using a composite curve consisting of a linear line followed by a hyperbolic curve
to define the moment-curvature relationships for the beam sections. The moment-curvature relationships for the diaphragm walls are based on Branson's (1977) formula. The moment-curvature relationships calculated based on Bransons (1977) formula, and that used in the finite element analysis are
shown in Fig. 2. This figure shows that the concrete cracking reduces the wall bending moment significantly. Fig. 2 shows that after cracking is initiated, the continued use of an uncracked section in the
analysis would over-predict the wall bending moments, especially when the magnitude of the wall
curvature is large. However, the use of a fully cracked section with the concrete in tension ignored
would under-predict the wall bending moments.
1500
Bending moment (kNm/m)
1200
900
600
Branson's (1977) formula

Used in FEM
300
Uncracked section
Fully cracked section
0
0
0.0004
0.0008
0.0012
0.0016
Curvature, (rad)
Figure 2 Moment-curvature diagram used in finite element analysis for Panel P3
2.8 Results of finite element analysis

The measured and the computed lateral wall deflections for the three stages of excavation at RL 102,
97, and 92 m are shown in Fig. 3. Generally, the computed lateral wall deflections agree reasonably
well with the measured values, in both the shape and magnitude of the deflection curves. For the first
stage of excavation at RL 102 m, the computed lateral wall movements are slightly smaller than the
observed values. For the second and third stages of excavation at RL 97 and 92 m, respectively, the
computed maximum lateral wall movements are larger than the corresponding observed values, with
their location shifted slightly downwards. In addition, the computed movements at the top of the wall
are much smaller as compared to the observed values. During the second stage of the excavation, as
shown in Fig. 3, the measured values indicated that there was a considerable movement observed at
322
the top of the wall. This trend may be due to the presence of large openings in the slabs adjacent to this
panel. Another possible reason could be due to the large extent of the basement width. Consequently,
it may take some time to complete the construction of the entire floor slab before its full stiffness can
be achieved. Fig. 3 also shows that the computed wall toe movements are larger than the measured
values. This trend has been commonly reported for the back-analysis of propped excavations, and may
possibly be due to the small strain behavior of the soil near to the toe of the wall.
Soil
Lateral wall deflection (mm)
-30Profile
0
RL 102.5 m
30
60
90
Fill
Soft
marine clay
Medium dense
silty sand
Depth (m)
12
RL 92 m
Soft organic clay

Soft to medium
stiff silty clay
18
Medium stiff
marine clay
24
30
Medium dense
to very dense
clayey sand
RL of ground surface: 102.5 m

RL 102 m: 27/Nov/96
RL 97 m: 3/Apr/97
RL 92 m : 25/Jun/97
RL 102 m: FEM
RL 97 m: FEM
RL 92 m: FEM
36
Figure 3 Measured and computed wall deflections for three stages of excavation for Panel P3
2.9 Effects of concrete cracking

The structural design of diaphragm wall in Singapore is based on limit state design, where calculations
are carried out at the failure state (ultimate limit state) for loads larger than those expected in service
(factored loads), and checks are made of the deflections and cracking at service load levels (serviceability limit state). The ultimate limit state is generally based on BS 8110 (BSI 1985). However, besides serving as soil retaining structures, diaphragm walls are also considered to be water retaining
structures. Hence, the serviceability limit state has to adhere to BS 8007 (BSI 1987), which is generally based on a design crack width of 0.2 mm. In other words, the effects of concrete cracking are incorporated in the structural design of diaphragm walls in Singapore. The bending moments used in the
structural design of diaphragm walls are generally obtained from numerical analysis such as one- and
two-dimensional finite element methods. Currently, most of the finite element programs available assume that the wall behaves linear elastically and that the wall is assumed to be uncracked.
This section highlights the differences in the behavior of the diaphragm wall when the wall is assumed
to behave linear elastically, and when the effects of wall cracking are incorporated in the finite element
analysis. In the former, the finite element analysis was carried out by modeling the wall with linear
elastic beam elements, with the other parameters remaining unchanged.
The results for the excavation at RL 92 m, with and without considering the effects of concrete cracking on the lateral wall deflection and wall bending are shown in Figs. 4 and 5, respectively. Fig. 4
shows that the concrete cracking results in larger (15%) lateral deflections of the 1.0 m thick wall in
comparison with the linear elastic analysis. The maximum lateral wall deflection for the analysis incorporating the effects of cracking was 65.0 mm, compared with 56.5 mm for the linear elastic analysis. Poh et al. (1997) have shown that for excavations in stiff soils supported by 0.6 m walls, cracking
was accompanied by a smaller increase (6%) in lateral wall deflection. This trend may be because the
cracking is larger for the Esplanade Car Park.
323
Fig. 5 shows that the computed wall bending moments for the analysis assuming the wall behaves linear elastically are much higher than that for the analysis that incorporated the effects of concrete cracking. The computed maximum bending moment for the analysis based on the linear elastic wall properties is approximately 60% larger than that obtained from the analysis that incorporated the effects of
concrete cracking.
Soil
Lateral wall deflection (mm)
-30Profile
0
RL 102.5m
30
60
90
Fill
Soft
marine clay
Medium dense
silty sand
Depth (m)
12
RL 92 m
Soft organic clay

Soft to medium
stiff silty clay
18
Medium stiff
marine clay
24
Medium dense
to very dense
clayey sand
RL of ground surface: 102.5 m
30
RL 92 m : Measured
RL 92 m: FEM (Uncracked)
RL 92 m: FEM (Cracked)
36
Figure 4 Effects of cracking on lateral wall deflections for excavation at RL 92 m for Panel P3
Bending moment (kNm/m)

-1500 -1000 -500
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Depth (m)
12
18
24
Excavation level: RL 92 m
Strain gauges
30
Wall inclinometer
Cracking moment
FEM: Cracked
FEM: Uncracked
36
Figure 5 Effects of cracking on wall bending moments for excavation at RL 92 m for Panel P3
3 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The following summary and conclusions are made:
324
The performance of the basement excavation for the Esplanade Car Park in soft marine clay are presented and evaluated. These include lateral wall deflections and wall bending moments. The excavation has been back-analyzed using a finite element program that incorporated the effects of cracking of
the wall. The computed results agreed well with the observed values.
Results of analysis indicate that cracking may accompanied by a substantial reduction in the bending
moments in the diaphragm wall. Hence, the use of linear elastic wall properties in the finite element
analysis would significantly over-predict the wall bending moments especially for cases associated
with large wall curvatures. The study also indicates that the use of a linear elastic or an uncracked wall
properties results in smaller lateral wall movements as compared to analysis that incorporated the effects of concrete cracking.
REFERENCES
British Standards Institution (BSI). 1985. British standard: Structural use of concrete: Part 1. Code of practice
for design and construction. BSI, BS 8110, London, England.
British Standards Institution (BSI). 1987. British standard code of practice for design of concrete structures for
retaining aqueous liquids. BSI, BS 8007, London, England.
Branson, D.E. 1977. Deformation of concrete structures, McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y.
Broms, B.B., Wong, I.H., and Wong, K.S. 1986. Experience with finite element analysis of braced excavation
in Singapore. Proc., 2nd Int. Symp. on Numer. Models in Geomechanics, A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam, Netherlands, 309-324.
Duncan, J.M., Byrne, P., Wong, K.S., and Mabry, P. 1980. Strength, stress-strain and bulk modulus parameters
for finite element analysis of stresses and movements in soil masses. Rep. No. VCB/GT/80-81, Univ. of
California, Berkeley, Calif.
Duncan, J.M., and Chang, C.S. 1977. EXCAV: A computer program for analysis of stresses and movements in
excavations. Geotech. Engrg. Res. Rep. No. TE 77-4, Univ. of California, Berkeley, Calif.
Geology of the Republic of Singapore. 1976. Public Works Dept., Singapore.
Poh, T.Y., Wong, I.H., and Chandrasekaran, B. 1997. Performance of two propped diaphragm walls in stiff residual soils. J. Perf. of Constructed Facilities, ASCE, 11(4), 190-199.
Wong, I.H., Poh, T.Y., and Chuah, H.L. 1996. Analysis of case histories from the construction of the Central
Expressway in Singapore. Can. Geotech. J., Ottawa, Canada, 33(5): 732-746.
Wong, K.S., and Broms, B.B. 1989. Lateral wall deflections of braced excavations in clay. J. Geotech. Engrg.,
ASCE, 115(6), 853-870
325
A Floating-Type Braced Excavation in Soft Marine Clay

P.C. Lim
CL Geoconsultant, Singapore
T.S. Tan
ECON Corporation, Singapore
ABSTRACT: The behavior of braced excavations for the construction of a services tunnel located in
soft marine clay is described. The total length of the 2-cell tunnel to be constructed using the cut-andcover technique in the first phase is 1.5 km, with depth of between 12 and 16 m generally. The ground
condition at the site consists typically of reclaimed fill overlying deep-seated soft, highly plastic marine clay with depth varying from 20 to 40 m. A floating-type sheet pile cofferdam with a jet-grouted
layer located just below the final excavation level is the proposed temporary ground support method
for the construction of the cut-and-cover tunnel. This paper is a joint effort between the designer for
temporary works and the contractor to present the design considerations and actual behavior of the
braced excavations. Case studies of two excavations: a collapse case and a successfully completed
case are described.
1 INTRODUCTION
The proposed 1.5 km services tunnel is located on Reclaimed land. Depth of the tunnel is typically between 12 and 16 m. The tunnel is to be constructed using the principle of cut & cover technique. Reclaimed sand fill overlying very soft to soft marine clay extending to significant depth is a typical
characteristic of the ground condition at this site. Thickness of the soft and highly plastic marine clay
varies from 20 to 40 m but depth of 35 to 40 m is more typical generally.
In such deep-seated soft ground condition and considering the relatively shallow tunnel depth, the
choice of an appropriate yet cost effective temporary ground support method for the construction of
the cut & cover tunnel becomes a critical cost factor for the contractor. The concept of a floating-type
sheet pile earth retaining wall was first envisaged from Mana & Clough (1981). More recently, Weissenbach & Kempfert (1995) describes a project located in soft lacustrine clay where the excavation adjacent to an existing building was supported using strutted sheet pile wall, high pressure injection slab
and injection piles. Another example of a cofferdam with grouted bottom forming a water-tight box in
pervious soil condition is also reported by Guilloux & Kastner (1995). Feasibility of the concept was
discussed with B. B. Broms through personal communication initiated by the first author.
A floating-type sheet pile earth retaining wall (cofferdam) with a jet grout layer at the bottom of the
excavation and braced internally with multiple strut layers was then proposed as a viable ground support method for the construction of the cut-and-cover tunnels. Details of the proposed support method
are described in the next section.
1.1 Objective
The concept and key design considerations of the floating-type temporary ground support are described. The primary objective of this paper is to report the actual performance of this less conventional ground support method. Two case studies with different excavation depths are discussed in this
paper.
Main
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2 BACKGROUND
2.1 Ground condition
The ground conditions typical at the sites of the two case studies designated as Site A and Site B are
shown in Figures 1 and 2, respectively. Reclaimed fill of predominantly beach sand 9 to 10.5 m thick
overlying deep-seated soft marine clay extending to depths varying from 35 to 39 m below the ground
surface is typical. Locally, fluvial clay or/and fluvial sand is present as an intermediate layer dividing
the marine clay into two distinct layers. Below the marine clay lies the Old Alluvium formation. The
depth to the ground water level is generally about 3.0 m below the ground surface at low tide and at
high tide, the water level could rise to about 1.5 m below the ground surface. Summary of the
undrained shear strength of the marine clay obtained from laboratory undrained unconsolidated triaxial compression tests (UU) and in-situ field vane shear tests are also given in Figure 1.
Undrained Strength of Marine Clay
cu (KPa)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0
5
10
UU
FVT
15
20
25
30
35
45
Design Line
Depth (m)
Fig. 1 Ground condition at Site A and summary of the undrained shear strength of marine clay
Fig. 2 Ground condition at Site B
2.2 Proposed method of temporary ground support

The widths of the cut-and-cover tunnels are generally 18 m for the main tunnel and 16 m for the
branch tunnel. The corresponding width of the excavation is wider by about 3 m typically. Depth to
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the tunnel soffit is generally between 16 and 16m. Locally at two locations, the shallowest section is
only 9 m below the ground surface while the deepest section is 22 m. The shallowest section is located
at where the tunnel crosses over the existing MRT tunnels while the deepest section is where the tunnel crosses below the 8 m wide existing drain.
A schematic of the typical temporary ground support termed herein as the floating sheet pile cofferdam
is illustrated in Figure 3. The proposed ground support is adopted at nearly 90% of the cut-and-cover
tunnels where deep-seated marine clay is present.
Sheet Piles
Sheet Piles
Reclaimed Sand Fill

Strut layers
Very Soft to Soft Marine

Clay
JET GROUT LAYER
Medium Dense to Very

Dense to Hard Old
Alluvium
Tension Piles
Fig. 3 A schematic of the floating-type sheet pile earth retaining wall
The temporary ground support consists of interlocking sheet piles with the piles terminating a few metres below the tunnel soffit, forming a cofferdam around the excavation. The sheet pile wall is braced
internally with multi-strut layers above the final excavation level and a jet grout layer located just below the final excavation level. Thickness of the jet grout layer varies from 2.5 to 3.5 m generally and
up to 4 m at the deepest section, depending on the excavation depth and the design requirements specific to prevailing ground condition.
With the sheet piles floating in the soft marine clay, the primary design consideration is the stability
against basal heave. The stability against base heave is achieved by providing a layer of overlapping
jet grout piles below the final excavation, to form a continuous layer across the excavation. The role of
the jet grout layer is dual purpose. Firstly, it acts as a continuous slab in resisting the bearing pressure
exerted by the adjoining ground and secondly, as a strut in restraining the toe movement of the sheet
piles. The jet grout layer is an un-reinforced structural member and overlapping jet grout piles to form
a homogenous layer providing adequate flexural, shear and compressive strengths is therefore crucial.
The design calls for a required unconfined compressive and tensile strengths of the jet grout columns
of 1200 and 250 kPa, respectively. The achievement of this strength requirement is particularly more
critical at column intersections, which form the weakest areas.
3 CASE STUDIES
Two case studies of floating sheet pile cofferdam with different excavation depth are described. Excavation depths of the respective case studies are 13 and 16 m. The observed field performances of the
two excavations and a comparison with the theoretical predictions are presented in the following sections. The analyses of the retaining systems were carried using PLAXIS, a finite element code for
geotechnical applications. The undrained shear strength (cu) for the jet grout layer is 600 kPa and Evalue is set as 100Cu, and 250 kPa as the tensile strength. The design undrained shear strength profile
of the marine clay is assumed to increase linearly with depth at a ratio of 0.16z starting from 15 kPa.
The undrained modulus of the marine clay is based on an empirical correlation of 200cu. The design
328
undrained modulus of the marine clay is based on an empirical correlation of 200cu. The design considers a surcharge of 20 kN/m2 with the ground water table located at 1.5 m typically.
3.1 Design consideration
3.1.1 Case 1
CASE 1 refers to a section of an excavation for branch tunnel at Site A. Layout of the excavation
showing the temporary ground support, internal bracing and instrumentation is shown in Figure 4.
The excavation depth for this section of the cut-and-cover tunnel is 13 m. Marine clay is present at
about 9 m below the reclaimed fill and it extends to depth of 30 m, below the ground surface. Thickness of the soft marine clay below the final excavation level is at least 24 m. More than three lengths
of sheet piles to embed the piles into the medium dense layer, and the use of a very heavy combined
sheet pile and soldier pile sections with at least 2 jet grout layers would be required.
A floating combined sheet pile cum soldier pile cofferdam with a jet grout layer at final excavation
braced internally with 3 layers of strut was therefore adopted for the construction of the tunnels.
Length of the combined sheet pile/soldier pile wall is 15 m with a penetration depth of 3.5 m below the
final excavation. The design thickness of the jet grout layer is 2 m initially but was increased to 2.5 m.
The jet grout layer is restrained against upheaval force by two rows of steel H-piles.
The tension H-piles are spaced at about 6.0 m center-to-center in both the longitudinal and transverse
directions. The design penetration depth of the H-piles into the very dense or hard soil stratum with Nvalue of 75 blows per 30 cm or higher is 7.5 m. Preboring to facilitate installation of the H-piles is
foreseen and the requirement is to backfill prebore with lean concrete up to the jet grout layer to ensure
proper transfer of the upheaval forces.
Fig. 4 Layout and section of the excavation at Site A (CASE 1)
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3.1.2 Case 2
CASE 2 describes an excavation at Site B for a junction between a main tunnel and a branch tunnel.
Layout of the excavation showing the temporary ground support, internal bracing and instrumentation
is given in Figure 5.
Fig. 5 Layout and section of an excavation for a junction between a main tunnel and a branch tunnel at Site B
(CASE 2)
The excavation depth is 16 m generally and 18.5 m locally at the center section. Marine clay is present
at about 9 m below the reclaimed fill and it extends to depth of 30 m, below the ground surface. Thickness of the soft marine clay below the final excavation level is at least 24 m.
The proposed temporary earth retaining system is also a floating combined sheet pile cum soldier pile
cofferdam with a jet grout layer at final excavation, similar to Case 1. The cofferdam is braced internally with 5 strut layers generally and 6 layers locally at the deeper section. The designed length of the
combined sheet pile/soldier pile wall is 20 m with a penetration depth of 4 m below the final excavation at the 16m deep section and 24 m length with 6 m penetration at the 18.5 m deep section. The 3.0
m thick jet grout layer is restrained against upheaval force by two rows of steel H-piles. The tension
H-piles are spaced at about 4.5 m center-to-center in the transverse direction and generally at about 3.7
m in the longitudinal direction. The designed penetration depth of the H-piles into the very dense or
hard soil stratum with N-value of 75 blows per 30 cm or higher is 7.5 m.
4 DISCUSSION
The observed behaviors of the two cases of braced excavation are described. The instrumentation for
monitoring the actual performance of the excavation at this site is rather limited. Inclinometers, piezometers and settlement markers were the only provisional items specified in the tender document while
extensometers and strain gages, which are also essential instrumentation for monitoring deep excavation, were not included.
Regardless, although the amount of instrumentation may be limited, but given the rather unconventional support method and scarcity of such case histories, a descriptive account of the observed behavior of braced excavations would still be of benefit. The key indicators used in comparing the actual behavior of the excavation with design are lateral ground movement, basal heave, visual observation of
330
the structural performance of the wall, walers and struts, and the jet grout layer where possible. The
calculated lateral ground movement or wall deflection is obtained from the numerical results using
PLAXIS.
Summary of the strengths of the jet grout piles is given in Table 1. Core samples were taken from the
installed jet grout columns and tested at 28 days. The shear strength of the jet grout column is determined from compression strength of the unconfined compression test and tensile strength is interpreted
from an in-direct method using Brazilian Test.
Table 1 Summary of Shear and Tensile Strength of Jet Grout Core Samples at 28 days
Location
Shear Strength (kPa)
Tensile Strength (kPa)
Case 1 - B1-1: Zone B2 (2 samples)
789
426
Case 2 - M2 (7 samples)
683
257
Average value based on 15 samples
774
339
4.1 Actual field performance

4.1.1 Case 1
The as-built conditions of the cofferdam at Site A differ from the design in various aspects. The key
differences are: firstly, thickness of the jet grout layer was 2 m instead of the required 2.5 m, secondly,
the H-piles were installed by driving to set only, and lastly, the removal of the top 1.5 m by open cut
was done only on one side of the excavation. The actual penetrations of the H-piles vary between 32
and 35.5 m (i.e., between RL 71.0 m and RL 67.5 m). In relation to the prevailing ground condition,
the H-piles were terminated in the fluvial deposit.
At a local area near to the existing MRT tunnels, jet grouting was carried out in a controlled manner,
and with the use of casing and precutting, impact on the MRT tunnels was effectively kept to a minimum. Data from automatic total station showed lateral movement of the MRT tunnels of up to 5 mm
during the whole jet grouting operation. The measured data is given in Figure 7.
Schedule of the excavation sequence is given in Fig. 6. Excavation started on 30 November 2001, approximately one month after completion of the jet grout layer. Staged excavation and installation of
the strut layers progressed fairly smoothly to the 3rd excavation level according to the design. Summaries of measured lateral earth movement adjacent to the excavation at inclinometers B1-I13 to B1-I16
are plotted below the excavation schedule in Fig 6. Profiles of the calculated wall deflection, shown as
dashed line. The comparison showed poor agreement between the calculated and the measured both in
term of the magnitude and the deformed shape. The FEM generally predicts larger lateral movement.
A smaller difference is however noted at B1-I13. The inclinometers showed a trend of increasing lateral ground movement below the jet grout layer starting from 2nd excavation.
Although extensometers B1-E07 to B1-E09 were installed, the collected data showed almost no
change in movement, quite contrary to expected behavior. The instrument insensitivity could be due
installation problem or wrong positioning of the instrument, which were all located next to the H-piles
to avoid being damage during excavation. Hence, data from the extensometers are not presented.
Work was temporarily stopped over the Lunar New Year of 2002. On 16 February and about one
month after the completion of the 3rd strut layer, excavation for the 4th layer resumed starting in the
area furthest away from the MRT tunnels. Site workers reported several strange explosive-like sounds
in the early morning of 17 February. On the morning of 17 February, the condition of the cofferdam is
as shown in Photograph 1. Photograph 2 showed a close-up view of the condition of the collapse section.
Photograph 3 showed a stockpile of excavated earth spoil adjacent to the collapsed section of the excavation. Visually, the observed height of the stockpile is likely to be more than 6 times the equivalent
height of the 20 kPa surcharge allowed for in the design.
331
Ex c av at io n Seq uenc e
103
Ex c av at io n
Ins t all s t r ut
100
97
94
91
D at e
Inclinometer B1-I14 at B1-1 Zone B
Inclinometer B1-I13 at B1-1 ZoneB
-60
-40
-20
20
40
60
Lateral Movement toward Excavation [mm]
-10
80
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
-10
10
20
30
40
-20
10
10
10
10
15
15
15
15
20
20
20
20
25
25
25
25
30
30
30
30
35
35
35
35
40
45
50
Initial
1st layer
2nd layer
3rd layer
1-D after collapse
1st - cal
2nd - cal
3rd - cal
40
45
50
Initial
1st layer
2nd layer
3rd layer
1-wk before collapse
1st-cal
2nd - cal
3rd - cal
40
45
50
-10
10
20
332
40
40
Initial
1st layer
2nd layer
3rd layer
1-D after collapse
8-D after collapse
45
Initial
1st layer
2nd layer
3rd layer
1-D after collapse
8-D after collapse
50
Fig. 6 Excavation schedule and summaries of inclinometer data B1-I13 to B1-I16 at Site A (Case 1)
Photograph 1 Collapse of a section of the sheet pile wall
30
Photograph 2 A close-up view of the collapse section showing the ruptured jet grout layer and conditions
of the H-piles, struttings and the sheet pile wall opposite the collapsed section
Photograph 3 Condition of the stockpile of excavated spoil adjacent to the collapsed section
Immediately after the collapse, no further data was reported for inclinometers B1-I13 and B1-I14. At
inclinometers B1-I15 and B1-I16, the change in lateral movement at 1 day after the collapse is practically negligible and at 8 days after the collapse, an increase of less than 5 mm was reported. The increase in movement is insignificant in comparison to that at the collapse section. Impact of the collapse
of the retaining wall on the existing MRT tunnels as shown in Figure 7, is also quite insignificant. The
change in lateral movement of the tunnels is not more than 2 mm.
The conditions of the collapse could be summarized as follows:
The failure happened in a sudden and abrupt manner.

The collapse occurred close to the corner of the cofferdam and primarily on one side (the side
adjacent to the high stockpile of excavated earth spoil).
The jet grout layer ruptured distinctly at mid-span of the cofferdam.
The H-piles were displaced upward by more than 3m above the existing ground level.
333
Excavatio n Stag e
A ft e r C o llap s e o f Sh e e t p ile s
-6
-5
-5
-5
-4
-4
-4
-3
-3
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
Lateral dis plac ement [mm]
-6
Je t Gr o u t In s tallatio n
-6
-2
-1
0
1
2
-2
-1
0
1
2
1 s t la ye r - m ax
1 s t la ye r - m in
2 nd la ye r - m ax
A t c o lla ps e - m a x
2 nd la ye r - m in
3 rd la ye r - m ax
L o n g t erm - m a x
J G - m ax
J G - m in
6
59680
L o n g t erm - m in
59630
59580
59530
59480
A t c o lla ps e - m in
3 rd la ye r - m in
59680
59630
Chainage
59580
59530
Chainage
59480
59680
59630
59580
59530
59480
Chainage
Fig. 7 Impact of the jet grouting operation and the collapse of the retaining wall at Site A on existing MRT
southbound tunnel
The rupture of jet grout layer occurred right at the center of excavation (i.e. at mid-span section).
The mode of movement of the collapse section of the retaining wall was rotational with the toe
swinging inward towards the excavation.
The 3rd, 2nd and 1st strut layers had either buckled and/or displaced diagonally upwards.
Buckling of the strut in the vertical direction could be due to the pull-out force from the H-piles.
The movement of the opposite wall, across from the collapse wall and adjacent to the existing
MRT tunnels, if any is significantly small in comparison (see Figure 8).
A schematic of the collapsed condition of the cofferdam is shown in Figure 8. The cause of failure is
usually a combination of a number of factors. One of the key factors leading to the failure could be attributed to the high stockpile of earth spoil placed too close to the excavation. However, the stockpile
has been placed there for sometime. The failure could be triggered by the commencement of the excavation of the 4th layer. The several explosive-like sounds heard by the workers could be related to the
flexural failure of the jet grout layer, the buckling of the 3rd layer and subsequent strut layers, and the
pull-out of the H-piles. The fact that the H-piles were pulled out from the excavation indicates the Hpiles did provide a positive restraint to the jet grout layer but could not sustain the load when its pull
out resistance was exceeded. With the loss of restraint by the H-piles, the full earth load was then
transferred onto the full span of the jet grout layer causing it to buckle at the mid-span accompanied by
the circular slip failure of the adjacent ground and inward rotation of the sheet pile wall.
Sheet P iles
Sheet P iles
R eclaim ed Sand Fill
V ery Soft to Soft M arine

C lay
JG L A Y E R
Fluvial Sand / C lay
M edium D ense to V ery

D ense to H ard O ld
A lluvium
Fig. 8 A schematic of the failure pattern of the temporary sheet pile earth retaining wall at Site A
334
4.1.2 Case 2
At Site B, sheet piles and soldier piles were already installed and installation of the jet grout piles was
still in progress at the time of the collapse incident at Site A. The collapse incident came in timely for
the implementation of proper installation of the tension H-piles by preboring to achieve the required
pile penetration into the very dense or hard layer.
In order to ensure proper transfer of the upheaval force onto the H-piles, some additional measures was
implemented. These are: addition of two pair of shear links at 150 mm spacing to the section of the Hpile within the jet grout layer, and 2) jet grouting in two stages. In stage 1, majority of the jet grout
columns was installed except those at the H-pile location. In stage 2, the omitted columns around the
H-piles were installed deeper by 500mm after installation of the H-pile. The improved detail of the
tension H-pile at the interface with the jet grout layer is also given in Figure 4.
The cofferdam was generally constructed in accordance to the design requirements. The installed
sheetpile/soldier pile length was 24 m, 4 m longer than the designed length. Concerns on the Main
Contractors strut layout for the junction area with many re-entrant corners was highlighted and emphatically conveyed by Designer to the Contractor.
Schedule of the excavation sequence is shown in Figure 9. Excavation started on 11 May 2002, at least
one month after completion of the jet grout layer. Staged excavation and installation of the strut layers
progressed fairly smoothly to up to the 3rd strut layer. It was at this time that the omission of the installation of monitoring instrumentation was realized. Work was then temporarily suspended until the required instrumentation including inclinometers, extensometers and settlement markers were installed.
Excavation resumed and continued down to the final excavation.
Summaries of the measured lateral ground movement and basal heave are presented in Figures 9 and
10, respectively. Profiles of the calculated lateral ground movement adjacent to the wall at various excavation stages are also plotted as dashed lines in Figure 9. Inclinometer data were only recorded after
completion of the 2nd strut layer. The comparison in general showed poor data match between the calculated and the measured. The actual measured movements at various excavation stages were not only
significantly smaller except that at the final excavation, there is also a marked difference in the deformed shape. With some adjustment to the inclinometer data MI-06, the measured data on 28 August
yields a better agreement with that calculated in terms of magnitude and the deformed shape. As for
the extensometers, measurements were only taken after the completion of the 3rd strut layer. The results given in Figure 10, showed a trend of continual increase at ME-08 and quite an abrupt increase
from 4th to 5th excavation at ME-07 but tailed off thereafter. The calculated heave is much smaller than
the measured. The calculated total heave seems to give better agreement if the missing initial heave is
included.
From Figure 9, the measured data on 28 August, approximately two months after final excavation at
the 16m deep section and one month at the 18.5 m deep section, showed significant increase in lateral
ground movement below the jet grout layer, particularly for MI-07 though the excavation depth is
shallower. With missing data from the 6th to final excavation, it is difficult to know the sudden increase is triggered at what excavation depth. Clearly, the trend of both inclinometers seems to suggest
that significant inward movement of the adjacent ground towards the excavation could be triggered at
a critical excavation depth. The usually high lateral movement at MI-07 reported on 28 August could
also be due to other factors such as consolidation or localized excavation for pile cap.
The potential for basal heave failure has not posed to be a problem at this excavation though larger
than expected incremental increases in basal heave were noted. The measured increases in basal heave
at the various excavation stages, as can be seen in Figure 10, are generally higher than that predicted
from FEM. In order to limit further increases in basal heave and to avoid another case of possible failure, a change in construction sequence was deemed to be prudent. The original intent is to complete all
the excavation and then built-up the permanent structure from the deepest section upwards. The revised sequence involve the completion of the base slab at the shallower section on each end first and
then proceed with further excavation in the center which is also the deepest section.
335
E x c av at i o n S eq uenc e
103
E x c av at i o n
100
Ins t al l s t r ut
97
94
91
88
16m
85
1 8 .5 m
82
D at e
Inclinometer M -I06
Inclinometer M -I07
-10
10
20
30
40
50
60
M easured vs Calculated - 16m Excav
Lateral M ovement toward Excavation [mm]
-20
70
20
40
60
80
100
-20
M easured vs Calculated - 18.5m Excav

0
20
40
60
80
100
-20
20
40
60
28-Aug-02
Final-cal
Final-cal
10
10
10
10
15
15
15
15
20
20
20
20
25
25
25
25
30
30
35
35
40
40
3rd layer
4th layer
5th layer
28-Aug-02
3rd-cal
5th-cal
4th-cal
Final-cal
35
30
3rd layer
4th layer
5th layer
28-Aug-02
3rd-cal
4th-cal
5th-cal
35
40
40
100
28-08-02:mod
30
80
Fig. 9 Excavation schedule and summary of inclinometer data MI-06 and MI-07 at Site B (Case 2)
336
82
76
72
56
55
50
45
40
40
12-06-02
05-06-02
25
29 28
24
15
15
Date
16
-5
10-07-02
18
17
13
11
03-07-02
20
26-06-02
Vertic al Mov em ent [ m m ]
60 68
29
Fig. 10 Summary of extensometer data ME-05 to ME-08 at Site B (Case 2)
95
62
60
10-07-02
Date
03-07-02
12-06-02
0
05-06-02
10-07-02
03-07-02
Date
26-06-02
19-06-02
12-06-02
05-06-02
21
16
14
9
5
0
50 59
49
20
35
31
26-06-02
21
15
17
9 16
21
20
60
40
80
74
37
40
18.281
20.391
22.451
24.231
Cal, wrt 3rd
Total @final
88
14
Vertic al Mov em ent [m m ]
Vertic al Mov em ent [m m ]
80
60
100
18.396
24.066
24.826
Cal, wrt 3rd
Total @final
19-06-02
20.741
22.775
24.802
26.795
Cal, wrt 3rd
80
ME07
ME08
100
19-06-02
ME06
100
5 CONCLUSIONS
Two case studies of floating-type braced excavation in soft marine clay were described. The two cases
with different excavation depth and at different location within the same site have fairly similar ground
condition consisting of reclaimed fill over very thick layer of marine clay.
The first case study with 13 m excavation collapsed abruptly when excavation for the 4th strut layer resumed just after the festive break for the Lunar New Year and about one month later after completion
of the 3rd strut layer. A number of factors could have contributed to the failure.
Stockpiling of earth spoil to height of at least 6 times the equivalent height of 20 kPa surcharge
placed too close to the collapsed section of the excavation,
H-piles were installed by driving to set only instead of the designed penetration of 7.5 m into the
very dense or hard layer.
From Photographs 1 and 2, it is also evident that only one row of tension H-piles while the design
requires two rows of H-piles.
Although the Hpiles were only driven to set, the extent of the pull-out of the H-piles would suggest that the piles did provide a positive restraint to the jet grout layer.
With the loss of the restraint provided by the H-piles, the full span of the jet grout layer which
could only sustain a marginal load then failed by buckling or shearing right at the mid-span when
the full earth load is transferred onto the jet grout layer.
The failure of the jet grout layer leads to the development of full slip circle failure of the adjacent
ground accompanied by inward rotation of the sheet pile wall, and buckling and displacement of
the strut layers.
The second case study with 16 m excavation and 18.5 m deep locally was located in ground with a
thicker and deeper marine clay layer was completed successfully. At this excavation, the tension Hpiles were installed 7.5 m into the very dense or hard layer by preboring and backfilled with lean concrete in the lower section and earth in the upper section. Jet grouting was carried out in two stages to
ensure proper force transfer from the jet grout to the H-piles. Significantly higher increase in basal
heave was reported. An increase in the lateral movement below the jet grout layer was also noted. The
increase is small and gradual but an abrupt increase was reported sometime after reaching the final excavation, particularly at M-I07. Although measured ground movements both lateral and base heave,
were greater than expected, there was no indication of any distress to the exposed jet grout layer. The
construction sequence was revised to limit further increase in ground movement and the permanent
structure has since been completed.
One key lesson learnt from these two case studies is the recognition of the important role of the tension
H-piles in reducing the flexural stresses of the jet grout layer. The other is not to stockpile excessive
earth spoil too high and too close to the excavation. The adapt: penny wise pound foolish derived
from considerable wealth of past experiences is indeed a proven wisdom.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors wish to thank Mr. Mya Sein for his assistance in gathering all the necessary information
pertaining to the project.
REFERENCES
Mana, A.I. & Clough, W.G. 1981. Prediction of movements for braced cuts in clay. Journal of the Geotechnical
Division, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 107, No. GT6, 759-777.
Weissenbach, A. & Kempfert, H.-G. 1995. German national report on braced excavation in soft ground. Underground Construction in Soft Ground, Fujita & Kusakabe eds, 33-36, Rotterdam: Balkema.
Guilloux, A. & Kastner, R. 1995. German national report on braced excavation in soft ground. Under-ground
Construction in Soft Ground, Fujita & Kusakabe eds, 29-32, Rotterdam: Balkema.
337
Cantilevered Earth Retaining System for a Building

Complex Constructed on Undulating Terrain
B. Chandrasekaran, S.K. Tang, T.L. Lim
CPG Consultants Pte Ltd
ABSTRACT: In the northern part of Singapore, a new columbarium and crematorium with basement
car park was designed and constructed in undulating terrain with existing structures adjacent to the
new development. The depth to the soffit of the base slab of the new buildings ranged from about 4m
up to 15m from the existing ground level behind the new building and in front of the new buildings the
ground slopes down to depths of about 10m. Due to site constraints and the undulating terrain, cantilevered retaining wall systems were considered for the temporary support of the excavation to construct
the buildings and also to act as permanent supports to retain the earth pressure from transferring to the
building. The existing structures consist of multi storey buildings and are located very close to the
deep excavation at about 5m to 10m away. The existing buildings are founded on reinforced concrete
piled foundations and shallow foundations. In order to minimize the ground movement and distress to
the existing structures, double row of contiguous bored pile wall cantilevered earth retaining system
was proposed for excavation depths ranging from 8m to 10m. Single row of contiguous bored pile
wall cantilevered retaining system was adopted for shallower excavation depth. In this paper the design, construction and performance of the earth retaining systems are discussed.
1 INTRODUCTION
The development of the crematorium building with basement carpark and columbarium buildings in
the undulating terrain required extensive use of cantilevered earth retaining systems. Figure 1 shows
the general site layout. The depth to the soffit of the base slab of the new buildings ranged from about
4m up to 15m from the existing ground level behind the new buildings. In front of the new buildings
the ground slopes downwards. There are numerous existing structures behind the new buildings. These
existing structures consist of multi-storey buildings and some are located very close to the deep excavation at a distance of about 5m to 10m away. The main crematorium building with basement carpark
would be subjected to unbalanced forces, as the ground level in front of the building is lower than the
soffit of the base slab. It will not be practical to design the building to resist the unbalanced force. An
independent permanent retaining wall will be practical to resist the earth pressure from transferring
into the building.
Therefore, due to the site constraints and the need to control the ground deformation where there are
existing structures, permanent cantilevered earth retaining walls were adopted for this site. The retaining walls were also used in the temporary stage to facilitate excavation and construction of the new
buildings. With cantilever retaining walls there will be no obstruction on the excavated front and construction activities can take place with relative ease and saving construction time.
2 SITE TOPOGRAPHY AND GROUND CONDITIONS
The general topography and layout of the buildings and retaining walls provided at the site can be seen
in Figure 1. At the southern boundary of the site there is a valley with the existing ground level vary-
Main
338
ing from about RL. 125m to RL. 140m. At the eastern boundary and western boundary of the site the
ground level ranges from about RL. 153m to RL. 162m. The ground level at the existing buildings is at
about RL 140m to RL. 143m. The platform level for the crematorium building is at RL. 132m. As for
the Columbarium Blocks 1 and 2 it is at RL. 142m and for Columbarium Blocks 3, 4 and 5 it is at RL.
RL. 145m to RL. 143m. It can be seen that with the existing ground undulating the new buildings had
to be placed on terraced ground. With space constraints especially at boundary lines and at locations of
existing buildings, retaining walls are required and the ground cannot be sloped back.
Figure 1 General Site Layout
The soil conditions at this site consist of residual soils belonging to the Bukit Timah Granite Formation which is found in the central and northern parts of the Singapore Island. The residual soil consists
of clayey silt. From the ground surface downward, the residual soil becomes dense with depth. The
rock formation is quite deep. Based on the several boreholes carried out in the site, few of them
showed that the rock formation is at about RL. 105m to RL. 100m. The rest of the borehole did not reveal any rock formation in the investigation. The soil condition at this site has generally been characterized for design as given in Table 1.
Table 1 Soil type and design parameters
SPT Nvalue
bulk
(kN/m3)
' (o)
c'
(kN/m2)
E
(kN/m2)
< 10
17
28
12000
II Medium Dense Clayey Silt with Sand
25 (avg)
18
30
43000
III Dense Clayey Silt with Sand
40 (avg)
19
30
15
70000
IV Very Dense Clayey Silt with Sand
75 to 100
20
30
20
150000
Soil Type
I Loose Clayey Silt with Sand
339
3 DESIGN OF RETAINING WALL SYSTEM

The retaining walls at this site have been designed as cantilever retaining walls either as a single row
of Contiguous Bored Pile (CBP) Wall or double row of CBP wall. The design of 2 typical cantilever
retaining walls is discussed in this paper, namely Wall Type 2 and Wall Type 6. The two wall types
are presented in Figures 2 and 3. The retaining height for Wall Type 6 is 9m, which is slightly higher
than Wall Type 2 where the retaining height is 8m. But the weaker soil layer of Soil Type I was deeper
at Wall Type 2 as compared to Wall Type 6. The arrangement of bored piles forming the front wall
and rear wall is shown in Figure 4. For Wall Types 2 and 6, the spacing between the front wall and the
rear wall measured from the centers of the bored piles is 4m and 2.5m respectively.
Generally the toe level of the CBP walls were determined based on stability considerations analyzed
using the fixed earth mechanism and strength factor method in accordance with BS 8002. The retaining walls were designed based on drained conditions as the retaining walls were designed as permanent structures.
RL. 140.0m
q = 15 kPa
Cast In-Situ
RC Wall
Connecting Beam
Soil Type I
GWL
RL. 135.0m
q = 10 kPa
RL. 154.0m
Capping
Beam
Soil Type I
RL. 132.0m
GWL
RL. 147.0m
Connecting
Beam
Capping
Beam
RL. 145.0m
RL. 144.0m
Soil Type II
RL. 126.0m
RL. 140.0m
Soil Type II
Soil Type III

1m Dia Bored
Pile (Front Wall)
1m Dia Bored Pile

(Rear Wall)
RL. 113.0m
1m Dia Bored Pile

(Rear Wall)
RL. 132.0m
1m Dia Bored
Pile (Front Wall)
Soil Type IV
Soil Type III
Figure 3 Schematic View of Wall Type 6 an
Figure 2 Schematic View of Wall Type 2 an

2.3m
Capping
Beam
Rear Row
CBP Wall
Void
Void
Void
Front Row
CBP Wall
Void
Connecting Beam
Capping
Beam
1.15m
Figure 4 Arrangement of Bored Piles to Form Double Row Cantilever Retaining Wall System
340
The retaining wall behavior was analyzed using 2-dimensional finite element software. A comparison
study was carried out between double row CBP wall and single row CBP wall based on the finite element method. A summary of the results obtained from the study, are tabulated in Tables 2 and 3 for
Wall Types 2 and 6 respectively. With double row of 1m dia bored piles the maximum bending moment and wall deflection is much smaller as compared to single row of 1m dia. bored piles. Even with
single row of 1.5m dia. bored piles the maximum bending moment and wall deflection is greater than
the double row of 1.0m dia. bored piles. It can be seen that using double row of bored piles can be effective in controlling ground movements and the bending moments generated in the piles are not very
high.
Table 2 Comparison of Wall Deflection and Bending Moment between Double Row and Single Row CBP Wall
for Wall Type 2
Wall Type 2
Double Row CBP Wall
Front
CBP Wall
Rear
CBP Wall
Single Row CBP Wall

1.0m Dia.
CBP Wall
1.5m Dia.
CBP Wall
Maximum Deflection (mm)
65
65
257
110
Maximum Bending Moment (kNm/m)
490
500
1400
1520
Table 3 Comparison of Wall Deflection and Bending Moment between Double Row and Single Row CBP Wall
for Wall Type 6
Wall Type 6
Double Row CBP Wall
Front
CBP Wall
Rear
CBP Wall
Single Row CBP Wall

1.0m Dia.
CBP Wall
1.5m Dia.
CBP Wall
60
60
215
85
Maximum Bending Moment (kNm/m)
510
435
1440
1440
A further study was also carried out to determine the effect of the center to center spacing between the
front and rear row of bored piles. In the study, the spacing was varied from 2.5m to 6.0m. Table 4
shows the summary of results obtained from the study. The results obtained shows that when the spacing between the front and rear wall increases from 4m to 6m there is little difference in the results obtained. When spacing is reduced to 2.5m the wall deflection is slightly higher than a spacing of 4.0m.
It can be seen that for the double row CBP wall system to be effective the spacing between the front
and rear row piles need to place at about 4.0 times the pile diameter used. The spacing adopted for
Wall Type 6 was closer at a spacing of 2.5m due to site constraints.
Table 4 Effect of Spacing between Front and Rear CBP Wall for Wall Type 6
Wall Type 6
Double Row CBP Wall
(Spacing 2.5m)
Front
CBP Wall
Rear CBP
Wall
Double Row CBP Wall

(Spacing 4.0m)
Front
CBP Wall
Rear
CBP Wall
Double Row CBP

Wall (Spacing 6.0m)
Front
CBP Wall
Rear
CBP Wall
60
60
48
48
43
43
Maximum Bending
Moment (kNm/m)
510
435
436
416
430
405
341
4 CONSTRUCTION AND PERFORMANCE OF RETAINING WALLS

In the first stages of construction, the bored piles were installed to form the retaining systems at the
various locations within the site. Some earthworks were carried out to move the boring rigs and cranes
into position for installing the bored piles. Once the bored piles had been installed the capping beams
and connecting beams were cast to form the complete retaining system. Localized excavation was required to cast the capping beams and connecting beams as can be seen in Figure 5. Upon completion
of the retaining wall system, excavation was carried out down to the formation level for the construction of the buildings as can be seen in Figure 6. It is important that capping beams are installed to connect all the individual bored piles together. This would help to maintain a uniform distribution of
forces behind the retaining wall and reduce uneven lateral movement of the retaining system especially
for a cantilever retaining wall.
Figure 5 Localized Excavation for Capping

Beam Construction
Figure 6 Excavation carried out after

Construction of Capping Beam
Using cantilevered retaining wall system has its advantages during construction, as can be seen in Figures 7 and 8. The retaining walls designed for the permanent retention is also used for the temporary
support of the earth behind during construction. Such systems afford an obstruction free space for construction activities to proceed. This would help to save construction time.
Figure 8 Unobstructed construction activities of driveway
Figure 7 Unobstructed construction activities of Main Building Works
During the excavation to the formation level, the adjacent ground and buildings were monitored for
settlement. The adjacent ground near the existing buildings experienced relatively small ground settlements in the order of about 10mm to 30mm. The existing buildings experienced smaller settlement,
which ranged from about 6mm to 10mm. The existing buildings did not suffer any damage and were
342
safe during the construction. Ground vibrations were quite minimal during the installation of the bored
piles. Adopting a bored piling system has helped to control damage to the buildings.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The excavation for the construction of the crematorium building with basement car park and columbarium buildings in the undulating terrain have been carried out successfully using cantilever retaining
wall systems. The construction works have proceeded smoothly as there was no obstruction within the
final excavated platform area. This has helped to save construction time.
A study was also carried out comparing the behavior of double row bored pile cantilevered retaining
wall system to single row bored pile cantilevered retaining wall system. The results of the study has
shown that double row bored piles can be effective in controlling ground movements and the bending
moments generated in the piles are not very high. To maximize the full advantage of using cantilevered double wall retaining wall, the spacing between the front and rear row of bored piles is about 4
times the pile diameter. The current study is very limited in scope and further studies need to be carried out for different soil conditions and excavation depths.
343
Gaps in Diaphragm Walls and Remedial Measures for the

Deep Excavations at Race Course Road
D. Wen, C. H. Heng and H.Y. Choo
S. I. Yoon
Hyundai Engineering and Construction Co, Singapore
ABSTRACT: Although utility diversions were carried out for most of the underground services, the
construction of the cut and cover tunnels at Race Course Road within Contract 706 of the North East
MRT Line saw many services supported across the excavations for various reasons including the
availability of land for diversion, cost and construction schedule. These services included sewers, electrical cables, gas mains and water mains. As a result the diaphragm walls were not installed continuously along the excavation boundary and thus many gaps occurred along the diaphragm walls. The
width of the gaps ranged from 1.9 m wide to 12 m wide. These gaps proved to be difficult areas during the excavation and many remedial measures had to be implemented to ensure the safety of the excavation. This paper describes the challenges posed to the construction team due to the gaps in the diaphragm walls and the remedial measures taken for the excavation to proceed. The effect of the gaps on
the ground settlements is also discussed. The experience gained will be useful for future deep excavations with gaps in retaining walls due to service crossings.
1 INTRODUCTION
The construction of the 20 km-long North East MRT Line in Singapore saw many deep excavations in
built-up areas for cut-and-cover tunnels and stations. Although utility diversions were carried out for
some underground services, many other utilities had to be supported across the excavations. In Contract 706, many services were supported across the deep excavation for the construction of the Little
India station, the cut-and-cover tunnels at Race Course Road and the Farrer Park station, see Figure 1.
Hampshire Road
MH12A
Cut & cover tunnel
22kV & 6.6 kV

(Entrance 5)
MH17
MH16
Sewer and Gas
Farrer Park Station Telecom
Kinta Road
Rotan Lane
MH13
66kV
Race Course Road
Race Course
Lane
Fig. 1 Cut-and-cover tunnel at Race Course Road
Main
344
Sewer
and water
MH23
MH19
Sewer
Birch Road
MH22
Sewer
1.1 Geological condition

At the cut-and-cover tunnels the ground consists of man-made fill, fluvial sands and marine clay of the
Kallang formation underlain by the Old Alluvium, see Figure 2. The thickness of the fill is typically 2
to 4 metres. Underlying the fill is a layer of fluvial sands followed by a very soft to soft marine clay.
The thickness of the sand layer is 3 to 7 m. The depth of the marine clay varies from 15 to 31 m below
ground level. Locally the marine clay is separated by a layer of fluvial deposits.
Bored Tunnel
100.0
Cut & Cover Tunnel
Farrer Park Station Bored Tunnel
Kallang Formation
90.00
80.00
70.00
Jurong Formation
Old Alluvium
Fig. 2 Generalized geological profile along Race Course Road
1.2 Construction
The cut-and-cover tunnels and the stations were constructed using 800 mm thick diaphragm walls supported by H-section steel struts. The excavation depth varied from 17 to 17.5 m below the ground
level. A typical cross section is shown in Figure 3 for the cut-and-cover tunnels at Race Course Road.
BH NC221
FILL
Fluvial
SAND
Marine
CLAY
Fluvial
SAND
Marine
CLAY
Old
Alluvium
Fig. 3 Typical cut-and-cover tunnel cross-section at Race Course Road
345
Some utility diversions were carried out as advanced contracts by the Land Transport Authority. Some
other diversions were included in the civil contracts for the civil contractors to carry out during the
works. However, there were still a number of services that were not diverted due to unavailability of
lands and sometimes technical feasibility for diversion. These services had to be supported across the
excavation. Due to the service crossings, the diaphragm walls were not installed continuously. Many
gaps occurred along the excavation. The width of the gaps depended on the size and depth of the underground services and their relative position to the diaphragm walls. The gaps at the Race Course
Road and the one at Entrance 5 of the Little India station as shown in Figure 1 are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1 Gaps in diaphragm walls at Race Course Road and at Entrance 5 of Little India station
Locations
Entrance 5
MH13 MH12A
MH13 MH12A
MH16 MH17
MH19 MH23
MH22 MH23
MH22
Utilities
22 kV and 66 kV
66kV
Sewer / gas
Sewer / water
Sewer
Sewer
Telecom cables / water
Width of utilities
(mm)
Depth of utilities
(mm)
Width of gaps in diaphragm

walls (mm)
4800
610
920 / 250
920 /150
1005
2250
1566 / 700
2500
2000
4700 / 1000
5600 / 1600
6200
7300
1300 / 1500
Approx. 6000
4838
6235
1970
3035
12050
5750
1.3 Measures to close the gaps for excavation

Various ground treatments were carried out at the gaps. These included jet grouting, cement silicate
(sodium silicate with cement) grouting and polyurethane grouting. Jet grouting was used to close the
gaps as a matter of course by the design and build contractor. In general only one row of jet grouted
piles were installed behind the diaphragm walls. The purpose of the jet grouting was to close the gaps
in the diaphragm walls. However, during excavation large quantity of water was found to flow into the
excavation in most of the gaps when the excavation reached the fluvial sands. In order to seal the water leakage polyurethane grouting was carried out followed by grouting using cement silicate grout.
Different degrees of success were achieved at different locations.
2 DISCUSSIONS
2.1 Effectiveness of jet grouted piles
Jet grouted piles have been used to treat soft clays for deep excavations and tunnelling, (Hulme et al.,
1989; Shirlaw et al., 2000). The application of jet grouted piles in closing the gaps in the diaphragm
walls in this area however had a major problem caused by the untreated zones under the services. The
untreated zones were due to the obstructions of the services to the jet grouting operation (see Figure
4). The size of the untreated zones depended on the depth and width of the underground services. At
MH22, the gap in the diaphragm wall was more than 12 m due to the size and the orientation of the
trunk sewer. A significant gap existed in the jet grouting.
There are two problems associated with the untreated zones, i.e. the stability of the fluvial sand and the
soft marine clay and water flow into the excavation. At least two incidents of ground loss occurred at
the excavation for the Little India station as a result of excavating through the untreated soft marine
clay. The stability number of the soft marine clay, N is defined as v/cu by Clough & Schmidt (1981),
where v is the total overburden and cu is the undrained shear strength of the clay. The openings in the
diaphragm walls in the soft clay will have a stability number of 6 when the excavation is at 5.6m, assuming an average unit weight of 16 kN/m3 for the soil and a typical undrained shear strength of 15
kN/m2 for the soft marine clay. The study by Broms and Bennermark (1967) shows that the unsupported soft clay will be forced through the openings when the stability number exceeds 6. Even if the
stability number N is between 4 to 6, i.e. below the critical value of 6, large soil movements are expected, although the potential of ground loss is reduced. This explains the reason of collapse of the
346
marine clay into the excavation through the gaps.

Ground level
Underground services
Diaphragm wall
Untreated zones below the

service
Jet grouted piles to close

the gap in diaphragm wall
Final excavation level
Fig. 4 Untreated zones due to obstruction of services
Water seepage into the excavation was another challenge faced by the construction team. As these untreated zones were within the fluvial sand layer, large quantities of water flowed into the excavation
when the untreated zones were exposed. It is believed that water seepage was not only from the untreated zones, but also from the joints of the jet grouted piles. The effectiveness of the jet grouted piles
in closing the gaps depended on the inter-locking of the individual piles. To be more effective it is believed that more than one row of jet grouted piles are necessary.
It has been shown that the overall effectiveness of the jet grouted piles was significantly reduced due
to the presence of these untreated zones.
2.2 Effectiveness of grouting by sodium silicate
At Entrance 5 of Little India station, steel plates and sheetpiles were installed into the ground by hydraulic jacks. The installation took place when a 3m head room was created underneath the suspended
cables. Due to the space constraints, sheetpiles were installed by over-lapping the joints. Once the excavation reached the fluvial sand layer, water started to flow into the excavation. To seal the water,
sodium silicate mixed with cement grout was pumped into the ground through two-way nozzles in the
sheetpile wall. The sodium silicate and cement grout was mixed at the face of the sheetpiles just before
being injected into the ground. The setting time of the grout mix was reported to be almost instantaneous. The grouting operation was successful and water could be seen to stop soon after grouting.
At other gaps within the diaphragm walls along the Race Course Road, the effectiveness of grouting
using sodium silicate and cement grout was however not as evident as that at Entrance 5. The excavation at the gaps in the diaphragm walls at Race Course Road was carried out without any pre-installed
retaining system except the jet grouted piles. An in-situ mass concrete wall was cast after each step of
excavation of about 0.5 m. It is believed that the reason for the successful use of sodium silicate and
cement grout at Entrance 5 was that the joints in the sheetpiles were sealed by the grout. While at other
diaphragm wall gaps along the cut-and-cover tunnels the effectiveness of the sodium silicate and cement grout depended on the ability of the grout mix to permeate into the soil mass.
AFTES (1991) recommended the suitability of grouts for granular soils as shown in Figure 5. Henn
(1996) showed that the size and distribution of in-situ soil particles would also determine the groutability of the foundation material. The permeability and particle size distributions are the two key factors in the selection of an appropriate grout type for a particular soil. As the in-situ soil gradation becomes finer, cement-based grouts diminish in their effectiveness to penetrate the soil mass. Beyond a
347
certain minimum soil particle size, Portland cement grouts are totally ineffective, and ultra-fine cement
or chemical grouts need to be used. However when the particle size exceeds certain fineness even
chemical grouts are unable to penetrate the soil mass (see Figure 6).
Normal field of application

Grout
Strengthening (S) or
Possible application (limited by cost)
Permeability reduction (P)
Limited by toxicity
Cement
Clay-Cement
Grout with filler
Expansive grout
Clay gel
Bentonite deflocculated
Grouts with improved penetration
Asphalt emulsion
ConcenFor
trated
Strengthening
Low VisSilica
cosity
Gel
ConcenFor permeability
trated
reduction
Very
diluted
Acrylic
Resins
Phenolic
Ground properties
Initial
permeability
k in m/s
S
P
P
P
P
P
P
S
S
S
P
P
P
S
10-7
10-6
10-5
10-4
10-3
10-2
10-1
Fig. 5 Grout types for granular soils (after Aftes, 1991)
Grouts
Cement
Sodium silicate
Grain size (mm)
Gravel
Sand
medium
coarse
0.5
fine
0.25
0.074
Fig. 6 Groutability based on grout type versus soil particle size (after Henn, 1996)
In terms of the content of fines of in-situ soils, Karol (1983) showed that soils with less than 10% fines
were groutable. Soils with 10 to 20% fines were moderately groutable. Soils with 20 to 25% fines
were marginally groutable. Soils with more than 25% fines were not groutable.
The permeability of the fluvial sands was in the order of 7x10-4 m/s at the in-situ void ratio, see Chu,
et al. (2000). The particle size distribution of the fluvial sands found at Race Course Road is shown in
Figure 7.
Based on the recommendation in Figure 5 and in Figure 6, sodium silicate grout would be suitable for
the fluvial sands. But the observation showed that the use of sodium silicate grout was not very effec-
348
tive. The excavation was carried out in stages with 0.5m deep excavation in each stage. Water started
to seep into the excavation after each stage of excavation through the exposed ground. Sand bags were
then used to support the gap followed by cement silicate grout from inside the excavation. While it
was possible to stop the water seepage after grouting, further excavation in the next 0.5m deep excavation caused more water seeping into the excavation through the newly exposed ground. The phenomenon may have been caused by two reasons. The first is probably due to the use of cement in the grout
mix. The presence of Portland cement in the mix precluded permeation of the grout into the sands,
hence the effectiveness of the grouting was substantially reduced. Portland cement grout is only applicable to soils of permeability of 10-1 to 10-2 m/s or grain size larger than 2mm as indicated in Figure 5
and Figure 6. The other possible cause is the grouting pressure. Very low pressure was applied due to
the capacity of the pump used. As a result the grout was not able to permeate into the soil mass. The
grout was just able to stop seepage where it was applied. Further excavation exposed untreated ground
and thus more water seeped into the excavation.
100
90
Percentage Passing (%)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
Particle size (mm)
Fig. 7 Particle size distribution for fluvial sands at Race Course Road
10
100
The experience at Race Course Road highlights the importance of a proper design for any ground
treatment and a site trial to verify the effectiveness of the design. The design should consider the soil
condition (permeability and particle size distribution) and the grout type should be chosen to suit the
groutability of the in-situ soil. If sodium silicate grout is selected, the reagent type, grout mix and gel
time must be determined to suit the in-situ ground permeability, particle size distribution and their
variation. Appropriate grouting machinery needs to be used to ensure effective delivery of grout to the
soil mass.
2.3 Ground settlements around the gaps
Settlements were monitored along the excavation by surface settlement markers. Localized depressed
areas were obvious at a few locations where there were gaps in the wall. Figure 8 shows the settlement
contour at the end of the excavation at Entrance 5 of Little India station. Large settlements occurred at
the gaps in the retaining system, as clearly shown in the contour plot. It is believed that loss of soil
fines through the seepage water into the excavation have caused additional settlement around the walls
where gaps existed.
349
--00..
0022
-0.085
-0.085
2255
..00
-00
-0.06
-0.06
-00
.00
77
5
55
0022
0.. ..0011
--00
..0077
--0
--00
..00
33
--00
.00
66
--00
-0.0
.07
..006 -0
55
--00
..0
4455
055
--00..
..0033
--00
3
-00..00
55
0033
--00..
-00
.00
155
--00..00
2255
--0..00
11
22
..0
--00
-00.0
.0005
Fig. 8 Settlement contours at Entrance 5
3 CONCLUSIONS
The measures adopted in sealing the gaps in the diaphragm walls for deep excavations at Race Course
Road have been discussed in the paper. The effectiveness of jet grout piles in closing the gaps in the
diaphragm walls was limited due to the presence of untreated zones. Different degrees of success were
achieved by using chemical grouts to seal the water flow into the excavation. The experience shows
that a proper design should be carried out for ground treatment, and a trial is essential to verify and
fine tune, where necessary the designed grouting parameters. The ground permeability and particle
size distribution and their variation should be determined as accurately as possible to aid the design
and selection of grout type.
REFERENCES
Aftes, 1991. Recommendations on grouting for underground works, Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, Vol. 6, No. 4, 393 461..
Broms, B. B. & Bennermark, H. (1967) Stability of clay at vertical openings, Journal of Soil Mechanics and
Foundations Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, January 1967.
Chu, J., Wen, D., Kay, R.E. & Tay, T.H. 2000. Engineering properties of fluvial sands at Race Course Road.
Proceedings of the International Conference on Tunnels & Underground Structures, Singapore, 26 29 November 2000.
Clough, G. W. & Schmidt, B. 1981. Design and performance of excavations and tunnels in soft clay. In Brand,
E. D. & Brenner, R. P. (ed.), Soft clay engineering, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company.
Henn, R. W. 1996 Practical guide to grouting of underground structures, published by ASCE Press, New York.
Hulme, T. W., Potter, L. A & Shirlaw, J. N. 1989 Singapore Mass Rapid Transit System: construction, Proceedings of Institution of Civil Engineers, Transportation Engineering Group, Part 1, 1989.
Karol, R. H. 1983 Chemical grouting, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York.
Shirlaw, J.N., Wen, D., Nadarajah, P., Yoon, S.I. & Sugawara, S. 2000. Construction issues related to jet
grouted slabs at the base of excavations, Proceedings of the International Conference on Tunnels & Underground Structures, Singapore, 26 29 November 2000.
Shirlaw, J.N., Wen, D., Nadarajah, P., Yoon, S.I. & Sugawara, S. 2000. Design issues related to jet grouted
slabs at the base of excavations, Proceedings of the International Conference on Tunnels & Underground
Structures, Singapore, 26 29 November 2000.
350
WORKSHOP
ON
UPDATING THE ENGINEERING

GEOLOGY OF SINGAPORE
Main

Engineering Geology Workshop
Buried Granite Ridges in Old Alluvium

J.C.W. Ong, Land Transport Authority, Moe Sein, Soil & Foundation Pte Ltd, R.F. Flanagan, Parsons
Brinkerhoff Pte Ltd, S.K. Tang, CPG Consultant Pte Ltd, J.G. Cai, Tritech
ABSTRACT: The Old Alluvium can be found to the north and north-east of the Kallang River. Similar
sediments can also be found in the north-west in the Buloh Besar area and beneath the Kallang
Formation in the vicinity of Kallang River. The depth of the base of Old Alluvium is uncertain. PWD
(1976), reported the presence of metamorphosed quartz sandstone of the Sajahat Formation in PUB
Test Hole 1 in Bedok and granite in PUB Test Hole 4 in Tampines at depths of 149m and 53m below
sea level respectively. This paper reports the encounters of granitic material and bedrock underlying
Old Alluvium during recent site investigations.
1.
INTRODUCTION
The Bukit Timah Granite is divided into two groups (PWD,1976) the Central Singapore Granite in
the center of the main island and the Pulau Ubin Granite in the east. Between the two groups are the
deposits of the Old Alluvium and the Kallang Formation (Fig 1). Several encounters of the Bukit
Timah Granite have been recorded during recent site investigation within these plains. The
accumulated data are analysed to understand the extent, depth, general configuration and trend of the
Bukit Timah Granite mass buried beneath the deposits of the Old Alluvium and Kallang Formation.
2.
BUKIT TIMAH GRANITE, OLD ALLUVIUM AND KALLANG FORMATION
The age of the Bukit Timah Granite is believed to be early to early-middle Triassic. Granite is the
entire suite of acid rocks including granite, adamellite and granodiorite, and the acid and intermediate
hybrids mainly of granodioritic and dioritic composition, resulting from assimilation of basic rock
within the granite.
The Old Alluvium is a deposit consisting mainly of coarse sand and gravel (PWD, 1976; Gupta et al,
1987). The absolute age of the Old Alluvium is difficult to determine. The deposition of Old Alluvium
appears to coincide with the tectonic activity of block faulting and warping from the late Tertiary to
early Pleistocene. The downwarp resulted in troughs and depressions being formed. Sediments of the
Old Alluvium were then deposited.
Vigorous erosion by various rivers and tributories during the interstadial of the last Wurm Glaciation
incised the Old Alluvium resulting in valleys which were subsequently filled with alluvial and marine
members of the Kallang Formation as the sea rose. This is particularly evident within the Kallang
Basin where members of Kallang Formation fills the valleys of Old Alluvium cut to at least 36 m
below the present sea level (Jeya et al, 2003).
3.
THICKNESS AND BASE OF OLD ALLUVIUM
The thickness of the Old Alluvium is uncertain. The top most level reported is approximately 45m
above sea level in Tampines (PWD, 1976). Although several boreholes and geophysics scanning have
detected basement in the Old Alluvium, a number of boreholes with depths greater than 50m have not
reached the base of the deposit.
Main
353
Location where SI encounters

granitic materials beneath OA :
A
B
4
D
1
2
C
Ang Mo Kio Ave1
Bartley
Kallang
Loyang
Location where geophysical

survey encounters bedrock
beneath OA :
A
Punggol
B
Lor Halus
Kaki Bukit
Tampines
Loyang
Bukit Timah Granite
Old Alluvium
Kallang Formation
Fig 1 Encounters of Granitic Materials and Bedrock in Old Alluvium
354
Excavation
Site
Reduced Level
Fig 2 Boreholes at Ang Mo Kio Ave 1 Ang Mo Kio Ave 8
Fig 3 Cross Section A-A at Ang Mo Kio Ave 1 Ang Mo Kio Ave 8
355
In recent site investigation within the Old Alluvium/Kallang Formation (Fig 1), basements were found
in Ang Mo Kio Ave 1-Ang Mo kio Ave 8, Bartley-Kim Chuan, Kallang-Paya Lebar-Ubi-Eunos,
Loyang Valley, Ponggol and Lorong Halus.
4
4.1
ANG MO KIO AVE 1-ANG MO KIO AVE 8

Site Investigation
Information of 5 relatively deep boreholes (depths to 36 m) in this vicinity (Fig 2) was studied. 3
boreholes indicate granitic material beneath Old Alluvium. The Old Alluvium is overlain by deposits
of the Kallang Formation deposits. One borehole indicates that the granitic materials are overlain
directly by only the Kallang Formation. The fifth borehole did not encounter granitic material.
4.2
Thickness of Old Alluvium
The granitic material is found at depths ranging from 21m to 24m or within RL 86.9m to RL 91.1m
(Fig 3). Combined Fill and Kallang Formation thickness in these areas, however, vary within a wide
range, about 8m to 19m. The corresponding Old Alluvium thickness inverses to the Fill/Kallang
thickness and varies from 16m to 2m
Fig 4 Projected Contour of Top of Granitic Materials at Ang Mo Kio Ave 1 Ang Mo Kio Ave 8
356
4.3
The Granitic Material Elevation and Composition
The following granitic materials were found in these study boreholes:
Completely Weathered Granite (G4)

Moderate to Highly Weathered Granite (G2)
Slightly Weathered to Fresh Granite (G1)
The Completely Weathered Granite materials is very dense, fine- to coarse-grained silty sand with
gravel particles . The relict structure of the original rock mass is present.
Moderate to Highly Weathered Granite is coarse-grained with very closely spaced discontinuities. Two
boreholes indicate Slightly Weathered Granite. The material is also coarse-grained with closely spaced
discontinuities. The discontinuities are described as open, rough and undulating with the vertical and
near vertical discontinuities filled with chlorite material. RQDs in this material are in the range of 80%
to 100%. No laboratory strength test is available for the granite in this area.
The granitic material occurs at RL 86.9m to RL 91.1m. Applying a definition that bedrock consists
of either Moderate to Highly Weathered or Slightly Weathered Granite, the bedrock surface would
then be in a relatively close range of RL 86.9m to RL 89.6m in this area.
4.4
Elevation Contours of Granitic Materials.
Fig 4 illustrates a projected contour surface of the top of granitic materials, primarily the elevation of
generally residual type materials. The contours extend beyond the borehole boundaries whereby some
available data (observed spoil materials) from a deep excavation was utilised. The contours are based
on limited data. No rigorous contouring such as using krigging was applied.
5
5.1
BARTLEY-KIM CHUAN
Site Investigation
Information of 55 boreholes was studied. 26 of these are within the plains of the Old Alluvium and the
Kallang Formation. 15 boreholes found granitic materials buried beneath Old Alluvium (Fig 5). The
site investigation was carried out for the Circle Line MRT Project.
5.2
The granitic material is concealed under soil cover varying in thickness from 1.2m to 62.3m (Figs 6a
and 6b). The soil cover includes 14.8m to 62.3m of granitic materials. The thickness of the Old
Alluvium varies from 1.2m to 12.0m and increases towards the southeast.
5.3
The granitic material can be found from RL 68.5m at Serangoon Avenue 2, through a series of rise and
fall, to RL 92.8m at Bartley Road and about 150m away to the southeast from How Sun Drive, and
further to the east gradually lowered down to RL 66.9m at borehole 3451. Completely weathered
granites are commonly retrieved as hard sandy/gravelly silt or dense to very dense silty/gravelly sand
with mottled red and turbid-white. The original textures are entirely or almost entirely destroyed
357
Fig 5 Boreholes at Bartley Kim Chuan
Fig 6a Cross Section B-B of Borelogs at Bartley Kim Chuan
358
Fig 6b Cross Section C-C of Borelogs at Bartley Kim Chuan
Fig 7a Granite from Bartley Kim Chuan (bh 3452)
359
Fig 7b Granite from Bartley Kim Chuan (bh 3455)
Fig 8 Projected Contour of Top of Granitic Materials at Bartley Kim Chuan
360
The bed-rock encountered is moderately strong to strong greenish grey to whitish grey coarse-grained
granite (Figs 7a and 7b). In general, joints are planar and closely to widely spaced. The fresh granites
are usually light to darker grey with mafic minerals appearing as dark patches or spots and widely
spaced fractured joints.
5.4
Elevation Contours of Granitic Materials
The elevation contours (Fig 8) exhibit the oblong outlines of the highs and lows developed on the top
surface of the rock-head. The highs and lows appear to be trending roughly in the northwest-southeast
and east-northeast:west-southwest directions.
6
KALLANG-PAYA LEBAR-UBI-EUNOS
6.1 Site Investigation

Information of 25 boreholes in this basin of Kallang Formation was studied and 16 boreholes found
granitic materials beneath Old Alluvium(Fig 9). The depths of some of these boreholes are up to about
60 metres. The site investigation works were carried out for the Kallang-Paya Lebar Expressway,
Circle Line MRT System, and Deep Tunnel Sewerage System projects.
Boreholes with no trace of granitic materials

Boreholes with granitic materials beneath OA/Kallang Formation
Fig 9 Location of Boreholes and Possible Contours of Top of Granitic Material at Kallang-Paya Lebar
6.2
The granitic material is buried under a soil cover varying in thickness from 25m to 49m (Fig 10).
Deposits of the Kallang Formation form the top 5m to 25m thick layer beneath the fill. The thickness
of the Old Alluvium varies from 15m to 30m.
361
Fig 10 Cross Section of Logs of Boreholes at Kallang-Paya Lebar-Ubi-Eunos
6.3
Granitic material is encountered between RL 65.0m and RL 75.0m, with a slightly raised plateau of RL
85.0 m located below the PIE near the PIE-Paya Lebar Road Interchange. At the interface, the granitic
material was mainly residual soils. The residual soils consist of very dense dark green to dark greenish
grey, mottled with white colour, fine to coarse grained silty sand and very dense light grey coarse
grained silty sand, with traces of gravels.
Granitic bedrocks were encountered between RL 50.0m and RL 75.0m. The granite ranges from highly
weathered to slightly weathered and fresh. The strong to very strong grey speckled dark, green and
white granite shows closely spaced inclined fractures (Fig 11).
6.4
Elevation Contours of Granitic Materials
The elevation contours (Fig 9) appear to be trending roughly in the northwest-southeast and eastnortheast:west-southwest directions.
7
7.1
LOYANG VALLEY
Site Investigation
Information of 10 boreholes from the site investigation for the proposed widening of Loyang Avenue
was studied (Fig 12). 3 boreholes found granitic materials buried beneath Old Alluvium and deposits of
Kallang Formation. 1 borehole detected sandstone beneath the Old Alluvium.
362
Fig 11 Granite from Paya Lebar (bh 3430)
Boreholes with no trace of granitic materials

Borehole with sandstone but no trace of granitic materials
Boreholes with granitic materials beneath OA & KF
Boreholes with granitic materials but no trace of OA
Fig 12 Location of Boreholes and Possible Contours of Top Surface of Granitic Materials
Along Loyang Avenue
7.2
The granitic material found in the 3 boreholes is buried under a soil cover varying in thickness from 9
m to 18 m (Fig 13). Deposits of the Kallang Formation and fill materials form the top 6 m to 9 m thick
layer. The thickness of the Old Alluvium varies from 3 m to 11 m and increases towards south-west.
363
Fig 13 Cross Section of Logs from Boreholes Along Loyang Avenue
7.3
For the 3 boreholes in Old Alluvium, granitic material was found at RL 84.6m in the south-west
borehole (3498) increasing to RL 91.7m in the north-east borehole (3500) while granitic bedrocks were
encountered from RL 78.0m to RL 85.0m.
At the interface, the granitic materials are mainly residual soils. The residual soils consist of dense to
very dense greenish grey white fine to coarse silty sand and yellowish brown fine to coarse silty sand
with gravels. The granite in the 3 boreholes ranges from moderately weathered to slightly weathered
and is generally strong and massive greenish grey with crystalline coarse grain (Fig 14).
Fig 14 Granite from Loyang Avenue (bh 3499)
364
One borehole (3497) which did not detect granitic material encountered highly to moderately
weathered moderately strong bedded, light grey to grey granular coarse grained sandstone (Fig 15) at
RL 87.3m. The base of the Old Alluvium could not be reached for all other boreholes south west of
this borehole along Loyang Avenue.
7.4
Elevation Contours of Granitic Materials.
Further examination of the 3 boreholes and boreholes further north-east (Fig 12) which have no trace
of Old Alluvium shows a continuous rise of the granitic embedment in the north-easterly direction to
RL 105 m.
Fig 15 Sandstone from Loyang Avenue (bh 3497)
ELECTRICITY RESISTIVITY AND SEISMIC REFLECTION SURVEY
Recent geophysical surveys conducted at Punggol, Lorong Halus, Kaki Bukit, Loyang and Tampines
have detected bedrock at varying depths. The layout of the survey lines is shown in Fig 16.
8.1
Punggol Area
Electric resistivity survey along two lines, L1-1 and L2-8, were carried out in the area. L1-1 was along
the Punggol Road, which is distributed in north to south-west direction with the length of 2200 m. L28 is along Punggol Field Road, with the length of 550m. In general, the depth of bedrock at the
Punggol area varies from 50m to 170m below ground level, with the trend of dropping down in the
southwest direction from depth of 50m to 170m, and further rising up in the south-east direction from
170m to 100m in depth (Figs 17 and 18).
365
LINE 1-1
LINE 2-8
LINE 1-4
PUNGGOL FIELD RD
SITE AT TAMPINES
AVENUES 9 & 12
LINE 1-3
LINE 1-5
LINE 1-2
Fig 16 Layout of Electric Resistivity Survey Lines (Phases 1 & 2A)
366
Fig 17 Electric Resistivity Survey Along Line 1-1 (Punggol Road)
Fig 18 Electric Resistivity Survey Along Line 2-8 (Punggol)
8.2
Lorong Halus
Electric resistivity survey (Line 1-4) with the length of 780m along Lorong Halus shows shallow rock
embedment. The depth varies from 30m at the northeastern end, to 50m at the southeastern end (Fig
19).
367
Fig 19 Electric Resistivity Survey Along Line 1-4 (Lor Halus) and Line 1-5 (Loyang Ave)
8.3
Loyang Avenue
Along Loyang Avenue, Line 1-5 was carried out with the length of 400m. It is shown that the bedrock
is consistently distributed at the depth of about 100m below ground (Fig 19). Some boreholes at about
1 km north-east of the survey line detected bedrock at about 25 m depth (Para 7 above).
8.4
Kaki Bukit Avenue
Line 1-2 was surveyed along Kaki Buki Avenue 1, with the length of 2300m. At the southwestern and
northeastern parts, the bedrock is buried generally at the depth of 40-50m below ground. In the middle
part, the bedrock gets deeper down to 80m (Fig 20).
Fig 20 Electric Resistivity Survey Along Line 1-2 (Kaki Bukit Ave 1)
368
8.5
Tampines Area
A total of 8 lines of electric resistivity survey, Line 1-3 and Lines 2-1~2-7, were carried out in the area
(Fig 21). Line 1-3 was along Tampines Avenues 9 and 10, with the length of 2800m. Seven lines were
conducted at a particular site between Tampines Avenues 9 and 12, with the total length of 8700m. In
general, the depth of granite varies from 50m to 200m below ground level. There is a clear indication
of existence of bedrock valley at the Tampines area, along which the bedrock is deep down to 120200m below the ground. The bedrock contour map at the Tampines area is shown in Fig 22. One deep
borehole located at Tampines Avenue 9 has detected the bedrock at 200m depth, which verifies the
result obtained from electric resistivity survey line (L1-3).
Fig 21 Electric Resistivity Survey Along Line 1-3 (Tampines Ave 9 to 10)
Fig 22 Projected Tampines Bedrock Contour
DISCUSSION
Several deep-seated faults (Hutchinson, 1972) in the Malay Peninsula from late Cretaceous to Tertiary
have been reported. Tectonic activity of block faulting and warping continued possibly into early
369
Pleistocene. The Central Singapore Granite mass is marked with three trends of faulting (PWD, 1976).
The longest faults trend or strike N70oW, viz. the Dunearn Road-Bukit Timah Road Fault, the faults
along the upper reaches of Kallang River and along the tributaries of Sungei Pang Sua, and the Nee
Soon Fault. The second prominent set of faults strike N30oE, viz. the faults occupying the upper
reaches of Sungei Seletar and Sungei Sembawang and several others parallel to them. The third set of
faults strike N20oW, viz. the faults occupying the lower course of the Kallang River and the Sungei
Sembawang and others parallel to them.
Fig 23 shows the overview of the areas where evidence of rock mass beneath the plains of the Old
Alluvium and the Kallang Formation has been collated from the recent site investigations. Areas
(except Paya Lebar-Ubi-Eunos area) where granitic materials are encountered at shallow depth (ie less
than 25m) are generally near the Bukit Timah Granite as identified in the Geological Map of
Singapore. Within the corridor from Punggol to Bedok, no known site investigation has detected
granitic material at less than 50 m depth. Geophysical survey near this corridor indicates presence of
bedrock at depths between 50 m and 200 m.
The distinctive trends of faulting and the evidence of the rock mass beneath the plains of Old Alluvium
and Kallang Formation indicate that block-faulting, a gravity readjustment process, most probably had
brought several blocks of Bukit Timah Granite to different elevations. The exposed Central Bukit
Timah Granite and the Pulau Ubin-Changi Point Granite were left at higher elevations while those in
between these two exposed granite settled at lower elevations. The lowered-down granite blocks were
subsequently further incised to form rugged topography buried under the Quaternary deposits of Old
Alluvium and/or Kallang Formations.
10 CONCLUSION
Information obtained from recent site investigations indicates the presence of ridges and valleys of
Bukit Timah Granite mass beneath the plains of the Old Alluvium and the Kallang Formations.
The events of the block faulting, weathering and erosion of landmass from late-Mesozoic to early
Pleistocene, and the rise and fall of sea levels during the last Wurm Glaciation had most likely caused
the occurrence of concealed ridges of the Bukit Timah Granite.
REFERENCES
1. Public Work Department (PWD) (1976). The Geology of the Republic of Singapore. Public Works
Department, Singapore.
2. Gobbett, D.J. and Hutchison, C.S. (1972). Geology of the Malay Peninsula. Willey-Interscience,
London.
3. Gupta, A. (1987), The Old Alluvium of Singapore And The Extinct Drainage System To The
South China Sea. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, Vol 12, 259-275.
4. Hutchinson, C.S. (1972), Tectonic Evolution of Sundaland. Proceedings, Regional Conference on
the Geology of Southeast Asia.
5. Jeyatharan, K., Ong, J.C.W. and Prebadaran, N. (2003) Geological Investigation of Circle Line 1.
Proceedings, Rapid Transit Conference, LTA, Singapore
370
RL 50 m
LEGEND
RL -30 m
RL 20 m
RL -10 m
RL 50 m
RL 40 m
RL 70 m
RL 10 m
RL 30 m
RL 90 m
RL 50 m
RL 30 m
RL 80 m
RL 95 m
RL 75 m
RL 70 m
RL 65 m
RL 30 m
RL 80 m
RL 40 m
RL 0 m
RL 30 m
RL 40 m
RL -60 m
RL 100m
RL 90 m
RL 80 m
RL 70 m
RL 5 m
RL -60 m
RL 60 m
Fig 23 Overview of Location & Levels of Granitic Materials and Bedrock in Old Alluvium
371
RL 90 m Location
& Level where
Granitic Material
encountered in
Old Alluvium
Location
where Bedrock
encountered in
Old Aluvium
RL 5 m

Limestones of the Jurong Formation

K. Jeyatharan
Land Transport Authority
K.W. Lee
Formerly Public Works Department (Singapore)
L.J. Pakianathan
Mott MacDonald Singapore Pte Ltd
C.P. Seh
Kiso-Jiban Consultants Co Ltd.
ABSTRACT: Until recently, limestone rock had not been detected in Singapore or the southern regions of Peninsular Malaysia (Johor & Melaka). The geology maps of Singapore prepared by PWD
(1976) did not identify the presence of limestone. The existence of limestone in Singapore was first
reported during the site investigation for a jetty project in 1987 at Merlimau Island. Since then, limestone has been reported at a few locations in west and southwest of Singapore. An attempt is made in
this paper to summarise the information available to date on the limestone rock encountered so far in
Singapore. The geological formation of limestone and its association with other rock types are reviewed. Engineering properties of limestone are collated and summarised. Finally, some of the engineering and construction difficulties experienced in limestone areas are highlighted.
1 INTRODUCTION
Sowers (1976) reported that limestones comprise more than 10% of the earth crust by volume. Limestones were known to be present in Peninsular Malaysia for a long time, except in the southern regions
(Johor & Melaka). The Public Works Department (PWD) identified no limestone in Singapore in its
geological maps published in 1976.
Limestone areas of Peninsular Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur, Langkawi, Kinta Valley, Kedah and Gua
Musang) have experienced foundation problems for a long time. At the 8th Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conference held in Kuala Lumpur in March 1985, one of the two themes of the conference was on
limestone. Coincidentally, two years later in 1987, site investigation for a jetty project at Merlimau Island off Singapore found limestone underground and it had cavities. Since then, limestones have been
reported at a few other locations in the west and southwest of Singapore and the southern regions of
Malaysia in the Tengkak area (Johor).
Fontaine and Lee (1993) studied the limestone cores taken from a borehole drilled near the Pandan
Reservoir by PWD in 1987 and termed the limestone as the Pandan Limestone.
Limestone has not been found exposed as surface outcrops in Singapore or the southern parts of Peninsular Malaysia, but has only been encountered in boreholes and drilling for bored piling.
2 IDENTIFICATION AND COMPOSITION
Limestone could be misinterpreted as siltstone. However, limestone fizzes rapidly when treated with
cold dilute hydrochloric acid, so can be readily identified at site. Vinegar can also cause limestone to
fizz.
Limestone is a broad term that refers to any rocks in which calcium carbonate is a major constituent. In
general, limestone is formed from compressed layers of calcareous sea deposits.
Main
372
Fig. 1 Locations of boreholes where Limestone has been encountered
373
With petroleum exploration, carbonate petrology has been greatly developed, leading to many new
concepts about the composition, origin and classification of carbonate rocks. Limestones are sedimentary rocks which have carbonate contents of more than 50% of its mineral components. The principal
component minerals are calcite (CaCO3), aragonite (CaCO3), and dolomite [CaMg(CO)3]. Many qualifying terms are used with limestone such as dolomite, marble, chalk or marl, all referring to its origin
or purity. Pure carbonate rocks includes limestone, dolomite, marble and chalk.
Limestone consists of more than 50% calcite and/or aragonite minerals whereas dolomite contains
more than 50% dolomite mineral. Marble is a metamorphic rock that has been thermally altered under
pressure to form a hardened mass of calcium carbonate. Chalk is a special limestone which is a
loosely-held-together sedimentary deposit of the fossilized remains of marine micro-organisms. Marl
(Marlstone) is an impure carbonate rock of a simple binary mixture of clay and calcium carbonate.
The less common carbonate constituents in carbonate rocks are magnesite (MgCO3), rhodochrosite
(MnCO3) and siderite (FeCO3). Common impurities in limestone include chert, clay, quartz, feldspars,
organic matter, and iron oxides. As aragonite and magnesium-rich calcite are meta-stable minerals,
almost all limestone older than the Quaternary period are composed of calcite or dolomite.
In this paper, dolomite and marble are also referred to as limestone unless when the behaviours or
characteristics of these rocks are compared or contrasted.
3 EXTENT
3.1 In Plan
Limestones were encountered recently underground at a number of locations in Singapore during
borehole drilling and bored piling works, at various projects. Figure 1 summarises most of the borehole locations where limestone has been reported. The description of, and the depth to limestone, at
each of these projects are summarised in Table 1.
Though an attempt is made in this paper to collate all known boreholes where limestone was encountered in Singapore, the list may not be complete. No information is available for review, though limestone was reported to have been encountered, at the following locations: (1) a jetty in Pulau Merlimau
Island, (2) a jetty at Pulau Seraya Island, (3) Jurong Point shopping centre at Boon Lay Way, (4) New
Civil Service Institute at North Bouna Vista Road, (5) Pumping Station at North Bouna Vista Road,
and (6) DSTA Research Centre at National University of Singapore.
Based on the information available, limestone is only found below ground in the west and southwest
parts of Singapore and is widespread near Pandan Reservoir and along and offshore south of West
Coast Road and western end of Pasir Panjang Road. The occurrence of limestone in Kent Ridge, North
Bouna Vista, Boon Lay and Tuas Second Link areas appears to be limited in extent.
3.2 In Elevation
Generally, limestone is encountered below 20m in depth, except offshore and at few locations inland
as noted in Table 1. No surface outcrop of limestone has been reported in Singapore.
The materials encountered above and below the limestone are tabulated in Table 2. Typically, the Kallang Formation or residual soils overlie the limestone, except at a few locations where the overlying
materials are sandstone, siltstone, mudstone, shale or microgranite. Most of the boreholes were terminated in limestone though a few boreholes penetrated the limestone and were subsequently terminated
in sandstone, siltstone or microgranite. The microgranites are probably instrusive dikes.
A generalised geological profile along the East Jurong Fairway based on the boreholes from the Power
Grids Cable Tunnel Project, which was planned to be located offshore between West Coast Highway
and Pulau Seraya Island, is shown in Figure 2. Here, limestone is interbeded with generally grey mudstone and siltstone, and sandstone of the Jurong Formation.
374
Fig. 2 Generalised geological profile along East Jurong Fairway
375
Table 1 Summary of limestone encountered during Site Investigations in Singapore

Description of Limestone
Serial
Location
Project Name
No of
No
Boreholes
1
Pandan Rd
PWD Research
1
Light to dark grey
2
Tuas Second
Second Causeway
5
Grey
Link
PSA New Con32
Light to dark grey
3
Offshore
tainer Terminal
Along West
Coast Highway
4
Penjuru Rd
Cavern Develop1
Light grey to grey with
ment
brownish stains
5
Canterbury Rd Cavern Develop1
Light to dark grey with
ment
yellowish/ brownish
stains
Power Grid Cable
6
Light to dark grey
6
West Coast
Tunnel
Highway/ Pasir Panjang Rd
7
8
9
10
11
12
Offshore Between West

Coast Highway and Pulau
Seraya
Offshore of
Pulau Seraya
West Coast
Highway
North Buona
Vista Rd
West Coast
Rd/Jalan Buroh
Offshore near
Telok Blangah
Rd
Depth to Limestone
Rock (m bgl)
Min
Max
Ave
23.0
6.2+
10.8+
8.7+
19.2
41.3
27.5
32.0
79.4
17.3
63.7
37.9
Power Grid Cable

Tunnel
22
Light to dark grey
7.0+
54.5+
33.0+
Power Grid Cable

Tunnel
LTA Future Rail
Light to dark grey
4.4+
17.8+
9.0+
24.3
56.2
38.0
LTA Future Rail
7.5
81.4
42.0
LTA Roads and

Bridges
49

pinkish stains
Light to dark grey or
sometimes black with
reddish/ pinkish/ greenish stains
brownish stains
13.0
49.1
23.3
Maritime Square
Development
10

reddish/ brownish/ bluish/ greenish stains
6.3
17.0
13.4
These depths are below the sea bed level.

The column No of boreholes in the table means the total number of boreholes where limestone was encountered in each of these projects.
Offshore, limestone was generally found beneath marine sediments of soft clay or loose sand or less
frequently beneath residual soils. It appears to be present in lenses and interbeds with other Jurong
Formation rocks.
4 GEOLOGICAL CONTEXT
4.1 Jurong Formation
The geological materials of Singapore consist of four main types: (1) igneous rocks of the Bukit Timah
Granite and the Gombak Norite in the north and central-north, (2) sedimentary rocks of the Jurong
Formation in the west and south-west, and (3) quaternary deposits of the Old Alluvium in the east and
(4) the Kallang Formation which is distributed throughout the island.
The PWD (1976) recognised within the Jurong Formation six facies: Queenstown, Jong, Ayer Chawan, Rimau, St John, and Tengah. The Queenstown Facies is characterised by red mudstones, the Jong
Facies by well-cemented roundstone conglomerates, the Ayer Chawan Facies by dark grey mudstones,
the Rimau Facies by well-cemented but loosely packed conglomerates and sandstones with minor beds
of carbonaceous matter, and the Tengah Facies by deeply weathered, poorly lithified sandstones. The
376
facies occur at different horizons and interdigitate.

Table 2 Summary of soil/rock types above and below the limestone
Serial
Location
Project Name
Description of Soil/Rock
No
Above Limestone
Below Limestone
1
Pandan Rd
PWD Research
Residual soils
2
Tuas Second Link Second Causeway
Residual soils
PSA New ConKallang / residual soils
3
Offshore Along
tainer Terminal
West Coast
Highway
4
Canterbury Rd
Cavern DevelopSandstone
ment
5
Penjuru Rd
Cavern DevelopResidual soils/ sandstone
Sandstone
ment
Power Grid Cable
Residual soils/ sandstone/
6
West Coast
Tunnel
mudstone
Highway/ Pasir
Panjang Rd
Kallang/ residual soils/ sand- Sandstone (1/22)$
7
Offshore Between Power Grid Cable
Tunnel
stone/ siltstone/ mudstone
West Coast
Highway and Pulau Seraya
8
Offshore of Pulau Power Grid Cable
Kallang/ residual soils
Seraya
Tunnel
9
West Coast
LTA Future Rail
Residual soils/ shale
Highway
10
North Buona
LTA Future Rail
Sandstone (2/7)$ & reVista Rd
shale
sidual soils (1/7)$
11
West Coast
LTA Roads and
Kallang/ residual soils/ sand- Residual soils (4/49)$,
Rd/Jalan Buroh
Bridges
stone/ siltstone/ microgranite microgranite (3/49)$ &
siltstone (1/49)$
12
Harbour Front
Maritime Square
Siltstone (1/10)$
Development
siltstone/ mudstone
$
xxxxx(y/z) means that xxxxx was encountered at y out of z boreholes.
The rocks of the Jurong Formation were deposited in shallow marine continental basins during the
Late Triassic to Early Jurassic times in a basin which was formed by the uplift of the Bukit Timah
Granite to the northeast and the Malayan Main Range Granite to the southwest. Unfortunately, no interface has been adequately exposed to show the depositional nature at the contact. PWD (1976) believed that the Jurong Formation is younger than the Granite. No contact relationships have been described and PWD based its view on the isotope dates of the Bukit Timah Granite against the ages of
fossils found in the Jurong Formation.
4.2 Geology of Limestone
In Singapore, the stratigraphy, distribution and types of limestone are little understood. The relations
between limestone and other rocks encountered at various locations in Singapore are also not well established.
Most of the carbonates were formed in the sea, and mainly in tropical and subtropical shelf seas and
littoral shallows. Based on the review of the geology of Singapore and Malay Peninsula, it is clear that
Singapore was under a tropical marine environment from late Triassic to Early Jurassic period. In such
an environment, organisms were abundant and active, and making it a highly likely period for the
deposition of carbonate rocks.
Graben sedimentary basins often exist behind volcanic arcs. The limestone of Singapore could have
been formed in a series of grabens. The general characteristics of grabens, such as shape and depth, are
controlled by faults and tectonics. This could explain the different types of limestones and abrupt
changes in their occurrences within short distances in Singapore.
Fontaine and Lee (1993) studied the fossils collected from the limestone, and indicated that the Pandan
Limestone is probably of a Late Triassic age and appears to be a part of the Ayer Chawan Facies. They
377
believed it was deposited on a sheltered tidal shelf. The association of black grey argillaceous rocks
with limestone lends support to their description.
Yeap (1996) studied limestone cores taken from the boreholes drilled along the Pasir Panjang coast for
the PSA New Container Terminal. After reviewing the site geology, the seismic survey results and the
rock cores, he concluded that the limestone appears to be present as several lenses and interbeds with
some argillaceous rocks. The limestone rocks have been dissolved and weathered down to 50m to 60m
below mean sea level and cavities of 10cm to more than 5m have been found. The cores of the carbonate rocks underlying Pasir Panjang coast were of poorer quality than that of the limestone at Pandan
reservoir.
Yeap (1996) believed this limestone facies was found as interbeds or lenses either between the St. John
facies and the Tengah facies or between the Rimau facies and the St. John deeper marine facies. He
proposed a deep borehole (about 300m deep or more) should be drilled to penetrate the limestone bed
to ascertain its stratigraphic position. He expected this to confirm as to whether the limestone is an independent litho-stratigraphic unit, like other sedimentary facies of the Jurong formation, or occurs as
lenses.
Redding et al (1999) reported that calcitic siltstone and limestone were the first materials deposited in
a basin (Figure 3). The deposition of the limestone ceased when clastic materials of coarse sands and
gravels were available due to an uplift caused by the emplacement of the Malayan Main Range Granite
along the southern margin of the basin.
Fig. 3 Basin formation of the Jurong Formation (after Redding et al. 1999)
Besides a general uplift of the basin, there was also shortening of the basin with regional compression.
This event created folds, faults, and caused a mild but widespread metamorphism of the rocks in the
Jurong Formation. The calcitic siltstones and the overlying limestones maintained their original layering during the event and this is the reason why they are well confined and lithified. Redding et al
(1999) viewed that basin uplift was generally uniform with little tilting and the rocks did not suffer
major folding. However, this is not consistent with PWD (1976) or Figure 2.
378
5 NATURE
5.1 Colour
Limestones are generally bluish grey to tan. The brown and yellow colours are usually caused by iron
oxide impurities and the dark-grey to black colour is caused by organic materials.
The limestone in Singapore is generally light grey to dark grey and sometimes black. Brownish, yellowish or purplish stains are also noted in some cores indicating the presence of impurities in the limestone. Figure 4 shows four types of limestones encountered in Singapore.
Rock Type:
Colour:
Texture:
Minerals:
Location:
BH No:
Depth:
Argillaceous Limestone
Light grey and light bluish grey
Fine to medium grained
Calcite
West Coast Road
WWC 08 Core Ref: CR 34
41.80 - 42.50m
Rock Type:
Colour:
Texture:
Minerals:
Location:
BH No:
Depth:
Rock Type:
Colour:
Texture:
Minerals:
Location:
BH No:
Depth:
Sandy Limestone
Reddish brown-dark bluish grey
Calcite, Quartz
Kranji Expressway
KJE 04
Core Ref: CR 25
29.50 - 30.00m
Rock Type: Crystalline Limestone

Colour:
Light grey to pinkish grey with yellowstained surfaces
Texture:
Coarse-grained
Minerals:
Calcite
Location:
West Coast Highway
BH No:
CC 5206 Core Ref: CR 1
Depth:
32.50 - 33.50m
Sandy Limestone
Dark grey to black
Calcite, Quartz
West Coast Road
WWC 01 Core Ref: CR 10
28.50 - 29.50m
Fig. 4 Some limestone types encountered in Singapore (after Chiam et al., 2003)
379
5.2 Weathering
Weathering effects are important for the engineering assessment of rocks. Weathering can be mechanical, chemical or biological. Limestone weathering in tropical areas is mostly governed by chemical
weathering, in which calcite is dissolved.
The water combines with the carbon dioxide in the air to form a weak carbonic acid, which can dissolve limestone and create solution cavities in the rock. When a major discontinuity allows large
amounts of acidic water into the limestone below the water table, large amounts of rock dissolve along
this crack. Due to its composition, the weatherability of limestone is higher than that of dolomite. The
calcium cations in calcite are more easily replaced by hydrogen cations than the magnesium cations in
dolomite (Rauch and White, 1970 and 1977).
Unlike other rocks, the weathering of carbonate rocks is generally not continual or uniform. If the
limestone is dense or massive and has a low porosity, weathering will occur along rock surfaces and
existing discontinuities, such as bedding planes, joints and faults. However, if the limestone is porous,
such as chalk and young calcarenites, water penetrates the entire rock and give rise to a more uniform
weathering.
Many researchers have studied the engineering properties of limestone. However, the weathering of
limestone had not been systematically classified considering engineering aspects until Fookes and
Hawkins (1988) studied the weathering of ancient limestones of Britain. Their proposed classification
scheme is applicable for exposed limestones. Recently, Guo and Zhao (1998) has proposed a weathering classification for carbonate intact rock and rock mass separately based on the dissolved volume,
density, and RQD or rock mass velocity.
5.3 Karst
Table 3 Details of cavity size and location of deepest cavity based on borehole records
Depth of deepest Cavity
Serial
Location
Project Name
Cavity Size
(m bgl)
No
(m)
Min
Max
Ave
No.
Min
Max Ave No.
1
Pandan Rd
PWD Research
- No cavity detected2
Tuas Second Link Second Cause- No cavity detectedway
PSA New Con35
0.2
6.7
1.6
21
20.7
40.8
31.6
3
Offshore Along
tainer Terminal
West Coast
Highway
4
Penjuru Rd
Cavern Devel2
1.0
3.3
2.2
1
50.5
opment
5
Canterbury Rd
Cavern Devel- No cavity detectedopment
Power Grid Ca1
1.0
1
53.4
6
West Coast
ble Tunnel
Highway/ Pasir
Panjang Rd
27
0.2
13.5
2.5
11
17.3# 60.5# 43.6#
7
Offshore Between Power Grid Cable Tunnel
West Coast
8
Offshore of Pulau Power Grid Ca2
3.3
3.4
3.4
2
7.2#
10.8#
9.0#
Seraya
ble Tunnel
9
West Coast
LTA Future
1
0.4
1
25.4
Highway
Rail
10
North Buona
LTA Future
5
0.3
3.1
1.1
4
9.3
80.8
42.2
Vista Rd
Rail
11
West Coast
LTA Roads and
4
0.6
2.9
1.5
3
16.0
22.9
19.6
Rd/Jalan Buroh
Bridges
12
Offshore near Te- Maritime
- No cavity detectedlok Blangah Rd
Square Devel# - These values are the depths below the sea bed.
380
Limestone is unique since it is soluble in even slightly acidic waters, such as carbonic acid formed
from the dissolution of carbon dioxide in water. The end results of the solution of limestone are a host
of karstic features, such as cavities, caves, solution slots, pinnacled bedrock, stalactites/stalagmites,
basal notachs and overhangs in cliffs. These karstic features have a great effect on the engineering
properties of the limestone mass. In addition, residual soils left over in the dissolution of limestone are
so-called terra rossa or residual red clays mantling the limestone bedrock. These are accumulations of
the insoluble residues or impurities of the limestone, comprising silica, organic matter, clays, iron oxides, etc.
The location, size and shape of the karst can be detected by sinking systematically placed deep boreholes and, to a lesser degree, by carrying out seismic surveys.
Rauch and White (1970 & 1977) claimed that in the Ordovician limestone of Pennsylvania the more
cavernous limestone seem to be those with low amounts of dolomite, clay and other impurities and a
high micrite grain fraction. Thus the more micritic rocks (defined by the percentage of the rock by
volume of calcite crystals less than 15mm in diameter) are more prone to cave development than the
sparitic rocks (with a greater grain size). The dissolution rate decreases proportionately with increasing
dolomite content in the rock. The extent of the dissolution and the removal of the limestone as bicarbonate is controlled by a number of factors, such as availability of water and carbon dioxide, temperature, degree of saturation and rock type and discontinuities.
The details of cavities encountered in the boreholes at each of the projects in Singapore are summarised in Table 3. Generally, the cavities are known to extend up to a depth of 50m~60m except at a
borehole near North Buona Vista Road where cavities were encountered up to 80m below ground
level. The size of cavities (vertical distance as measured in boreholes) is generally less than 4m as seen
from Figure 5.
12
Number of cavities
10
8
6
4
2
0
<0.5
0.5-1.0
1.0-2.0
2.0-3.0 3.0-4.0
Cavity length (m)
4.0-5.0
5-10
>=10
Fig. 5 Distribution of the size of cavities
6 ENGINEERING PROPERTIES
6.1 Rock Strength
Limestone is a relatively strong sedimentary rock. Generally fresh limestone has very good engineering properties and is a very good material for civil engineering construction. However, if the limestone
is weathered, the engineering strength of the limestone will be greatly reduced. Table 4 summarises the
measured unconfined compressive strength (UCS) and the point load index at various projects. The
UCS values ranges from 13.4MPa and 249.0MPa and the point load index ranges from 0.9 and 14.4.
The variations of measured UCS values are shown in Figure 6.
381
Table 4 Distribution of strength of limestone rock

Serial
Location
Project Name
No
3
4
Offshore Along
West Coast
Highway
Penjuru Rd
Canterbury Rd
Offshore Between
West Coast
West Coast
Highway
North Buona
Vista Rd
West Coast
Rd/Jalan Buroh
9
10
11
Point Load Index
UCS
(MPa)
No. Min
Max
8
13.4
56.3
Ave
35.7
No.
-
Min
-
Max
-
Ave
-
Cavern Development
Cavern Development
Power Grid Cable Tunnel
58
19.2
240.1
97.1
58
1.2
14.4
5.8
22
15.0
130.0
65.1
22
0.9
7.8
3.9
24
59.0
249.0
107.0
LTA Future
Rail
LTA Future
Rail
LTA Roads and
Bridges
27.5
105.6
55.9
20
2.9
7.2
5.2
31.7
114.9
85.8
10
3.1
11.1
5.6
13
16.6
127.0
59.2
1.0
5.5
3.3
PSA New Container Terminal
20
No. of samples
15
10
0
0-20
20-40
40-60
60-80
80-100 100-120 120-140
Unconfined Compressive Strength (MPa)
>140
Fig. 6 Variation of unconfined compressive strength
6.2 Fracturing of the Rock Masses

The recorded solid core recovery (SCR) and the RQD values from the various projects are summarised
in Table 5. The SCR varies from 0% and 100% with an average of about 60%; whereas the RQD
ranges from 0% and 100% with an average of about 40%. The overall distribution of the measured
RQD is shown in Figure 7.
6.3 Groundwater and Rock Mass Permeability
The permeability of the limestone was measured using single packer at various projects. The distribution of measured permeability values is shown in Figure 8. These measurements were carried out at
various depths but not at any cavity locations. As such, these reported values would not represent the
rock mass permeability when there is a cavity.
382
Table 5 Recorded SCR and RQD within limestone lock

Serial
Location
Project Name
No
No.
PSA New Con3
Offshore Along
tainer Terminal
West Coast
Highway
4
Penjuru Rd
Cavern Development
5
Canterbury Rd
Cavern Development
Power Grid Cable
106
6
West Coast
Tunnel
Highway/ Pasir
Panjang Rd
8
Offshore of Pulau Power Grid Cable
Seraya
Tunnel
9
West Coast
LTA Future Rail
39
Highway
10
North Buona
LTA Future Rail
34
Vista Rd
11
West Coast
LTA Roads and
196
Rd/Jalan Buroh
Bridges
12
Offshore near Te- Maritime Square
lok Blangah Rd
Development
SCR (%)
Min Max
-
Ave
-
No.
331
65
20
100
82
41
90
33
14
100
63
106
100
43
43
87
41
98
64
39
90
42
88
46
34
86
45
100
61
274
100
54
40
93
29
160
No. of Samples
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
20 to 40
40 to 60
RQD
60 to 80
80 to 100
Fig. 7 Variation of recorded RQD

20
No. of samples
15
10
0
1.0E-6 to 1.0E-7
1.0E-7 to 1.0E-8
1.0E86 to 1.0E-9
Permeabilty (m/sec)
Fig. 8 Variation of permeability as measured by packer tests
383
Ave
48
180
0 to 20
RQD (%)
Min Max
0
100
1.0E-9 to 1.0E-10
7 ENGINEERING EXPERIENCE
The engineering challenges in the design and construction of buildings and infrastructure projects in
limestone areas could be classified into foundation, excavation and tunnelling related issues. The Singapore experience of construction in limestone areas is limited, and therefore the common problems
faced in the nearby Malaysia are also included below.
7.1 Foundation Problems
Many foundation problems have been encountered in limestone areas around the world, due to a complex bedrock profile, weathering and peculiar geological features such as pinacles, cavities, floating
slabs, overhangs, solution holes and channels etc. Limestone formation is also liable to caving or sinkhole subsidence. A three-storey building completely disappeared into a sinkhole in South Africa
(Jennings, 1965). Though sinkholes and cavings were reported in a few highway projects in Malaysia,
no such occurrences are reported in Singapore.
Excessive settlements of foundations which were constructed in limestone areas in Malaysia were reported by Ting (1985), Chan and Hong (1985), Mitchell (1985), Sehested and Wong (1985) and Tan et
al. (1985). The common foundation problems reported in limestone formation are:
1) RC piles (driven) are often deflected by irregular or abruptly inclined bedrock, which leads to excessive tilting, deviation, rotation, buckling, and distortion;
2) wastage of RC piles due to abrupt changes in the bedrock profile and the unpredictability of pile
length; and
3) uncertainties in the end bearing capacity of piles due to possible presence of cavities, solution
channels, pinnacles, floaters or overhang rocks.
Concrete level from pile toe (m)
35.0
Actual
30.0
Theoretical
31
27.6
26.0
25.0
22.5
20.0
19.6
17.6
15.0
15.6
12.6
10.0
7.6
5.0
0.0
0
0.0
0.6
10.0
1.9
20.0
30.0
40.0
3
Concrete volume (m )
50.0
Concrete loss for
60.0
3
filling cavity: 56-31=25m
Fig. 9 Reported concrete loss in a bored pile construction
In Singapore, some load tests on RC piles experienced excessive settlement before the limestone was
identified. These problems are now believed to be due to piling in limestone areas. Bored piling works
for the PSAs New Container Terminal project at Pasir Panjang Road experienced difficulties during
construction in 1996. Many cavities were encountered at this site up to a depth of 60m and extensive
jet grouting was carried out prior to the piling works. However, concrete losses during the concreting
of the pile bores were reported. Similar difficulties were also experienced recently during the bored
piling works for a bridge project at the Pandan Reservoir. As shown in Figure 9, an estimated 25 m3 of
384
additional concrete was poured into the bore to fill up the cavities around the pile during the piling
works.
In both of the above bored piling projects, a minimum of one borehole at each pier location was carried out to a depth of at least five times the pile diameter beyond the pile toe, or the last cavity, whichever was deeper.
7.2 Excavation and Tunnelling Problems
The limestones in Singapore generally occur below ground water level. Therefore in areas where solution features are detected the excavation and tunnelling are subject to not only problems related unstable ground but also to ground water inflows.
The non-karstic limestone possesses a high strength which makes it difficult to excavate. In 1985 during the sea bed trench excavation for the Seraya immersed tube cable tunnel, limestone was unexpectedly met at the Pandan end. This caused severe damage to the powerful trench cutter necessitating the
use of underwater blasting technique.
Lowering of the groundwater table in karstic limestone during excavation or tunnelling could lead to
the development of sinkholes, which can be unpredictable and sudden. To date there is no documented
evidence of the occurrence of sinkholes brought about by construction related works in the limestone
in Singapore. However, this possibility should not be discounted when undertaking excavation in this
stratum.
Other difficulties are caused by steeply inclined bedding planes in limestone, which is a common feature of Jurong Formation, and the degree of weathering of the limestone. At the interface between
limestone and sandstone, substantial weathering of sandstone near to the contact has been detected in
some boreholes.
The karstic limestone presents most adverse ground conditions for excavation as well as tunnelling.
One of the main problems is the inability to detect the precise location, extent and nature of in-fill in
the cavities. Although the geophysical survey methods could detect the presence of cavities on plan
their elevations, sizes and information on their interconnection could not be established.
Drilling boreholes at close centres and on a parallel grid has been used with success to identify and
map the cavities for foundations and deep excavation. For tunnelling under the sea, advance treatment
by Jet Grouting (from barges) has been contemplated by contractors.
The most common method of tunnelling through karst features under the ground water table is to use
an Earth Pressure Balance (EPB) type Tunnel boring Machine (TBM). Monte Zucco tunnel in Italy
and SMART tunnel project in Kuala Lumpur are two current examples. These TBMs are equipped
with drilling equipment to drill a systematic pattern of exploratory holes ahead of the tunnel face to detect the presence of any cavity. If cavities are discovered advance ground treatment would be carried
out prior to excavation. Particular attention is paid to detect cavities below the tunnel invert in view of
a TBM losing steering control or indeed falling into a cavity below the tunnel invert. New Austrian
tunnelling method has also been used with success in karstic limestone above the ground watertable
(John and Strappler, 2003).
8 SUMMARY
Limestone is encountered underground at several locations in the western and southwestern parts of
Singapore. It is found to be widespread near the Pandan Reservoir area and along and offshore south
of West Coast Road and western end of Pasir Panjang Road. No surface outcrop of limestone has been
found yet. The limestone appears to be interbeded with other Jurong Formation rocks. The stratigraphic association of the limestone and the facies of the Jurong Formation are still little known. A
number of exploration programmes designed specifically to study the nature of the limestone in Singapore and its association with the rocks of the Jurong Formation is essential.
385
Solution cavities are reported within the limestone, especially in the Pandan and West Coast Areas.
Cavities up to 13.5m height are found to a maximum depth of 80.8m below ground level. These cavities may have been filled with water or residual soils. However, this could not be confirmed, as it was
not possible to extract these in-filling materials during the site investigation works.
Limestone is a relatively strong rock. The measured UCS values range from 10MPa to 250MPa with
an average of about 90MPa. The rock mass permeability ranges from 1x10-6 to 1x10-9 m/sec. However,
the permeability value would be much higher for areas where cavities exist.
Bored piling difficulties were recently reported on a few projects where significant concrete loss during concreting was recorded. In these cases, boreholes were generally taken to depths of at least five
times the pile diameter beyond the pile toe or the last cavity. When cavities were detected grouting
was adopted prior to the piling works to minimise the construction difficulties.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
All agencies that extended their data to be used in this paper in particular the Land Transport Authority
and the Singapore Power PowerGrid Ltd are acknowledged. The Authors wish to thank Dr V. Ganeshan, Dr K.K. Soh, and Prof J. Zhao, who have shared their working experiences and information on
limestone of Singapore. Finally, authors also wish to thank Ms Irene Tay and Ms Qin Wang for their
help in preparing this paper.
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Sedimentary Rock Formation. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, Vol. 14, No. 4, pp. 449-459.
387

The Fort Canning Boulder Bed

J.N. Shirlaw, Land Transport Authority, Singapore
P.B. Broome, Nishimatsu Construction Co. Ltd., Singapore
S. Chandrasegaran, Bachy Soletanche Singapore Pte. Ltd.., Singapore
J. Daley, Maunsell Consultants, Singapore
K. Orihara, Kiso-Jiban Singapore Pte. Ltd., Singapore
G.V.R. Raju, Maunsell Consultants,
S.K. Tang, CPG Consultants Pte. Ltd.., Singapore
I.H. Wong, Mitic Associates, Singapore
K.S. Wong, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Kyi Yu, GeoLS Pte. Ltd., Singapore
ABSTRACT: A colluvial deposit, comprising very strong sandstone or quartzite boulders in a hard
matrix underlies parts of the central business and commercial areas of Singapore. Foundation, construction, tunnelling and excavations in this deposit pose particular problems; delays and cost overruns during construction are common. Understanding the nature and distribution of the deposit is
therefore of considerable value. Although a number of papers have already been published on the nature and extent of the deposit, much previously unpublished information has been obtained in recent
years. The information from the previous papers and the new data is synthesised to give an overview
of the current understanding of where the deposit has been found, the properties of the boulders and
the matrix, and the types of construction work that have been carried out in it.
INTRODUCTION
A colluvial deposit of Pleistocene age, known as the Fort Canning Boulder Bed, underlies parts of the
central business and commercial areas of Singapore. The deposit was first recorded by Nowson (1954)
and Sehested (1960). A number of further studies have been published since 1960. At various times
the deposit has been called boulder bed of the Jurong Formation (Pitts 1984) and the bouldery clay
(Poh et al., 1987). In 2001, it was decided that Fort Canning Boulder Bed was an appropriate term to
use for the deposit.
The Fort Canning Boulder Bed has been encountered in numerous foundation, excavation and tunnelling projects in the downtown area of Singapore. Due to the nature of the deposit, it can pose a number
of challenges for construction.
The Fort Canning Boulder Bed was not identified in the Geology of Singapore (PWD, 1976), despite
the earlier work of Nowson and Sehested. There are few places where the boulder bed has surface exposure, and Sehesteds information came from excavations and foundation construction. Those areas
where the deposit does outcrop were classified in the 1976 study as being either rock of the Jurong
Formation or soils of the Kallang Formation. There have been a number of studies since 1976 on the
nature and extent of the deposit (Shirlaw et al., 1987; Han et al., 1993, Wong et al., 1996). The purpose of this paper is to summarise all of the published data together with further information collected
from a number of recent projects. The main focus of the paper will be on the extent and nature of the
deposit. Design and construction in the deposit will be summarized by providing references to published work.
2 IDENTIFICATION
The Fort Canning Boulder Bed typically consists of boulders in a hard sandy clayey silt or sandy silty
clay matrix. The colour of the matrix can be deep red, or red and white, or mottled red, yellow and
white. Han et al. (1993) record that the matrix can become purple with weathering.
Main
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Quartzite
Matrix
Quartzite
Fragment
Fort Canning
Boulder Bed
Jurong Formation (in

this case weathered
siltstone)
Figure 1 A core taken through the Fort Canning Boulder Bed and into the underlying Jurong Formation.
The borehole was along Fort Canning Rise, with the Reduced Level of the Ground Surface + 121.07m.
Depths marked are depths below ground level.
Figure 1 shows a characteristic core obtained from the Fort Canning Boulder Bed. The core was taken
from a borehole on the side of Fort Canning Hill, along Fort Canning Rise. In this example the matrix
is a brilliant red, and cores from two boulders can be seen. In addition to the boulders there are a number of small angular fragments of rock embedded in the matrix. Below the Boulder Bed cores are core
runs taken from the underlying weathered rock of the Jurong Formation. The contrast in colour and
texture between the Boulder Bed and the Jurong Formation can be seen. The matrix often contains
gravel-sized nodules of ferrous oxide, although these are not obvious in Figure 1.
The variation of the colour of the matrix can be seen in Figure 2. This photograph was taken in a heading driven under the Bukit Timah canal, during the excavation of an entrance to Little India Station.
The matrix, surrounding a large boulder, was mottled yellow, white and red.
Figure 2 A boulder exposed during the construction of a heading under the

Bukit Timah Canal, Entrance 2, Little India Station
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The deposit is found in contact with the Jurong Formation, the Old Alluvium or the Kallang Formation. The rocks of the Jurong Formation, although generally deeply weathered, do not exhibit
corestone weathering of the type found in igneous rocks. Naturally occurring boulders have not been
recorded in the Old Alluvium, nor in the soils of the Kallang Formation. Hence the presence of boulders or cobbles of quartzite or sandstone, together with rock fragments embedded in a soil matrix, in a
borehole core is a certain indicator of the Fort Canning Boulder Bed.
On borehole logs in the Fort Canning Boulder Bed, the terms quartzite or (more commonly) sandstone
are often used to refer to the same material: a sandstone consisting of quartz grains cemented in part by
silica overgrowths or by metamorphism.
The embedded fragments and boulders of quartzite and sandstone are a particular feature of the Boulder Bed. It is essential that the size and nature of the boulders and fragments are recorded on the boring logs. The information provided should include the size, strength and degree of fracturing of each
significant piece of rock (over 100mm in length). Individual fragments do not need to be described,
but the fact that there are fragments, and the type of rock they are derived from, should be noted.
Figure 3 Core photograph of Fort Canning Boulder Bed showing the characteristic sequence of sandstone
or quartzite alternating with hard clay matrix. Note that the individual pieces of rock are largely intact.
As the Fort Canning Boulder Bed is a colluvial deposit, the way that the boulders and fragments of
sandstone and quartzite are positioned in a core can help to identify the deposit. The larger pieces of
rock (the boulders) typically have only occasional fractures. Any heavily fractured rock would not
have survived the process of deposition as a continuous piece. The smaller fragments of intact rock are
generally embedded in the matrix material. This can be used to identify those cores that are from the
Boulder Bed from those obtained from insitu Jurong Formation. Figure 3 is a core photograph from
the Boulder Bed, showing the characteristic, large pieces of rock in a red, occasionally white, matrix.
Figure 4 is a core photograph of insitu Jurong Formation, obtained from a borehole sited on the top of
Mount Sophia. Although this core shows the same general pattern of sandstone and red clay
as Figure 3, the core runs through the sandstone show a heavily fractured, often shattered, material.
The rock would not have survived colluvial deposition in a way that would give a continuous core of
broken rock.
Although the proportion of boulders in the Boulder Bed is generally high, there is a risk that a borehole or number of boreholes may not encounter the large boulders that are most characteristic of the
deposit. In cored holes small, angular rock fragments, such as those seen in Figure 1, can also be used
to identify the deposit. However, where only Standard Penetration Test (SPT) samples are obtained it
can be difficult to distinguish the Boulder Bed from the weathered Jurong Formation or the Old Alluvium. It is therefore recommended that continuous coring is undertaken in any areas and at elevations
where the Boulder Bed could be present. It is further recommended that the coring should be carried
out using triple tube core barrels, to maximise recovery of both the boulders and the matrix material.
Colour photographs should be taken of the cores.
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Figure 4 In situ rock of the Jurong Formation obtained from a borehole on the top of Mount Sophia.
A knowledge of where the Fort Canning Boulder Bed has been identified, with confidence, and any
verified boundaries of the deposit are useful as a guide to where it may be encountered. In areas where
the presence of the deposit is suspected, continuous coring through stiff or hard materials is recommended, in order to verify whether the deposit is present.
3 EXTENT OF THE FORT CANNING BOULDER BED
3.1 Extent in Plan
Previous estimates of the extent of the Boulder Bed have been presented in Shirlaw et al. (1990) and in
Han et al. (1993). Since those papers were written a large number of construction projects have been
carried out in the downtown area of Singapore. Some of these projects have been documented in published papers, but the majority has not. In order to establish as accurately as possible the likely limits
of the deposit, a list has been compiled of all of the projects where the presence of the deposit could be
confirmed. These are listed in section 9.1.
A review has also been carried out of those projects, near to the general area of the Boulder Bed,
where the deposit was not recorded. Those projects where there was a high degree of confidence that
the Boulder Bed was not present are listed in section 9.2. In section 9.3 are listed those projects where
the Boulder Bed was not identified, but where, due to the depth and/or type of investigations and construction carried out, it is not certain that the Boulder Bed might not have been present somewhere under the site. Generally, there is more confidence that the Boulder Bed was present where it is recorded,
than that it was necessarily absent where it was not recorded. This is because, unless boulders are encountered, most existing site investigations are limited to SPT samples in soil. As discussed above, it is
difficult to differentiate between the Boulder Bed and other Formations using only split spoon samples. There is therefore a possibility that the Boulder Bed has not been identified in some areas where
it is actually present.
In a few cases the boundaries of the deposit could be identified with accuracy. Rail and road projects
involve long linear structures and a high intensity of soil investigation, which can be verified during
construction. Where such structures cut through the deposit, the boundaries can be identified accurately. In a few cases a borehole encountered both the Fort Canning Boulder Bed and the Old Alluvium or the Jurong Formation, allowing the sequence of deposition to be identified. The projects are
listed Section 9.1, together with the location of any horizontal boundaries identified.
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LTI
59
58
60
61
57
CNT
46
Figure 5 Locations where the Fort Canning Boulder Bed was identified in boreholes, excavations and tunnels.
392
Figure 6 Boulders of the Fort Canning Boulder Bed lying in

the excavation for Clarke Quay Station
All of the data collected has been assembled on Figure 5. It can be seen that the areas where the deposit has been positively identified form six clusters, two large and four small. The largest cluster runs
from the Cathay Building to Raffles City in one direction, and from Fort Canning Hill to Middle Road.
The other large cluster covers the area bounded by Telok Ayer Street, the old shoreline near Raffles
Quay, Boon Tat Street and the Singapore River.
The smaller clusters are in the area of the Great Eastern Centre, Coleman Bridge, the Treasury Building and between the foot of Mount Emily and the Zhu Jiao market.
The presence of the Boulder Bed at the Coleman Bridge was identified in Shirlaw et al. (1990) and in
Han et al. (1993). The deposit has since been identified in parts of Clarke Quay Station and in the tunnels under the southern flank of Fort Canning Hill. Figure 6 shows boulders at an intermediate excavation stage for Clarke Quay Station. The deposit extended almost to the edge of the Fort Canning reservoir.
The Boulder Bed under the Great Eastern Centre was not identified in the preliminary site investigation. However, the deposit was confirmed by the presence of numerous boulders and cobbles, encountered during diaphragm wall and pile construction. Similarly, the presence of the Boulder Bed at the
Treasury Building only became apparent when boulders were encountered during diaphragm wall construction. This illustrates the problems of correctly identifying the deposit in simple site investigation
programmes. It is also uncertain whether the clusters at the Great Eastern Centre, at the foot of Fort
Canning, at the Treasury Building and around Raffles Place are really separated areas of the deposit. It
is possible that the area between these four clusters was never subject to colluvial deposition, or that
any colluvial deposits were subsequently eroded away. The Boulder Bed at Clarke Quay Station was
covered by 18m to 28m of soils of Holocene age (Kallang Formation and fill). The deposit was not
present over the whole footprint of the station. It appears that much of the original deposit at this location was eroded by a paleo-Singapore River. Alternatively, the Boulder Bed may be present over parts
of the area between the cluster, but has not been identified. This may be because no modern development has taken part in some areas, or because the Boulder Bed has been encountered, but not correctly
identified.
The presence of the deposit at the foot of Mount Emily was not recorded in any of the previous papers
on the Boulder Bed. The deposit was identified during the construction of the North East line tunnels
and a pedestrian subway for an entrance to Little India Station. The deposit in this area has been
393
LTI
CNT
Figure 7 Plan showing general areas where the Fort Canning Boulder Bed has been
identified. Plan also shows the general strike of a thick bed of quartzite found, as
part of the Jurong Formation, immediately to the west.
394
further identified in piles drilled at the Bukit Timah canal, in some boreholes for an old NEL alignment just to the north of Selegie Road, and in a borehole just next to the Zhu Jiao market.
The possible extent of the deposit, based on the information obtained, is shown in Figure 7. There is,
however, considerable uncertainty about the extent of the deposit to the north west of Mayne Road and
in the area of Bencoolen Street to the south west of Middle Road.
The areas where the Boulder Bed has been positively identified are those where the deposit included
the characteristic, strong to very strong, quartzite boulders that are difficult to break and remove during construction. It is possible that colluvial deposits that do not contain significant numbers of quartzite or sandstone boulders underlie some of the areas outside these boundaries. Such deposits would,
geologically, form part of the Boulder Bed. It is common for soil investigation in Singapore to
involve predominantly Standard Penetration testing (SPT), taking split-spoon samples. In these small
samples it is difficult to distinguish the colluvial Boulder Bed from the residual soils of the Jurong
Formation. It is only by detailed inspection of cores, undisturbed samples or field exposures that a sure
classification can be made. Poh et al. (1987) record that the MRT tunnels under the Padang encountered a colluvial deposit containing only small, weak boulders. Figure 7 should therefore be treated as
a minimum likely extent of the boulder bed: the deposit could be significantly more widespread, but
has not been identified elsewhere either due to misidentification or because no modern investigations
have been carried out.
3.2 Vertical extent.
130
DHOBY GHAUT
STATION
MUSEUM
STATION
SELEGIE ROAD
120
CONVENTION CENTRE
STATION
VICTORIA STREET
BEACH ROAD
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
53+000
52+000
CHAINAGE
MAXIMUM DEPTH INVESTIGATED

51+300
REDUCED LEVEL (+m)
The Fort Canning Boulder Bed used to outcrop in the area of Raffles Place, although the area is now
completely built over. The Boulder Bed is found on the north and south flanks of Fort Canning Hill,
with the top of the deposit in some places above current sea level. However, the deposit at Fort Canning Hill is covered by later slope wash material, and has not been seen in surface exposures. Sehested
(1960) records the Boulder Bed at Kirk Terrace, on the southern flank of Mount Sophia. He does not
record the vertical extent of the deposit, but Kirk Terrace is above the level of the adjacent valley. In
other area the deposit is generally covered by Holocene deposits of the Kallang Formation and by fill.
The depth of recent deposits over the Boulder Bed can vary from a few metres to up to
LEGEND
FILL
KALLANG
FORMATION
OLD ALLUVIUM
JURONG
FORMATION
BOULDER BED
Figure 8 General Stratigraphy along Bras Basah Road, between Dhoby Ghaut Station and Beach Road.
395
25m in paleochannels. The strata encountered during investigations for part of the first section of the
Circle Line are summarised on Figure 8. In this area fluvial sands and organic clays were deposited in
and beside a stream channel that meandered along the general line of what is now Bras Basah Road. A
major paleochannel infilled with both upper and lower marine clays was encountered at Museum Station, running roughly orthogonal to Bras Basah Road.
Figure 9 A boulder of the Boulder Bed. The upper

half of the boulder was proud of the matrix, due to
erosion, and surrounded by marine clay.
At erosional surfaces with the soils of the Kallang Formation, boulders of the Boulder Bed can be
found proud of the matrix material. This is due to the high strength and resistance to weathering of the
boulders: the surrounding matrix material would have been eroded while the boulder was left unaffected. Figure 9 shows a boulder that was encountered during cut-and-cover construction for the tunnels between Raffles Place and Marina Bay. The upper half of the boulder, shown in the photograph,
was surrounded by marine clay, while the lower half was still within the matrix soils of the Boulder
Figure 10 A general section from Raffles City through the Raffles Quay area, showing the upper and lower
boundaries of the Fort Canning Boulder Bed. The section line is shown on Figure 7.
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Bed. The highly angular shape of this boulder is notable. As the boulder has been broken for excavation, a light coloured skin can also be seen, surrounding a darker coloured core. This is evidence of insitu weathering since the deposition of the Boulder Bed.
The base of the deposit is more difficult to establish with certainty than the top, simply because few
boreholes or excavations are taken to the base. The information from a number of projects where this
interface was identified is summarised on Figure 10, drawn on a section line shown in Figure 7. Most
of the reliable information available has been obtained from foundation construction for high rise
buildings in the Raffles Place area. Many of the tall buildings in this area are founded on deep caissons
taken into the Fort Canning Boulder Bed, or through the Boulder Bed and into the Jurong Formation
beneath. As an example, detailed logging of the Boulder Bed was carried out during the construction
of 5m and 6m diameter caissons for the Republic Plaza, and is recorded in Broms and Lai (1995). In
that paper it is recorded that the base of the Boulder Bed was encountered at between 67.4m and
74.8m in depth, corresponding to about Reduced Level (R.L.) +35.6m and +28.2m. This is consistent
with a general level on the base of the deposit in the Raffles Place area of about R.L. + 30m given in
Shirlaw, Poh and Hwang (1990). However, as shown in Figure 10, the interface dips towards the Singapore River, and was measured at about R.L. 10m at the UOB Plaza.
Near the Coleman Bridge the underside of the deposit is at a much higher elevation than in the Raffles
Place area. At Clarke Quay the underside of the deposit was found at between Reduced Levels +73.5m
and +61m. On the other flank of Fort Canning Hill, the base of the deposit along Fort Canning Rise
was found in one borehole to be at about Reduced Level + 98.65m. The general patterns of :
the contact with the underlying Jurong Formation becoming deeper with distance from Fort Canning Hill, and
a contact level that varies from about current sea level to about 70m lower than current sea level.
are consistent with a colluvial deposit that developed when the sea level was much lower than it is
now. At the time of deposition, there would have been a sharp drop, from Fort Canning Hill, down to a
plain at between RL -10m and +30m. This plain would have been under where the main government
and financial buildings of Singapore now sit. Fort Canning Hill was probably, at that time, significantly higher than the RL + 150 that it is at present. Erosion and landslides are likely to have significantly reduced the level of the top of the hill. However, it can be stated with certainty that the general
topography was much steeper than it is now, with the top of Fort Canning Hill standing at least 160m
above the adjacent plain.
4 GEOLOGICAL CONTEXT.
The identified boundaries between the Boulder Bed, the Jurong Formation and the Old Alluvium are
shown on Figure 5. It can be seen that the deposit is typically bounded to the west by the sedimentary
and metamorphic rocks of the Jurong Formation, while to the east the deposit is bounded by the Old
Alluvium. In between the clusters at Raffles Place, Coleman Bridge and Raffles City is an area of Old
Alluvium, as recorded by Hulme et al. (1989). Many of the major government buildings, constructed
near the Padang, are in this area.
The Boulder Bed overlies the Jurong Formation, so is clearly younger. As shown in Figure 9, the Old
Alluvium was deposited over the Boulder Bed. The deposition of the Boulder Bed therefore predated
that of the Old Alluvium, at similar elevations.
The Jurong Formation immediately to the west of the Boulder Bed is of the Rimau Facies. The facies
is described in the Geology of Singapore as consisting of transitional to marine quartz and quartz
sandstone. Within this Facies a thick bed of quartzite was encountered during construction of a pedestrian link at Tanjong Pagar Station and in the tunnels close to Tanjong Pagar Station. A bed of similar
strength was found during excavation of Dhoby Ghaut Station, and is shown in Figure 11. The bed
runs roughly north-south, and dips at about 50o to the north. A line between the two locations passes
through Telok Ayer Park, where there is a dramatic surface exposure of the rock, as shown in Figure 7.
As recorded by Shirlaw et al. (1990) the composition and strength of the quartzite found insitu in the
Jurong Formation are similar to that of the boulders in the Boulder Bed. As can be seen on Figure 7,
the bed of insitu quartzite lies just to the west of the six areas where the boulder bed has
397
Figure 11 Excavation of a bed of strong to very strong quartzite during the construction
of the N-S line Dhoby Ghaut Station. The track drill on the right of the photo is drilling
holes for blasting.
been identified. This bed of quartzite may be just one of a number of parallel beds of quartzite in the
area: the NEL tunnels encountered quartzite under Penang Lane, near the intersection with Penang
Road. This is to the west of the general direction of the bed encountered at Tanjong Pagar and Dhoby
Ghaut Stations. Another bed of quartzite was found to the southwest of Dhoby Ghaut Station (Circle
Line), near the junction of Handy Road and Orchard Road, at the end wall of a crossover box. This is
to the east of the general direction of the bed encountered at Tanjong Pagar and Dhoby Ghaut Stations.
It can also been seen in Figure 7 that five of the clusters of the Fort Canning Boulder Bed are concentrated in major valleys. The three clusters at Coleman Bridge, Great Eastern Centre, and Raffles Place
are in and on the edge of the valley of the Singapore River. The cluster between Dhoby Ghaut and
Raffles City occurs in the valley between Fort Canning Hill and Mount Sophia. Penang and Bras Basah roads run along this valley. The cluster near Little India Station is towards the south-eastern end of
the valley along which Bukit Timah Road runs. These three valleys feature major drainage channels,
respectively the Singapore River, the Stamford Canal and the Bukit Timah canal. The two canals were
built along the general line of old stream channels, as shown in early maps of Singapore.
The Boulder Bed has generally not been identified to the south-east of Fort Canning Hill and Mount
Emily, except at the Treasury Building.
Examination of the Boulder Bed shows clear evidence of colluvial origins. Shirlaw et al. (1990) suggest that this occurred as one or a number of mudslides. This was based on a number of observations
including:
the matrix material has a high clay content;

the boulders are subangular and subrounded in shape;
the boulders appear to float in the matrix, and, generally speaking, distribute evenly
relatively speaking there is a lack of boulder to boulder contacts.
These last three points can be seen in the detailed mapping of exposures from caisson excavation recorded in Broms and Lai (1995).
The more recent discovery of the Boulder Bed mantling the southern and northern slopes of Fort Canning Hill, at above current sea level, would also support this hypothesis.
398
Generally the Boulder Bed is found to be in direct contact with the underlying Jurong formation, although Broms and Lai (1995) record a water charged gravel layer at the interface. This direct contact
would suggest that the deposition of the Boulder Bed occurred when the sea level was below elevation
+30m.
The source material for the Boulder Bed appears to be the weathered rocks of the Jurong Formation.
The pattern of deposition suggests that, at one time, there was a long ridge linking Telok Ayer Park,
Fort Canning Hill, Mount Sophia and Mount Emily. This ridge contained one or more thick beds of
quartzite. It is postulated that at some time between one million and five hundred thousand years ago,
parts of this ridge collapsed in a series of catastrophic mud-flows. These mudflows may have been
triggered by seismic activity associated with a rapidly rising sea level. Parts of the deposit were eroded
during later periods of low sea level, in particular the portion under the area now between New Bridge
Street and Telok Ayer Street. More limited erosion of the deposit can be seen in the area of the Singapore Arts Museum, as shown in Figure 8.
5 NATURE OF THE DEPOSIT
5.1 Nature of the soil matrix
5.1.1 Composition
As described by Wong et al. (1995), the matrix generally consists of a hard silty or sandy clay. X-ray
diffraction analysis indicates that the matrix consists mainly of quartz and kaolin. From scanning electron microscopy, the flakes are densely packed, with no preferred orientation of the clay particles.
5.1.2 Weathering
The upper part of the deposit is weathered. The depth of weathering varies, but is typically from 1m up
to about 8m from the top of the deposit. The weathering can be seen as a change in colour, and measured as a reduction in strength. The unweathered Boulder Bed matrix has a SPT resistance of over 100
blows/0.3m. The weathering of the matrix can be seen in a reduction in the resistance to below 100
blows/0.3m.
5.1.3 Strength
The various values assessed for the undrained strength of the matrix are summarised in Wong et al.
(1995). The range of values quoted is very wide, from 30 to 1961 kPa. The low values quoted are not
consistent with the nature of the matrix, and probably result from disturbance during sampling. The
higher results are also probably not representative of the bulk strength of the material, which can be
fissured. Based on back analysis of tunnelling and test pile results, the bulk undrained strength of the
unweathered matrix is probably in the range 150 to 1500 kPa.
5.1.4 Stiffness
Wong et al. (1995) summarise the settlements during the construction of several high rise buildings
founded on raft foundations on the Boulder Bed. The back-calculated modulus of elasticity was in the
range 350 to 725 MPa, with an average of 525 MPa. They also showed that this corresponded reasonably well with values calculated from the second cycle of pressuremeter and plate load tests; results
from the first cycle of testing were much lower.
5.2 Nature of the Boulders
5.2.1 Composition
The most characteristic boulders in the Boulder Bed are usually described on borehole records as
Sandstone. Petrographic analysis was carried out on 12 samples obtained from the boreholes carried
out for the Circle Line, between Handy Lane and Beach Road. The rock samples were described variously as Sandstone or Quartzite, although the detailed description was almost identical. The clasts in
the rock consisted mainly of quartz (60 to 75%) and felsites (20% to 30%). The remaining clastic material can include rock fragments (mostly quartz), Zircon, Muscovite and Tourmaline. The felsite clasts
include some quartz, so the overall quartz content is probably consistent with the 75% to 85% quoted
399
by Shirlaw et al. (1990) from petrographic analysis on boulders from the Raffles Place area. The rock
is generally clast supported. The rock matrix consists of quartz overgrowths, kaolinite and limonite.
There is evidence of metamorphism with recrystallisation, resulting in new, optically continuous
quartz grains with triple junctions. However, the recrystallisation has been insufficient to obliterate the
evidence for overgrowths. The rock matrix generally comprises only 2% to 4 % of the total volume of
the rock, although in one instance it was 10%.
Figure 12 Excavation in the Fort Canning Boulder Bed for Raffles Place Station. Note the
large boulder next to the breaker.
Although the quartzite/sandstone boulders are most characteristic of the bed, boulders and fragments
of other types of sedimentary and metamorphic rock are also found in the Boulder Bed. Shirlaw et al.
(1990) record the presence of fragments of weathered siltstones and mudstones within the soil matrix.
Broms and Lai (1995) provide detailed mapping of exposures from caissons at the Republic Plaza.
They show that some of the boulders were weathered. The quartzite/sandstone boulders typically give
little sign of weathering to the naked eye, so it is likely that the weathered boulders were of other rock
types.
The proportion of boulders in the mass of the deposit varies locally. Broms and Lai (1995) record a
variation of 10% to 40%, with an average of 20% at the Republic Plaza. Wong et al. (1996) record a
range of up to 10% to 60% at the Shell (now Caltex) Tower, with an average for several projects in the
range of 15% to 30%. Shirlaw et al. (1990) give an average boulder content, based on the first phase of
MRT construction of 25%. While the proportion of boulder varies significantly in individual boreholes or limited exposures, the average content is remarkably consistent throughout the deposit, at
least within the Raffles City and Raffles Place clusters.
Boulders of over 200m3 in volume have been recorded in the Boulder Bed (Poh et al. 1987, Shirlaw et
al. (1990). Pitts (1984) describes the size of the boulders a up to the size of a double decker bus, and
this is consistent with the size of boulders encountered in the MRT tunnels from Dhoby Ghaut to City
Hall. The photograph in Figure 12 was taken during the excavation for Raffles Place Station, and
shows a very large boulder in the process of being broken.
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Figure 13 A pile of boulders from the excavation for Entrance 2, Little

India Station
Broms and Lai (1995) estimated an average boulder size of 0.4m, but noted that the range of sizes was
large. Figure 13 shows a pile of boulders excavated from a work shaft on the west side of the Bukit
Timah canal for the construction a pedestrian connection to Little India Station. The boulders shown
were typically 1m to 2m in maximum dimension.
5.2.2 Weathering
As noted above, the Quartzite/Sandstone boulders generally appear fresh or slightly weathered to the
naked eye. However, the petrographic analysis carried out for the Circle Line showed that these boulders are, consistently, moderately weathered. This is seen in the presence of limonite, brown stained
kaolinised clasts, and some solution holes. The appearance and high strength of the rock is due to the
recrystallisation at clast boundaries and overgrowths; because of this the strength of the rock is relatively unaffected by weathering.
Other rock types that may originally have been present, as boulders, in the deposit are more likely to
have weathered further after deposition. Broms and Lai (1995) record weathered boulders in the mass.
5.2.3 Strength
Shirlaw et al. (1990) presented a number of figures, showing the distribution of unconfined compressive strength (UCS) for samples obtained form the boulders in the boulder bed, and comparing these
with samples obtained from insitu quartzite in the adjacent Jurong formation (Rimau Facies). Figure
5
Number
4
3
2
1
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
Unconfined Compression Strength, MPa
Figure 14 Distribution of the Unconfined Compressive Strength of

boulders encountered in tunnels in the Raffles Place area.
401
14 reproduces the histogram from Shirlaw et al. (1990) showing the distribution of unconfined
compressive strength for 27 samples obtained from boulders encountered in tunnels in the Raffles
Place area. The average unconfined compressive strength was 116MPa.
5.2.4 Abrasivity
In recent years more sophisticated machinery has been used for excavation in the Boulder Bed. For example, hydrofraise machines have been used to construct diaphragm walls, and earth pressure balance
(EPB) shield have been used for tunnelling. A key issue with the use of these machines is the abrasivity of the rock, as this has a major effect on the rate of replacement of cutting tools, and therefore the
cost. A limited amount of abrasion testing was carried out on rock samples obtained from the Boulder
Bed during the investigation for the Circle Line. Two types of test were carried out: the CERCHAR
test and the paddle abrasiveness test. The results are shown in Table 1.
Based on the CERCHAR test the rock would be considered Extremely Abrasive. The two higher
values are similar to values measured on granite. However, the paddle abrasion test is probably a better
guide to the wear of steel surfaces on contact with the rock. The paddle abrasion index is the number
of tenths of a gram worn off a standard paddle rotated through broken rock for 15 minutes. The index
is relative, but the abrasiveness of the material tested can be gauged from the fact that of all of the tests
carried out over the last 10 years by the testing company, the top 10% started at an index value of
1,393. The result on samples M3005 is similar to results obtained from granite, while that from M3006
is exceptionally high.
Table 1 Results of abrasion testing for boulders from the Fort
Canning Boulder Bed
____________________________________________
Sample
M3005
Sample
M3006
Sample
M3015
4.90
5,505
4.70
10,182
2.65
632
____________________________________________
CERCHAR
Paddle abrasivity
____________________________________________
It is not intended to present a full description of the engineering experience related to the Fort Canning
Boulder Bed in this paper. This section will provide references to where relevant information can be
found.
6.1 Foundations
6.1.1 Raft
Several large buildings within the CBD are founded on rafts on the Boulder Bed. These performance
of a number of these rafts is summarised in Wong et al. (1996). Included in the paper are calculations
of the undrained modulus of elasticity of the soil, based on the measured settlements of the buildings.
These are compared with the moduli obtained from pressuremeter testing. Wong (2000) discusses the
underdrains to relieve uplift forces below the rafts at Raffles City and the Fullerton Hotel, both
founded on the Boulder Bed.
6.1.2 Minipile
A load/settlement curve for a 250mm minipile loaded to yield is provided in Shirlaw et al. (1990), together with the assessed skin friction. Another test on a minipile of the same size is recorded in Broms
and Lai 1995.
6.1.3 Bored Pile
A load/settlement curve for a 1m diameter bored pile loaded to yield is provided in Shirlaw et al.
(1990), together with the assessed skin friction.
402
6.1.4 Caissons
The results of jacking tests to assess the skin friction on caisson walls through the boulder bed are
summarised in Broms and Lai (1995).
6.2 Excavations
Hwang et al. (1987) provide apparent earth pressure envelopes, obtained from strut monitoring for the
excavations for Raffles Place Station and the stage 1 MRT Singapore River crossing. More details of
these excavations are provided in Benjamin et al. (1987) and Gee et al. (1987). The latter paper also
provides information on the stage 2 river crossing, which involved large anchored slopes in the Fort
Canning Boulder Bed (Figure 15).
Figure 15 Excavation of the MRT stage 2 Singapore River crossing in 1986.

The side slopes are supported by anchors and sprayed concrete (shotcrete).
6.3 Tunnels
6.3.1 SCL/NATM
Shirlaw et al. (1987) summarise the construction sequences and monitoring data for two running tunnels built from a shaft at Raffles Quay to Raffles Place Station, using the Sprayed Concrete lining
Figure 16 SCL tunnelling through the Fort Canning boulder Bed. The
soldier piles and lagging temporary support for Raffles Place Station
can be seen at the end of the tunnel.
403
method (also known as the New Austrian Tunnelling Method, or NATM). Hulme and Burchell (1992)
give some details of the same tunnels, and for similar drives carried out from City Hall Station
part way to Dhoby Ghaut and Bugis Stations. Figure 16 shows the completion of one of the Raffles
Quay to Raffles Place drives, with the soldier piles and lagging temporary support of Raffles Place
Station visible at the end of the tunnel.
6.3.2 Open Face Shields
Hulme and Burchell (1992) record the progress for open-face shield tunnels that encountered the boulder bed between Dhoby Ghaut and City Hall Stations, and between Tanjong Pagar and City Hall. Shirlaw et al. (1987) provide a comparison of the volume loss measured over these shield driven tunnels
with SCL tunnels. Shirlaw et al. (2002) provide data on the settlement over a short section of the NEL
tunnels, constructed using open-face shields, that encountered the boulder bed under Fort Canning
Hill.
6.3.3 Earth Pressure Balance Shields
Shirlaw et al. (2002) provide a limited amount of data on the measured volume loss over EPB driven
tunnels that encountered the boulder bed at the foot of Mount Emily, near the Bukit Timah canal.
6.3.4 Pipe Roof Method
Ow et al. (2003) describe the construction of a pedestrian subway under the Bukit Timah canal. The
subway was originally to be constructed using box jacking, but the method was changed to pipe roof
when the Boulder Bed was identified at the site. The ground conditions were initially identified as insitu weathered Jurong Formation. Figure 2 was taken within an adit driven to lay the steel rails for the
original box jacking method.
7 SUMMARY
The Fort Canning Boulder Bed poses particular problems in the construction of foundations, tunnels
and excavations. It is very important that this colluvial deposit is correctly identified where it is present at a site. It can be difficult to identify the Boulder Bed if only split spoon samples are taken during
SPT testing. Coring in areas where the deposit may occur is recommended. Areas where the Boulder
Bed has been definitely identified are presented in this paper.
ACKNOWLDEGEMENT
Mr S.K.Kong of Moh and Associates Singapore Pte. Ltd. provided some valuable additional information on sites where the Boulder Bed had been encountered.
REFERENCES
Benjamin, B.A., Whiting, P. & Kwang, K.A. 1987. Construction of Raffles Place Station. Singapore MRT Conference, Singapore, April 1987, 111-121
Broms B. B. & Lai P. H. 1995. The Republic Plaza in Singapore Foundation Design, Bengt B. Broms Symposium on Geotechnical Engineering, Singapore, 3-24.
Gee, R.A., Black, M.R. & Makino, H. 1987. Singapore River Crossing. Singapore MRT Conference, Singapore, April 1987, 251-260
Han, K.K., Wong, K.S., Broms, B.B. & Yap, L.P. 1994. The origin and properties of bouldery clay in Singapore. Geotechnical Engineering Journal, SEAGS, 24 (2), 151-166
Hulme, T.W. & Burchell, A.J. 1992. Bored tunnelling for Singapore Metro. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, Vol. 118, No 2, ASCE
Hulme, T.W., Potter, L.A.C. & Shirlaw, J.N., 1989. Singapore Mass Transit System Construction. Proceedings
of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Part 1, Vol 86, August, 709-770.
Hwang, R., Quah, H.P. & Buttling, S. 1987 Measurements of strut forces in Braced Excavations. Singapore
MRT Conference, Singapore, April, 239-244.
404
Kurzume, M. & Rush, M.C. 1985. Deep Caisson Foundations for OUB Centre, Singapore. Proc. 8th South East
Asia Geotechnical Conf., Vol. 1, 2-43 2-49.
Nowson, W.J.R. 1954. The history and construction of the foundations of the Asia Insurance building, Singapore. Proc. Inst. Civil Engrs, Pt 1, 3, 407-443.
Ow, C.N, Lim, K.K., Lee, S.E., Yoon, S.I., & Gan, C.H. 2003. Challenges of the Pedestrian Subway under the
Bukit Timah Canal. Rapid Transit Conference, Singapore.
Pitts, J. 1984. A review of geology and engineering geology in Singapore. Quarterly journal of Eng. Geol., 17,
93-101
Poh, K.B., Buttling, S. & Hwang, R. 1987. Some MRT experiences of the soils and geology of Singapore. Singapore MRT Conference, Singapore, April, 171-191.
P.W.D. Singapore. 1976. The Geology of Singapore.
Sehested, K.G. 1960, The Geology of Singapore as seen by a Civil Engineer. J. Singapore - Malaya Joint Overseas Eng. Group. 8-18.
Shirlaw, J.N., Doran, S., & Benjamin, B. 1987. A case study of two tunnels driven in the Singapore boulder bed
and in grouted coral sands. Proc. 23rd annual conf. Of the Eng. Group of the Geol. Soc., University of Nottingham.
Shirlaw, J.N., Poh, K.B. & Hwang, R.N. 1990. Properties and origins of the Singapore Boulder Bed. Proc. 10th
South East Asian Geotechnical Conference. April 1990, Taipei, 463-468
Shirlaw, J.N., Ong, J.C.W, Osborne, N.H. & Tan, C.G. 2002. The relationship between face pressure and immediate settlement due to tunnelling for the North East Line, Singapore. Proc. Proc. Geotechnical Aspects of
Underground Construction in Soft Ground, Toulouse. eds. Kastner, R., Emeriault, F., Dias, D. and Guilloux,
A. Publ. Specifique, 311-316.
Wallace, J.C., Ho C.E. & Broms B. B. 1990. UOB Plaza Singapore: Foundation Design and Construction. Conf.
On Deep Foundation Practice, 257-273.
Wong, I.H., Ooi, I.K. & Broms, B.B. 1996. Performance of raft foundations for high-rise buildings on the Bouldery Clay in Singapore. Canadian Geotech. Jnl. 33: 219-236.
Wong, I.H. 2000. Design of Structures against hydrostatic uplift. Proc. Tunnels and underground structures.
Singapore. Eds. Zhao, Shirlaw and Krishnan. Publ. Balkema, 61 74.
REFERENCES FOR LOCATIONS

As part of the study the team listed locations where the Fort Canning Boulder Bed had been positively
identified. These are listed in the sections below, with a number key to relate to the numbers shown in
Figures 5 and 6. Where the information came from published information or Land Transport Authority
records, the source of the information is referenced. Other information was provided by members of
the team.
Projects where the Fort Canning Boulder Bed has been identified
(HB= Horizontal Boundary at edge of deposit, VB = Vertical Boundary at underside of deposit)
MRT Lines (LTA information)
1. E-W line, Tanjong Pagar to Raffles Place (HB at Boon Tat Street)
2. E-W Line, Raffles Place Station
3. N-S Line, Marina Bay to Raffles place (HB 70m south of Raffles Quay)
4. E-W line, Raffles Place to City Hall (HB, east side of Singapore River, HB at Connaught Drive)
5. E-W Line, City Hall Station
6. E-W Line, City Hall to Bugis (HB Middle Road)
7. N-S Line, City Hall to Dhoby Ghaut (HB north end of Orchard Presbyterian Church)
8. NEL, Clarke Quay station (Local pockets below Kallang, above Jurong)
9. NEL, Clarke Quay to Dhoby Ghaut (HB and VB just before tunnels went under Fort Canning Reservoir)
10. NEL, Dhoby Ghaut to Little India (HB, foot of Mount Emily)
11. NEL, Little India Station, pedestrian subway (HB, east side of Bukit Timah Canal)
12. Old NEL alignment, Selegie Road area (HB about Mt. Emily Road)
13. CCL1, Convention to Museum (HB at northwest side of Beach Road)
14. CCL1, Museum Station
15. CCL1, Museum to Dhoby Ghaut (HB at southeast side of Handy Road)
405
Roads (LTA information)

16. Fort Canning Tunnel (Along Fort Canning Rise, VB with Jurong Formation at R.L. +98.65m, above Presbyterian Church)
17. Cross Street, HB midway between China St and Amoy Street, HB about 90m south of Raffles Quay
Buildings
18. Ocean Building
19. Clifford Centre
20. Singapore Rubber House
21. Straits Trading Building
22. Republic Plaza
23. Ocean Tower
24. Caltex House
25. OUB Centre
26. Chartered Bank Building
27. UOB Plaza
28. Raffles City
29. SMRT Headquarters
30. CHIJMES
31. Singapore Art Museum
32. No 1 Finlayson Green
33. AIA Tower
34. Savu Tower II
35. Savu Tower 1
36. Tung Centre
37. Coleman Bridge
38. Denmark House
39. Fullerton Building
40. Kirk Terrace
41. Biltmore Hotel
42. One Raffles Quay
43. One Marina Boulevard (NTUC HQ)
44. URA Parcel B (30% of site has FCBB)
45. National Library Board HQ
46. Prudential Tower
47. SMU campus
48. Fullerton Hotel
49. Hitachi Tower
50. Singapore History Museum (at Stamford Rd)
51. Paradiz Centre at Selegie Road
52. Hotel Rendezvous at Bras Basah Road
53. Bank of China
54. Maybank
55. Great Eastern Centre
56. Borehole outside Zhu Jiao Centre
57. The Treasury Building at High St
58. Cathay Cinema
59. Lot 183, Mt Sophia Road
60. Carlton Hotel
61. Raffles Hotel
Pitts, 1984
Pitts, 1984
Pitts, 1984
Pitts, 1984
Broms & Lai 1995
Wong, Ooi & Broms, 1996
Kurzeme and Rush, 1985
Broms & Lai 1995
LTA
LTA
LTA
Poh, Buttling and Hwang, 1987
Sehested, 1960
Sehested, 1960
Sehested, 1960
Sehested, 1960
LTA
406
Projects where the Fort Canning Boulder Bed was not present
62. Asian Civilisations Museum 1 (at Armenian St)
63. MITA HQ (Former Hill Street Bldg)
64. Bugis Junction
65. 30 Hill Street (former American embassy)
66. Capital Tower
67. Marina (Esplanade) Bridge
68. New Merlion Park
69. Little India Station (except for one entrance)
LTA
70. Bugis Station
LTA
71. Dhoby Ghaut Stations (N-S, NEL and CCL lines)
LTA
72. Convention Station
73. Esplanade, Theatres on the Bay
74. One Fullerton
75. New Kandang Kerbau (KK) Hospital
Projects where the Boulder Bed was not identified
76.
77.
78.
79.
New Parliament Complex (at North Bridge Rd)

Asian Civilisations Museum 2 (former Empress Place Bldg)
New Supreme Court (under construction - at North Bridge Rd)
Singapore Exchange Centres
407

The Old Alluvium

S.L. Chiam
K.S. Wong
T.S. Tan and Q. Ni

National University Singapore, Singapore
K.S. Khoo
Kiso-Jiban Singapore Pte Ltd, Singapore
J. Chu
ABSTRACT: This paper reviews some of the works carried out on the Old Alluvium since 1976 and in
particular of the areas that have significant implications on civil engineering works. It also included new
information obtained from recent studies carried out on the OA materials.
1 INTRODUCTION
The Old Alluvium (OA) is known to be the oldest of the drift deposits, mainly found in the eastern and
northwestern parts of Singapore. It is an extension of a deposit found in southern Johore and exists as a
virtually uninterrupted sheet either at the surface or buried beneath younger deposits. The Old Alluvium
has been studied by Pitts (1984) and Gupta et al, (1987), and they interpreted the deposit to be probably
of early Pleistocene age. This deposit is essentially sandy, semi-indurated with cross bedding, scour
marks, coarse gravel stringers and lenses of silt and clay. It forms draw similarity to the characteristics
of a fluvial system, possibly suggesting the deposition is by a major braided river system (Gupta et al.
1987).
2 FIELD RELATIONSHIP AND ITS OCCURRENCE
The OA has its economic importance during 1970s as it was widely excavated for aggregate and fill.
The OA was a major source of fill materials for the land reclamation works carried out in Singapore
during that period (e.g. Changi Airport & East Coast Reclamation works). New townships such as the
Bedok, Tampines and Pasir Ris New Town are being founded on the OA. The contact between the OA
and the older formation is at present buried or obscured by deep weathering. It was reported in the Geology of Singapore (PWD, 1976) that the OA has contacted metamorphosed quartz sandstone of the Sajahat Formation in PUB test hole No 1 in Bedok and granite in PUB test hole No 4 at depth of 149 m
and 53 m below mean sea level respectively. As the extent of OA formation was covered quite extensively in the Geology of Singapore, this paper will look at the works that has been done since 1976, particularly in those areas that have the greatest implications for subsurface engineering works.
Poh et al. (1987) reported the occurrence and grading textures of OA based on boreholes sunk along
MRT East West and North South Lines. A section through the OA from Bugis to Aljunied Stations can
be found in the paper. It was reported that at Miller Street the OA was not encountered at 28 m below
ground. At Middle Road, the top of OA was found at 40 m depth. The bottom of the OA interface was
Main
408
located at 83.4 m at Sims Place, at Eunos Station it was at 74 m. Weathered granite was reported below
the OA at depths of 56 to 67 m between Paya Lebar and Eunos Station.
The recent North East Line (NEL) construction involved driving about 22.8 km of bored tunnel through
soft clay to tropically weathered rocks. Figure 1 shows the geological profile showing the different soil
formations encountered along the NEL tunnel route. The northern tunnel sections (C703 to C705 and
part of C706) were driven mainly through OA, except for a buried ridge of the Bukit Timah Granite encountered in the Serangoon area. The boreholes have revealed the presence of a number of old valleys
that had been eroded into the OA and in-filled with recent deposits of marine clay and fluvial sands and
clays. The interface between OA and Fort Canning Boulder Bed (FC) was found in the tunnel drives
south of Little India Station.
Fig. 1
Geological profiles for the North East Line from Habourfront to Punggol.
In a recent road widening project at Loyang Way, several site investigation boreholes were sunk along
the route. One borehole encountered sandstone like materials at RL of 87.5 m below ground while two
nearby boreholes encountered the granite at RL 78 m and RL 85 m respectively. It was observed that the
sandstone like materials having features of contact metamorphism. This would perhaps suggest that the
material could have been baked by the Bukit Timah Granite. This material is suspected to belong to Sajahat formation. This seems to indicate that granite ridges running below the OA is a common feature in
this locality. More information of the granite ridges can be found in another paper, The Granite ridges
under the Old Alluvium.
3 MATRIX
3.1 Composition, macrostructure, strength etc
Gupta et al, (1987) investigated the composition of OA and stated that the larger grains are mainly subrounded to subangular quartz, vein quartz, cryptocrystalline silica, and quartzite. Fresh feldspar was also
occasionally found. The matrix is silt and clay, often segregated. The silt fraction is almost entirely
quartz. The clay minerals comprise mainly kaolinite, smectite, mixed layer illite-smectite, and less
commonly illite. It was reported that the mineralogy of the grains forming the OA suggests a mixed
provenance of granitic and low-grade metamorphic origin. The granitic materials are represented by the
409
angular quartz and the feldspars, whilst the low grade metamorphic rocks are represented by the quartzites, showing well recrystallized texture.
The microstructure of OA was studied using both thin section and scanning electron microscope (SEM).
Figure 2 shows a thin section picture of an OA sample under polarized +45o light. The sample is from
Changi Terminal 3, 20 m below ground level. The big particles are quartz and feldspar grains. The clay
matrix lies between the contact of sand grains and form clay bridges. The iron oxide (red in colour) may
provide some weak cementation between matrix and grains. The same sample from Changi was studied
using SEM and shown in Figure 3.
The presence of fresh feldspar crystals among the clay minerals provides the evidence that the OA is not
very old and also indicates that the OA originated as a result of severe erosion of unweathered rocks
with subsequent transportation over a short distance followed by rapid burial. The short transportation
history is supported by the angular shape of the clasts.
Fig. 2 Thin section of an OA sample from Changi
Fig. 3 SEM picture of an OA Sample from Changi (provided by Locat, Laval University). The magnification is
20 and the soil sample shown in this figure is 5 x 5 mm. It can be clearly observed that the clay wraps around the
sand grain and forms a clay coating.
410
The geotechnical engineering group at NUS has been working on the undrained shear strength of OA
using Mazier samples from Tanah Merah and found that the variation of shear strength of OA within the
same stratum or borehole varies significantly, as a result of variations in density, particle size distribution and degree of cementation. In particular, cementation has a major influence of the strength properties. It is found that cemented and uncemented OA can be distinguished by a simple dispersion or flaking test, as shown in Figure 4. A cemented OA sample can hold its shape in water while an uncemented
OA sample will disintegrate in a short time. This provides a quick and effective way of distinguishing
the two, as a preliminary test.
Cemented
OA
Uncemented
OA
1 minutes after immersion
Fig. 4 Dispersion tests on cemented and uncemented OA sample
At the particular site investigated and reported here, most of the samples belong to the uncemented OA
group. The undrained stress-strain behaviours of OA in triaxial tests are shown in Figure 5. Cemented
samples show clear signs of brittle failure and reach very high peak shear strength at small axial strains.
For uncemented samples, it takes a large axial strain (>10%) to mobilize the full strength of uncemented
OA samples. Most of the uncemented samples show dilative behaviour like dense sand although loose
OA also exists. What is of particular importance is the fact that uncemented OA samples reach the same
critical state line at a friction angle around 39o as shown in Figure 6. On the other hand, the peak shear
strength of OA varies a lot. As shown in Figure 7, at nearly the same depth, the shear strength can differ
from around 100 to 700 kPa. Natural variation of this extent is an issue that needs to be further explored, in terms of its impact on various design problems.
411
1000
Cemented OA
800
Uncemented dense OA
q' (kPa)
600
400
Uncemented loose OA
200
10
20
a (%)
30
Fig. 5 Undrained stress-strain behaviour of OA
1800
1600
1400
qus (kPa)
1200
1000
800
qus=1.6095p'us
600
400
200
0
200
400
600
800
1000
p'u s (kPa)
Fig. 6 Critical state line of uncemented OA
(Note : qus denote undrained steady state)
412
Cu (kPa)
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
-5
-10
Depth (m)
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35
-40
-45
Fig. 7
Undrained shear strength versus depth
3.2 Weathering (reproduced from LTA Guidance Notes,2001)

The Old Alluvium is an alluvial deposit that has been variably cemented, often to the extent that it has
the strength of a very weak or weak rock. The upper zone of the OA has typically been affected by
weathering, and it is important that this weathering is described and classified. Burton (1964) has attempted to classify the OA layer into three zones: weathered zone, mottled zone and unweathered zone.
The upper zone is often completely weathered and is stained with oxides of iron. The colour of this zone
is usually reddish-yellow or brownish-yellow and the textures usually sandy clay or clayey sand. The
ferro-magnesian minerals in this weathered zone have been almost completely destroyed and the feldspars altered to kaolin. In the mottled zone, white, cream or pale grey fresh material is found variegated
by red, pink, brown or yellow patches, which normally associated with a fluctuating water-table. The
mottled zone normally merges with the unweathered zone but occasionally get interrupted by thin beds
of clays and silts occurring at various depths. This classification may seem sufficient from a geological
point of view. However, for geotechnical application, the approach proposed by BS 5930 is more appropriate.
The use of approach 4 of BS 5930 is recommended. However, although weathering of feldspars and
mottling may be observed in borehole samples, it is generally difficult to assess the weathering grade
from the visual inspection of samples obtained from boreholes. It is common practice in Singapore to
use the results of SPT testing as an indicator of weathering classification. It must be understood that the
SPT result is influenced by factors other than weathering. These other factors would include depositional environment, degree of cementation and the equipment and method used for the testing. Table 1
below gives guidance on the typical SPT values for different weathering grades, although the final classification should be based on an assessment of both SPT and careful inspection of the samples recovered. Where possible, the correlation with SPTs should be confirmed by comparing with any nearby
large scale exposures of the OA. Care must be taken in the SPT testing to ensure a representative test result, and classification should not be based on SPT alone. It should also be noted that layers of hardpan
can be found in the weathered OA, and very high SPT values or refusal of the CPT may be due to hardpan rather than a change in weathering grade.
It is important to note that the table given for classifying weathered rocks can be used as a guide to provide the basis for establishing weathering descriptions under BS 5930 (1999). However, it is not necessarily the case that all of the weathering grades will be present at a particular location.
413
Table 1 Weathering Classification for Old Alluvium
Class
Weathering Classification for Old Alluvium

Classifier
Characteristics
Unweathered
Original strength
Slightly reduced strength
Partially
Weathered
Distinctly
Weathered
Destructured
Residual
Indicative SPT, N*
>50 (cannot usually be
penetrated by CPT
with 20t load capacity)
Further weakened
30 to 50
Greatly weakened, often

mottled, bedding disturbed
Bedding destroyed
10 to 30
<10
* The SPT result should not be used in isolation to assess weathering, see text above.
A deep open-cut excavation works was carried out recently at Kim Chuan site for the new Circle Line
MRT Depot. It has provided a rare opportunity to view the weathering profiles of the cut OA soils. The
site has an area of 127,000 sq m, about the size of 100 Olympic swimming pools.
Fig. 8 The open-cut excavation carried out to 24 m below ground at RL 96 m.
Fill
Class D (15<NU30)
Class C (30<NU50)
Class B
(N>50)
Class A
(N>100)
Fig. 9 Section showing the different layering of the OA soils encountered
414
Fig. 10 The unweathered OA can be seen at the lower bench of the excavation site at Kim Chuan site.
Fig. 11 Close-up view of the vertical cuttings at the lower bench shows the presence of pebble beds in thin unit.
This bed indicates flood deposited channel fills.
Fig. 12 Close-up view at the upper bench of the cut slopes at Sengkang site. Rills and gullies on the slopes can be
seen developing after the cutting. It clearly demonstrates how intensive surface erosion can perpetrate once the
ground surface has been disturbed. (Weathering grade of OA is Class D)
415
Fig. 13 The distinct soil colour change can be seen from top to base of the open-cut excavation at Hougang Station (NEL). The weathering grade of OA at the bottom is Class A/B.
Fig. 14 Another view of the cut-slopes from bottom of the excavation at Hougang site. Note the slope at the top
eroded more rapidly than the lower slope.
All the cut slope cases presented showed reasonably good correlation can be obtained in terms of the
colour, weathering grade and SPT blow counts of the OA soils. It also showed that the lower grades of
the OA are easily eroded once it is exposed.
416
3.3 Soil Properties

Dames and Moore (1983) summarized the geotechnical properties of OA based on test data obtained
from North South and East West MRT lines. A range of soil parameters were given in the report but
without any correlation study presented. Poh et al. (1987) reported that the particle size distribution of
OA covered a quite large range, with more silty clay materials for OA found in Marina Bay area compared to OA covering Kallang River to Bedok. For the sections from Changi to Simei and Tampines to
Pasir Ris, the particle distribution envelopes are quite similar, except with less than 10% and 6% of the
fine samples respectively. It is postulated that the cohesion of the sandy materials OA at the western
part is derived from clay, whereas further east the contribution comes from cementation. The recent
works done by NUS has shown that the dispersion test can be used as a preliminary check to establish
the OA is cemented or uncemented.
Orihara and Khoo (1998) reported some correlation based on data obtained from NEL C702 project at
Sengkang/Punggol area. The effective strength properties from these sites are briefly shown in Table 2
below. They have proposed SPT N-values as a parameter for subdivision of OA for geotechnical design.
Table 2 Average effective strength parameters obtained from p-q plots of OA soils
Property
SPT , N value
Effective apparent cohesion (kPa)
Effective friction angle (degrees)
OA1
N10
15
32
OA2
10 < N 30
20
34
OA3
30< N 50
25
34
OA4
N>50
35
34
Li and Wong (2001) conducted a study on the engineering properties of the OA soil along the NEL
based on the test results from a total of 774 soil samples. About 76% of the samples were classified as
silty and clayey sand and 24% were silty clay and clayey silt. Out of the 76% of the sand samples, 68%
contains between 20 to 40% fines and 8% contains less than 12% fines. On the whole, about 90% of the
OA soils along the NEL have high fines content more 20%. Therefore the soil is generally of low permeability. The measured permeability from consolidation tests is typical between 10-8 to 10-10 m/s which
is a measurement of the vertical permeability. The in-situ measurements varied between 10-6 to 10-8 m/s,
which is more reflective of the horizontal permeability. The undrained shear strength of OA is reported
to be generally increases with depth and is approximately equal to 5.4N (kPa).
Li and Wong (2001) divided the OA soils into three groups based on the SPT blowcounts.
OAI: N = 5 to 25 (residual soil zone), equivalent to approximately Class E & D
OAII: N = 26 to 99 (weathered zone), equivalent to approximately Class C & B
(cemented zone), equivalent to approximately Class A
OAIII: N 100
The index properties of these three groups are given in Table 3. The composition of the OA soils is
shown in Figure 15.
Table 3 Average Index properties of OA soils along NEL according to Li and Wong (2001)
Property
OAI
(N = 5 to 25)
22.0
29
32
OAII
OAIII
(N = 26 to 99)
(N 100)
Water content (%)
18.2
16.3
Fines content (%)
24
22
Plasticity index
28
19
Undrained shear strength (kPa)
Cu ~ 5.4 N
Effective apparent cohesion (kPa)
2
8
30
Effective friction angle (degrees)
36
36
35
From the results, it can be noticed that the effective friction angle is fairly constant whilst the effective
apparent cohesion varies according to the weathering grade of the OA. The maximum different of the
417
effective friction angle between 2 case studies is 2 degrees, when comparison done at the same weathering grade. The apparent cohesion, however, is generally found to increase with depth and N-values as
the OA becoming less weathered. This is attributed to the cementation of particles due to high overburden pressure and aging experienced by the unweathered OA. The cohesion values of the OA at the various weathering grades, reported by Li and Wong, are found to be lower than values obtained by Orihara
et. al. This could attribute to the OA soils are of different OCR and cementation since they are encountered at different sites. However, the test results could be influenced by sample disturbance due to sampling techniques, laboratory testing procedures, etc, resulting in lower c values. It is unclear at this
stage, hence further studies would be required to investigate these factors.
Fines<12%
8%
CH
7%
Fines<12% CH
2%
9%
CL
14%
SC&SM
71%
CL
15%
SC&SM
74%
(a) All OA.
Fines<12%
5%
CH
10%
(b) OAI
CL
4%
Fines<12%
21%
CL
17%
SC&SM
68%
(c) OAII
(d) OAIII
SC&SM
75%
Fig. 15 Composition of the OA soils along the NEL line based on USCS classification.
(Li and Wong, 2001)
Fig. 16 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) analysis of the OA samples
Chu et al. (2003) carried out a laboratory study on the engineering properties of OA soils located at the
eastern part of Singapore. The study showed that only Mazier samplers could be used to retrieve relatively good quality samples for very hard sandy OA soils. The soil was obtained at depths of 38 to 56 m
418
below ground, generally classified into a cohesive OA and granular OA depending on the fines contents. The plasticity index ranges from 15.5 to 28.6%. The concentration of soluble metal elements and
anions was low based on X-ray diffraction tests conducted. Scanning Electron Microscope analysis
(SEM) were also conducted on soils which do not indicate a strong cementation. (see Figure 16) MZ2 is
a cohesive type and MZ3 is a granular type. The OCR of the soil as determined from a correlation between OCR and Cu from Direct Simple Shear (DSS) tests was less than 2. The permeability of the soil
was reported to be in order of 10-10 m/s even for the granular OA soil. The cu to SPT N value ratio, cu/N,
is about 3 and 13 based on the DSS and triaxial CU results, respectively. The cu/vo ratio ranges from
0.62 to 0.83 based on the DSS tests and from 1.0 to 2.0 based on the triaxial CU tests. The average
o
effective friction angle as determined by triaxial CIU tests is about 40 as shown in Figure 17.
Fig. 17 Comparisons of results obtained from direct simple shear (DSS) and consolidated undrained (CU) tests
4.1 Bored Pile
Earlier works carried out by PWD on load tests on instrumented bored piles in OA can be found in the
paper by Chin et al. (1985) The results indicated that the bored pile in OA is essentially friction piles
with less than 10% of the load contributed by the base resistance. Full mobilization of skin friction was
reported to occur at settlement less than 15 mm. Due to the variability of the OA which can comprise
medium to very stiff silty clay and medium to very dense silty sand with varying degree of cementation,
it is difficult on the basis of few load test results to arrive at general design recommendation for the design of bored pile in OA. However, the paper did provide some recommendation for the ultimate skin
friction resistance to be used for preliminary design. For stiff silty clay and medium dense silty sand
(SPT N, 12-20), the recommended ultimate skin friction is 50 kPa and for dense silty sand (SPT N, 4050), the ultimate skin friction is 200 kPa.
Recent test results of instrumented preliminary pile load tests carried out in OA soils for the North East
Line (NEL) were reported by Ong et al. (2001). The NEL runs through four different geological formations. The OA formation is present from Farrer Park to Punggol, except between Woodleigh and Serangoon. Four number of the instrumented bored piles at Sengkang Depot and Sengkang Station were
419
tested, the maximum mobilised unit skin friction in OA were reported to be varying between 2N and 6N
(kPa). Details on the load transfer curves for the test piles and the end-bearing mobilization can be
found in the paper by Ong et al. (2001).
4.2 Excavations
Based on the excavation data obtained from the construction of NEL, Wong et al. (2001) reported the
observed wall deflections and ground settlements for the different wall types. The average wall deflection is about 0.11% of the excavation depth with an upper bound of 0.2%H regardless of wall types as
shown in Fig. 18. The maximum ground settlement is likely to be less than 0.2%H with an average of
0.06%H as shown in Figure 19. The maximum ground settlement is about 60% of the maximum wall
deflection. The upper bound of the apparent earth pressure diagram is 0.3H as shown in Figure 20. The
maximum drop in water table associated with sheetpile and diaphragm walls is much smaller than that
associated with soldier pile walls as shown in Figure 21. This was not surprised since water can flow
freely through the gaps between timber laggings.
140
Diaphragm Wall
120
Sheetpile Wall
H,max (mm)
(H,max/H)=0.5%
Soldier Pile Wall
100
LC: Local Cavity
80
LC
LC
60
(H,max/H)=0.2%
40
LC
LC
20
0
0
10
15
Depth of Excavation, H (m)
20
25
Fig. 18 Variation of H,max with excavation depth
140
Diaphragm Wall
Sheetpile Wall
Soldier Pile Wall
LC: Local Cavity
120
v,max (mm)
100
LC
LC
(v,max/H)=0.5%
80
LC
60
LC
40
LC
LC
20
(v,max/H)=0.1%
0
0
10
15
20
25
Depth of Excavation, H (m)
Fig. 19 Variation of V,max with excavation depth.
420
( H)
Apparent Earth Pressure
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0
Percent of Excavation Height
Soldier Pile Wall

Sheetpile Wall
Diaphragm Wall
20
40
0.4 H
0.2 H
60
80
100
Fig. 20 Variation of apparent earth pressure with H.
d/Hmax
0
0.5
1.5
0.1
0
-0.1
Hw/Hmax
-0.2
-0.3
Case 4(DW)
-0.4
Case 5(DW)
Case 9(DW)
-0.5
Case 3(SHP)
-0.6
Case 6(SP)
-0.7
-0.8
Fig. 21 Changes in ground water table (Hw/ Hmax) with the distance (d/Hmax)
Recent evidence from an exploratory shaft for the Changi Airport Line at a location near Tanah Merah
Besar, outside the Airport boundary fence suggested that the OA to be a weak rather than very dense
clayey sand and gravel as reported in published literature (PWD, 1976). The shaft encountered residual
soil at the top 2 to 3 m and completely weathered Old Alluvium in the next 2 m which was predominately plastic stiff clay. In the paper by Poh and Hayward (2001), it was reported that underlying the
weathered soils, a fine to coarse grained brown sandstone (about 6 to 8 m) and a blue sandstone were
found. The fine grained brown sandstone was observed to be stronger than the coarse grained brown
sandstone as the former was reported to be difficult to break with a hammer and did not degrade when
in contact with water. The fined grained blue sandstone was equally strong as it came out as big chunks
when excavated with a handheld pneumatic tool. Discrete bands of gravels of 100 to 200 mm thick were
seen at some depths. The sandstone layer was reported to be very abrasive with Cerchar Abrasivity Index (CAI) value of 2.5 to 4.
421
4.3 Tunnels
The new NEL is wholly underground. The total length was 20 km of which 11.4 km was constructed by
bored tunneling. Of the 24 tunnel drives, 22 were constructed using earth pressure balance shields while
2 were constructed using open-face shields. During the construction of NEL, settlement points were
placed at intervals of 15 to 50 m along the center-line of bored tunnels to monitor the effect of tunneling
at adjoining ground. The NEL was constructed with very little settlement of the ground surface, 80% of
the results showed a volume loss of less than 1%. However, there is 7% with volume loss in excess of
2% where the tunnel was found in or partly in soft clays of Kallang Formation or within the weathered
sedimentary rocks of Jurong Formation (Shirlaw et. al, 2001 and 2002).
The northern tunnel sections of NEL were mainly driven through OA (from C703 to C706) where the
volume losses were found to be consistently low and appear to be independent of face pressure applied
by EPB shield. The OA appears to have sufficient residual cementation to allow tunneling at very low
face pressures while still able to maintain the volume loss below 1%. No local ground loss was also reported during the tunneling through Kallang /Old Alluvium interface. Although ground loss was not a
concern in OA soils, there are other factors posing a greater risk to local ground loss such as at the start
when the shield being launched and at the end of the tunnel drive. It was reported that while the ground
conditions is a major factor in the magnitude of settlement over tunnel, the type of tunnel machine used
and the skills of the machine operators are also important contributing factors.
A low volume loss is also reported in another paper by Chan et al. (2001), who carried out a backanalysis of ground settlement obtained during the NEL tunneling works (C703) through OA soils to determine the design parameters. The ground settlements were monitored at the various stages of tunneling process from Hougang and Kovan stations. The results from the initial monitoring found the volume
loss to be 0.2% which is an order of magnitude smaller than 2% volume used in the design, indicating
the assumed design parameters would be conservative. However, due to the limited field data obtained,
the author concluded that more supporting data required to establish the design parameters for future
tunneling works carried out in OA soils.
Buttling and Shirlaw (1988) reported the construction of a cross-passage at depth of 16.5 m below
ground water-table, which was partly in the Class C /OA. The Class C /OA was hard and stable on first
exposure but deteriorated overnight and required chemical grouting to stabilise it so that the crosspassage could be excavated. The Class C and D /OA were reported to be typically well graded and exhibit small residual cementation. The permeability is typically 10-6 m/s, similar to a silt. The rapid deterioration of the material after exposure is similar to the behaviour of dense silts. Unlike the weathered
OA, the unweathered AO has proven to be generally stable for open face tunneling. An advanced tunnel
of diameter 8.4 m was constructed using NATM method with shotcrete support. The seepage during
construction was minimum and the maximum surface settlement was reported at 25 mm. Apart from this
large NATM tunnel, 8 cross passages with diameter of 4 m, have been successfully excavated through
unweathered OA in free air and up to 20 m below ground water-table.
In another paper, Knight et al. (2001) reported on the difficult ground conditions encountered during the
NEL construction of a cross passage located between Serangoon and Kovan Stations in OA soils. The
invert of cross-passage is 31.5 m below ground level and 9 m in length. The method of construction was
originally intended to be hand-mined using lattice girders and shotcrete as temporary ground support. It
was reported that the construction encountered considerable problems during the first attempt when
constructing the cross-passage from the completed southbound tunnel as water and sand were washed
rapidly at high pressure into the excavation area. The difficult ground conditions led to a complete
change in the construction methodology. A review of the borehole data in the vicinity showed a layer of
low SPTs blow counts underlying the SPT >100 material. Piezometers and pumping tests revealed the
presence of a confined aquifer with water under sub-artesian pressures.
422
Fig. 22 TBM tunneling from Serangoon to Kovan in OA soils showing the formation of soil plugs at the cutter
head.
The recent tunneling experiences for the DTSS indicated the presence of high permeability sandstone
within the OA soils. The OA layers are generally low in permeability with localized high permeability
zones occasionally found within the low permeability mass. The high permeability very dense sand or
sandstone layer was found along the PIE between Bedok North Road exits and Eunos Flyover during
the tunneling works for DTSS at elevations varying from RL 65 to 80 m for a distance of approximately
1km along the PIE. The plan view of the area where the high permeability sandstone layer was encountered is shown in Figure 23 together with a section showing the sandstone layer.
Fig. 23a Location plan of a highly permeable sandstone.
423
Fig. 23b Sectional view of a highly permeable sandstone.
In-situ and laboratory tests were carried in the high permeability sandstone layer. Standard penetration
tests performed showed the N-values generally greater than 150 with some extrapolated N-values in excess of 1000. Rising head permeability tests carried out in the boreholes showed consistently high coefficients of permeability (k) in the range of 6x10-7 to 5x10-5 m/s. Laboratory permeability tests were performed on block samples collected. The k-values obtained varied from 6x10-6 to 3.5x10-5 m/s. Tests on
the grain size showed sand contents (particle size 0.063 mm) averaging about 90%. The TBM (EPB
type) was reported measuring high hydrostatic pressure during the tunneling operation. However, during
the TBM drives, the chamber pressures of about 80% of the measured pressure was adopted. As the
sandstone was found to be intact with quite high strength, small ground settlements, less than 5mm were
recorded. It was reported that clean water without soil particles was collected when the TBM chamber
was opened.
Fig. 24 Shows a block sample of the high permeability sandstone obtained from DTSS site
4.4 Slope Failure in Old Alluvium

In Singapore, slope failure rarely takes place on natural slopes due the subdued landscape. However, the
influence of human activity on the landscape can lead to slope failures. The slopes can be regraded as
part of landscaping, residential or road developments. For each case, the excavation of slope has accelerated the weathering process and influenced the groundwater regimes. Below are some examples of
slope failures occurred in OA soils, which were documented.
424
The first is at Jalan Perwira where a landslide occurred on a cut slope behind the RDC batching plant
(Lim and Yau, 1985) The slope is about 10 m in height with an angle of 23 degrees, with a reinforced
concrete retaining wall at the toe. Several old landslide scars exist along the whole length of the slope,
with the toe bulges visible in many places. The slope failure was associated with the heavy rain in early
March 1984. The sliding surface was located at between 0.5 and 2 m below the surface, using ram
sounding and weight sounding tests. The landslide was believed to have been triggered by a rise in
groundwater during the heavy rain. The retaining wall at the foot of the slope did not have any weepholes to drain away the groundwater infiltrated into the slope. This resulted in a rise in the groundwater
level until it emerged at the top of the wall. The cohesion of OA soils along the sliding surface would
have destroyed by a combination of stress relief during excavation and saturation.
Other examples are ground failures occurred during construction.
Fig. 25 Ground failure behind temporary work due to soil erosion at Buangkok to Hougang site.
Fig. 26 Another case of slope failure at a construction site between Sengkang and Hougang.
425
Fig. 27 Example of the sliding slope failure at C712 (Punggol) due to the steep slope cut. The concrete was laid
after the failure but it started to crack at the later stage due to the water pressure backup in the slope.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The Old Alluvium is a sheet of drift deposit found mainly in the eastern and northwestern parts of Singapore. It is probably the result of deposition by a major braided river system in the early Pleistocene
age. Underlying the deposit is either the granite of the Bukit Timah formation or the metamorphosed
quartz sandstone of the Sajahat Formation. These rocks were encountered at depths varying from 20 to
80 m.
Being an alluvium, the deposit is rather heterogeneous. Nevertheless, it is predominantly sand with fine
high percentage (15% to 30%) of silt and clay. There are pockets of clean sand with little fines as well
as confined aquifers with water under sub-artesian pressures. There are also zones of predominantly
clay and silt with very low sand content. In general, the fines content decreases with depth.
The degree of weathering decreases with depth. At its unweathered state, the sand is cemented and does
not disintegrate when submerged under water. Approach 4 of BS 5930 appears to be an appropriate
guide for classifying the weathering grades of the OA soils. It is consistent with other systems that were
in use before the issue of LTA Guidance Note in 2001.
The engineering properties of the Old Alluvium, like any other materials are influenced by factors such
as lithology, stress history, degree of cementation, lithifaction, etc. The degree of weathering appears to
be a suitable factor in assessing the engineering properties of the ground. Good correlation can be seen
between the colour of the materials, the weathering grades and the SPT blow counts found at various
depths. Because of the high fines content, the material has relatively low permeability and behaves more
like clay even though it is classified as sand.
The presence of clean sand pockets and confined aquifers with water under sub-artesian pressures can
create stability problems during construction of underground structures including piles. The location of
the confined aquifer will need to be fully defined during the site investigation phase. The attempt to investigate these horizons may not be successful due to the current method of boring (i.e. wash boring)
employed for site investigation, that is an issue needs to be further dealt with by the engineers and site
investigation contractors. Fortunately, the occurrence of these horizons is not widespread.
426
REFERENCES
BS 5930:1999. Code of Practice for Site Investigations. British Standards Institution.
Burton, C.K., 1964. The Older Alluvium of Johore and Singapore. Journal of Tropical Geography, Vol. 18, 3042.
Buttling, S. and Shirlaw, J. N., 1988. Review of Ground Treatment Carried out for Tunnels of the Singapore
Mass Rapid Transit System, Tunneling 88, The Institution of Mining & Metallurgy, London, UK.
Chan, B.B., Chan, K.S., Chan, K.M. and Song, T.W, 2001. Prediction of Ground Settlement Caused by Tunneling
through Old Alluvium and the Initial Measurement. Underground Singapore 2001.
Chin, Y. K., Tan, S. L. and Tan, S. B., 1985. Ultimate Load Tests of Instrumented Bored Piles in Singapore Old
Alluvium, Proc. 8th Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conf., Kuala Lumpur.
Chu, J., Goh, P.P., Pek, S.C. and Wong, I.H., 2003. Engineering Properties of the Old Alluvium Soil. Underground Singapore 2003.
Chu, J., Goh, P.P. and Pek, S.C., 2003. Determination of OCR for Old Alluvium soil using direct simple shear
tests. Geotehnical Engineering. Journal of SEA Geot. Society, Aug, 79-86.
Dames & Moore, 1983. Mass Rapid Transit System, Singapore: Detailed Geotechnical Study Interpretative Report, Provisional Mass Rapid Transit Authority, Singapore.
Gupta, G. A., Rahman, A., Wong, P. P. and Pitts, J., 1987. The Old Alluvium of Singapore and the Extinct Drainage System to the South China Sea : Earth Surface processes and Landforms, Vol 12, 259-275.
Knight, H. C. K., Rosser, H. B. and Eng, W. C., 2001. Difficult Ground Conditions encountered during construction of a Cross Passage in Old Alluvium, Underground Singapore 2001.
Land Transport Authority, Singapore, 2001. Guidance Note on Weathering Classifications and Descriptions.
Li, W. and Wong, K. S., 2001. Geotechnical properties of Old Alluvium in Singapore. Journal of The Institution
of Engineers Singapore, Vol. 41 no. 3, 10-20.
Lim, K. S and Yau, K.L, 1985. Case Studies of Landslides in Singapore, Nanyang Technological Institute Final
Year Project Report for B.Eng. (Civils) Degree, National University of Singapore.
Ong, J., Chen D. C. and Preba, N., 2001. A Summary of Preliminary Pile Load Test Results for NEL, Rapid Transit Conference, Singapore.
Orihara, K. and Khoo, K. S., 1998. Engineering Properties of Old Alluvium in Singapore and its Parameters for
Bored Pile and Excavation Design, Proc. 13th Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conf., Taipei, 545-550.
Peart, M. and Tan, Y. S., 1999. Tunnel Boring Machine Selection for Changi Airport Line, Proceedings of the International Conference On Rail Transit, Rail Transit for The Next Millennium.
Pitts, J., 1984. A Review of Geology and Engineering Geology in Singapore, Q. J. Eng Geol. London, Vol. 17,
93-101.
Poh, K. H., Buttling, S. and Hwang, R. N., 1987. Some MRT Experiences of the Soils and Geology of Singapore, Proceedings of the Singapore Mass Rapid Transit Conference, Singapore.
Poh, J. and Hayward, A., 2001. Trial Shaft and Adit Construction for Bored Tunnels to Changi Airport, Proceedings of the International Conference On Rail Transit, Rail Transit for The Next Millennium.
PWD (1976). The Geology of the Republic of Singapore, Public Works Department, Singapore.
Shirlaw, J. N., Ong, C. W., Rosser, H. and Heslop, P., 2002. Immediate Settlements due to tunneling for the North
East Line, Singapore. Underground Singapore 2002.
Shirlaw, J. N., Ong, C. W., Osborne, H. and Tan, C. G., 2001. The relationship between face pressure and immediate settlement due to tunneling for the North East Line, Singapore, Underground Singapore 2001.
Wong, K. S., Li, W., Shirlaw, J. N., Ong, J., Wen, D. and Hsu, J., 2001. Old Alluvium: Engineering Properties
and Braced Excavation Performance, Underground Singapore 2001.
427

Engineering Geology
The Age and Origin of the Quaternary Sediments of

Singapore with Emphasis on the Marine Clay
M.I. Bird
National Institute of Education, Singapore
C.H. Chang
J.N. Shirlaw
T.S. Tan
National University of Singapore, Singapore
T.S. Teh
ABSTRACT: This paper reviews the current state of knowledge regarding the age and origin of
unlithified sediments of late Quaternary age that commonly occur in lowland and offshore areas of
Singapore. The oldest major unit, the Lower Marine Clay, dates from ~120,000 years ago, while the
Upper Marine Clay, and other facies of the Kallang Formation, were deposited in the last ~10,000
years. Of critical importance in determining the distribution and age of late Quaternary sediments in
Singapore has been the large changes in global sea-level that accompanied the cyclical formation and
disappearance of high latitude ice-sheets as global climate oscillated between glacial (cold) and
interglacial (warm) modes. Changing sea-level controlled the timing of deposition and distribution of
the terrestrial, intertidal and marine facies of the Kallang and Tekong Formations as shorelines
advance into, and retreated from, the Singapore area. During the last glacial maximum (20,000 years
ago), Singapore was land-locked and several hundred kilometers from the coast. During the midHolocene (~6,000 years ago) mean sea-level was approximately 2.5m above modern mean sea-level,
leading to the deposition of Marine Clay in areas, such as most of the downtown area, that have been
dry land since the sea receded to current levels after 6,000 years ago.
1 INTRODUCTION
Significant areas of Singapore are built over thick layers of marine clay and other comparatively
young sediments of both terrestrial and marine origin. These sediments are present in low-lying coastal
areas, particularly where reclamation has been carried out, and in infilled paleochannels. The paleochannels commonly follow the general direction of existing rivers, with the most extensive being the
Kallang Basin, extending for a considerable area around the Kallang River. The marine clay in particular is viewed as a major challenge for foundation and underground construction. Because of this, the
engineering properties of this soil have been the most extensively studied of all of the soil formations
of Singapore.
The first detailed studies date from the 1980s, as a number of major infrastructure projects were implemented at that time. There was a major study by Tan (1983), in which data on the marine clay
member, collected by the then Public Works Department, was summarised. Also from that period is a
detailed geotechnical study conducted by Dames and Moore (1983) for the then Mass Rapid Transit
Authority, in preparation for the construction of the first Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) line in Singapore.
Other related works of significance include those by Poh et al. 1987 and Yong and Karunaratne
(1983). Subsequent major infrastructure projects have resulted in further publications, including those
by Chang (1991) and Todo et al. (1993). Chong et al. (1998), further expanded in Tan et al. (2002a
Main
428
and 2002b), paid attention specifically to the quality of the clay samples obtained for the various tests.
The need to obtain high quality samples to ensure reliable data is now better appreciated.
The extent of these investigations has provided a reasonable database to arrive at soil models commensurate with the increasing sophistication involved in numerical analysis, which has become almost a
standard requirement for the design of deep excavations. However, considerably less attention has
been paid to the geological aspects of the engineering geology of the Quaternary sediments of Singapore, including the marine clay. An oft-quoted work is that by Cox (1968), which provides some brief
ideas on the deposition of the marine clays. Tan and Lee (1977) also provided a review of the general
geological history, as well as the properties, of the marine clay. Pivotal work was carried out by Pitts
(1983, 1984), elaborated in greater details in Pitts (1992). However, there were very little real data in
these works to justify conjectures on the age, fabric and depositional environment of the marine deposits. More recent work has been directed at obtaining such data, and is summarised here.
2 THE LATE QUATERNARY GEOLOGY OF SINGAPORE: PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS
Unlithified Quaternary (0-2 million years before present) sediments blanket much of lowland Singapore and their distribution has been documented by the Geological Survey of the Public Works Department as part of a broader project to compile a geological map of Singapore (PWD, 1976; Figure 1).
Although no quantitative radiometric dating was undertaken at that time, two major units - the Tekong
and the Kallang Formations - were considered to be of late Quaternary age. Limited radiocarbon and
thermoluminescence dating has subsequently confirmed Holocene and late Pleistocene ages at least for
some facies within the Kallang Formation (Hesp et al., 1998; Taylor et al., 2001).
Fig. 1 Bathymetry of the Straits of Singapore (from hydrographic charts) with the general distribution of major
areas underlain by Quaternary sediments in Singapore indicated in dark red (adapted from PWD, 1976). Eastern
and western sills defining the Straits of Singapore are indicated by individual depth soundings.
The nomenclature of the PWD is still broadly in use but in addition a set of alpha-numeric descriptors
has evolved within the geotechnical sector and these will be given in brackets where appropriate in the
discussion. Note that as the geotechnical descriptors are based largely on sedimentologic characteristics, the same geotechnical descriptor can refer to several of geologic units identified by the PWD. The
descriptions that follow are based on the work of PWD (1976) and subsequent work by Pitts (1983;
1984), Davies and Walsh (1983), Tan (1983), Gupta (1986), Chang (1995), Hesp et al. (1998), Tan et
al. (2002b) and Taylor et al. (2001).
429
2.1 Tekong Formation (T, F1)

This formation is named after prominent terraces around 4m above sea-level (3.6-5.5 m) on Pulau Tekong Kechil and Pulau Tekong. Other exposures are scattered around the coasts of Singapore and in
the upper reaches of low-lying inland former mangrove areas such as Sungei Seletar. The formation is
predominantly fine to very fine sand with scattered woody fragments, quartz pebbles and shell, and is
thought to represent beach and off-shore sandbank deposits related to the mid-Holocene sea-level
highstand at about 6000 BP (PWD, 1976), though there have been no attempts to date the sediments as
yet.
Pitts (1983) noted that it was difficult to differentiate between sediments of the Tekong Formation and
those of the Kallang Formation (see below). Pitts (1984) ascribes both a littoral and fluvial origin to
the formation, observing that in places the Tekong Formation also consists of estuarine muds, peaty
muds and pure peat.
2.2 Kallang Formation (K)
This formation has the widest distribution of all Quaternary sediments in Singapore, blanketing most
of the areas below about 5 m above sea-level and also forming valley fill at higher elevations. The
Formation has been sub-divided into five members by PWD (1976).
2.2.1 Marine Member (Km; LMC, F2, UMC)
The marine member of the Kallang Formation constitutes the largest volume of late Quaternary sediments in Singapore covering one quarter of Singapore Island, though no surface outcrop has been recognized on the main island. The member unconformably overlies older lithologies and attains a maximum thickness in excess of 35 m in the downtown area, where it infills steep-sided paleochannels
(PWD, 1976; Pitts, 1983) and 55 m in the area of the Pulau Tekong reclamation (Tan et al., 2002b).
The base of the sequence commonly consists of a variable thickness peaty clay sand or clay, grading
over a short interval to soft greenish-grey marine clay with variable organic content and scattered
sandy/shelly bands.
Two units are identifiable within the marine clay. The lower marine clay (LMC) and the Upper Marine
Clay (UMC) have broadly similar characteristics, but the upper few metres of the LMC have been
weathered to produce a stiff mottled clay unit (generally described as F2). This stiff clay is commonly overlain by an interval of peats (E) and sands (F1. ranging from <1m to a few metres, overlain
in turn by the UMC (Pitts, 1983; Tan, 1983). At on-shore locations, the UMC grades upwards into
peaty and sandy members of the Kallang Formation. Pitt (1983) notes that in detail, There are considerable lateral and vertical variations in the characteristics of both the LMC and UMC, particularly
around bedrock highs, where the marine clays grades into more sand and/or peat-rich facies. Some basic physical characteristics of a typical stratigraphy through the Kallang Formation are provided in
Figure 2.
Unlike other marine clays, both the UMC and LMC tend to have a comparatively constant silt/clay ratio with depth and also a comparatively high and variable organic matter content (Pitts, 1983). The
highest recorded occurrence of the UMC is 1.8 m above sea-level near Rochor Canal (PWD, 1976).
The highest recorded occurrence of the LMC is 4 m in Bedok (Pitts, 1983) although this occurrence
is exceptional. The stiff clay and LMC deposits are usually lower than 8 to 9 m and, most commonly, the stiff clay layer that separates the UMC and LMC forms a sub-horizontal unit that lies
about 15 m below modern sea-level. The stiff clay has been observed as deep as 28 m below sealevel in the downtown area (PWD, 1976) and 30m below sea-level in the area of the Pulau Tekong
reclamations (Tan et al., 2002b). Davies and Walsh (1983) note that where there is variation in the
thickness of the LMC, the depth to the stiff clay increases as depth of the LMC increases, presumably due to consolidation of the LMC over time.
As mentioned above, the clay fraction of the Lower Marine Clay is usually high more than 50%. A
number of X-ray diffraction analyses were carried out on Lower Marine Clay samples from a site at
the present The Esplanade (TE) and one off Pulau Tekong (PT). A typical set of results from each
site is shown in Figures 3 and 4 respectively. The principal clay mineral is kaolinite, with accessory
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amounts of illite and smectite. The data do suggest that smectites are more abundant at the PT site than
that at the TE site, in line with observations that the liquid limit for PT clay is higher than that of the
TE clay (Tan et al., 2002b). These observations generally are consistent with those of Tan (1983) who
reported 69% kaolinite, 18% quartz and 13% montmorillonite. The only puzzling point comparing
these data with those of Tan (1983) data is the absence of illite in samples from the earlier study.
Fig. 2 Stratigraphy, water content (relative to dry weight) and dry bulk density through a representative sequence of Quaternary sediments in Singapore, from a core taken at the corner of Guillemard Road and Paya Lebar Road. The uppermost part (0 to -2 m) represents a compressed peat (Kt), followed by UMC to 15 m, then
stiff clay grading into unweathered LMC by 20 m. The LMC is underlain by a thick sequence of fluvial sands
that could not be piston cored below 29 m. All depths are relative to the modern MSL.
There is general agreement that the UMC is a largely Holocene unit deposited as sea-level rose following the Last Glacial Maximum (20,000 years ago). This has been confirmed by radiocarbon dating of
marine clay at Sungei Nipa with dates of 7,000 to 8,000 BP obtained from shells and wood at depths
ranging from 5-10 m below modern sea-level (Chang, 1995; Hesp et al., 1998) and a date of 8,300 BP
obtained from a sample of wood 18.5 m below sea-level, 4 m above the base of the UMC at Pulau Tekong (Tan et al., 2002b).
Tan et al. (2002b) investigated the microstructure of LMC samples taken from the TE and PT sites,
each from about the same depth using scanning electron microscopy. They inferred that the presence
of intact stacks of kaolin plates in the TE sample that the sediment was transported over a relatively
short distance, probably sourced from weathering granite on nearby hills. In general, the LMC exhibits
a compact structure with little inter-aggregate pore space. In contrast, the UMC has a well-flocculated
structure. Some microfossils and pyrite crystals, are present but not found at the level of abundance
one would expect from marine deposits. Pyrite crystals can be seen in samples with high organic content. This is not surprising because such crystals are frequently associated with bacterial activity (Tan
et al., 2002b).
431
Kaolinite
Illite
Smectite
20.2m
23.2m
27.7m
4
12
16
20
24
28
Degree 2
Fig. 3 X-Ray Diffraction of Glycolated clay from three depths at the TE site (Tan et al., 2002b).
Kaolinite
Illite
Smectite
15.4m
19.4m
12
16
20
24
28
25.3m
Degree 2
Fig. 4 X-Ray diffraction of Glycolated clay from three depths at the PT site (Tan et al., 2002b).
The age of the stiff clay that separates the LMC from the UMC has been ascribed to the last glacial
maximum by PWD (1976) and Tan (1983) but Pitts (1983; 1984) considered that weathering associated with the stiff clay occurred during a brief regression of sea-level associated with the Younger
Dryas cooling event 10,000-12,000 years ago. A radiocarbon date of 24,600 BP obtained on woody
material from the stiff clay horizon 26 m below sea-level at Pulau Tekong suggests that the stiff
clay, indeed does date from Last Glacial Maximum times and not from the Younger Dryas Period. It
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follows then, that the LMC, from which the stiff clay is derived must also date from pre-glacial
maximum times.
2.2.2 Alluvial Member (Ka; F1, F2)
The alluvial member is widely distributed as valley fill and in places, similar sediments interfinger
with the other members of the Kallang formation and can underlie both the UMC and LMC. The deposits vary widely from pebbly beds, through sand to clay and peat (PWD, 1976).
The member is thought to have been deposited largely by fluvial processes and to be largely Holocene
in age. However, Chang (1995) has reported thermoluminescence dates on sand and clayey sand that
might be alluvial in origin, underlying the marine member of the Kallang Formation at Sungei Nipah,
ranging from 60,000 to >137,000 years. In addition Taylor et al. (2001) obtained a single date of
23,000 BP for peaty clay at the base of a 1m sequence of mostly Holocene peaty sediments from Nee
Soon swamp in Central north Singapore. These studies suggest that the Alluvial Member may span a
considerably greater age range than previously thought.
2.2.3 Transitional Member (Kt; E, F1)
This member is associated with modern and ancient mangrove deposits, deposited in a low energy environment (PWD, 1976). It is found fringing the coasts of Singapore up to a few metres above sealevel, and also overlying the UMC and the littoral member out as far as modern mean sea-level (before
reclamation). It is characterized by dark black to blue-grey mud, muddy sand or sand with high organic content, grading into pure peat.
PWD (1976) concluded that the Transitional Member was a recent deposit but Pitts (1983) notes the
occurrence of sediments of this member intercalated with, and beneath, the Marine Member suggesting
the age of the unit may span a considerably larger range. Chang (1995) reported radiocarbon dates of
3,500-5,900 BP for peats of the Transitional Member located 1.2 to 2.0 m above modern sea-level,
confirming that the Transitional member dates from at least the mid-Holocene.
2.2.4 Littoral Member (Kl; F1)
This member comprises beach, sandbank and beachrock deposits between ~10 m below sea-level and
3m above sea-level on exposed coasts and offshore islands (PWD, 1976). The sediments range from
pebbly sand to clean sand to shelly sand, and in cases where beachrock has formed the matrix is cemented by wither secondary carbonate or iron oxides. At offshore locations such as Pulau Sekudu and
Beting Brunok littoral deposits are also formed primarily from lateritic nodules eroded from the underlying weathered granite bedrock. No dating has been attempted for this member, but PWD (1976) suggests a mid-Holocene to recent age for these deposits.
2.2.5 Reef Member (Kr)
This member is dominantly composed of coral reef platforms and associated calcareous detritus on the
southern, western and southwestern side of Singapore and offshore Islands. PWD (1976) suggested
that the Reef Member ranges in age from 3,000 BP to the present, but Hesp et al. (1998) obtained dates
on relict raised corals (0-0.5 m above modern mean sea-level) of 6,300-6,500 BP and suggested that
these corals grew during the mid-Holocene sea-level highstand. The Reef Member may also underlie
parts of Chek Jawa at the eastern end of Pulau Ubin (Teh, unpubl. data); a large coral reef has recently
been found to underlie the National Art Museum (Bird, unpubl. data).
3 SEA-LEVEL: THE MAJOR DRIVER OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE IN SINGAPORE
3.1 Global sea-level in the Quaternary
The defining feature of the Quaternary period of earth history, from approximately two million years
ago to the present, has been the cyclical growth and decay of high latitude continental ice sheets (Fig-
433
ure 5). These cycles of warming (interglacial periods) and cooling (glacial or ice age periods) have occurred with a period of about 100,000 years and are thought to have been primarily forced by the regular changes in the earths orbital parameters known as Milankovitch cycles. The Quaternary period is
subdivided into the older Pleistocene Epoch (meaning most recent) prior to 10,000 years ago and the
Holocene Epoch (meaning wholly recent) from 10,000 years ago to the present.
Fig. 5 Changes in the volume of water in the oceans of the world, expressed as metres of equivalent sea-level
change from the last interglacial (LIG) to the present. The last Glacial Maximum (LGM) occurred about 20,000
years ago. The approximate depth at which the Straits of Singapore become inundated by seawater is modified
from Chappell and Lambeck (2001). Note that the bathymetry of the Straits may have changed since the Pleistocene, and seawater may have been able to enter the area up to about 85,000 years ago.
Ice age conditions have been characterized by the accumulation/expansion of ice-sheets at high northern and southern latitudes, and a general cooling and drying in the low latitudes compared with modern (interglacial) conditions. The last interglacial period occurred about 120,000 years ago, while the
last glacial maximum occurred about 20,000 years ago. The transition from interglacial to glacial climate was characterized by comparatively slow episodes of cooling punctuated by short periods during
which climate rapidly warmed for periods of a few thousand years before the onset of the next cooling
phase. The transition from the last glacial maximum to modern interglacial conditions was complete
by the beginning of the Holocene period (10,000 years ago), but was punctuated by several rapid,
short-lived and intense periods of cooling during which global climate returned to near glacial conditions for a few millennia or less. A major consequence of past changes in the size of the continental
ice-sheets in the past has been large commensurate changes in global sea-level (Lambeck and Chappell, 2001; Figure 5). This is because the ultimate source of water in the ice-sheets is the ocean, and
thus as ice-sheets expanded in glacial periods, sea-level was lowered, and vice versa when the ice
sheets shrunk in interglacial periods. These eustatic (ocean volume) changes in sea-level occurred synchronously across the globe as a direct consequence of changing ice-volume.
During the last interglacial period, eustatic sea-level was similar to, or slightly higher than, the present.
As the earth cooled towards the last Glacial Maximum, sea-level dropped in a sawtooth pattern and
by the Last Glacial Maximum sufficient water had been transferred from the oceans to the continental
icecaps to depress sea-level globally by about 120-130 m (Figure 5). These gross changes in sea-level
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have been the major determinant of the distribution of Quaternary sedimentary cover in Singapore and
throughout coastal Southeast Asia.
During the Last Glacial Maximum, Singapore was completely landlocked and the nearest coastline
was several hundred kilometres away. It was possible to walk from Singapore to Kalimantan or Sumatra across a contiguous landmass called Sundaland, made up of modern peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Borneo, Sumatra and Java. As the ice-sheets melted sea-level rose rapidly at rates up to 3 cm per
year equivalent to a rise of more than the height of a person in their own lifetime (Hanebuth et al.,
2000).
The depths of the drainage divides that separated the Straits of Singapore from the Straits of Malacca
to the west and South China Sea to the east are both approximately 25 metres below modern sea-level
(refer to Figure 1). When rising sea-level overtopped these divides around 10-11,000 years ago, the
Straits of Singapore were flooded and a few thousand years later Singapore became an island again, as
it had been during the last interglacial period.
Due to regional differences in ice/water-loading and earth rheology, sea-level overshot modern levels
in the Singapore region during the mid-Holocene (a sea-level highstand), before declining slowly to
its current level. Work on past sea-levels in peninsular Malaysia (e.g. Geyh et al., 1979; Tjia et al.,
1983; Tjia, 1992) has demonstrated a sea-level highstand of 4-5m about 5,000 years ago at least in
the north of Malaysia. Hesp et al. (1998) have presented a first sea-level curve for Singapore, suggesting that the Holocene sea-level highstand did not exceed ~3 m, a conclusion also reached from a palynological study of the freshwater swamp deposits at Nee Soon (Taylor et al., 2001).
While Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore are considered to be tectonically stable (e.g. Tjia, 1992), the
available evidence for the height of the mid-Holocene highstand does suggest that possibility that there
has been tilting of the Malaysian peninsula such that indicators of the height of the mid-Holocene
highstand in northern Peninsula Malaysia may now be ~1-2m higher than equivalent indicators in
Southern Malaysia. This implies either uplift of northern peninsular Malaysia or subsidence of southern peninsular Malaysia (including Singapore), or a combination of the two. This possibility requires
further substantiation.
3.2 A high-resolution sea-level curve for Singapore
Due to the over-riding control that changes in sea-level has had on the late Quaternary sediments of
Singapore an effort is underway to develop a high resolution se-level curve for the region, following
on from earlier work by Hesp et al. (1998). This sea-level curve is being constructed by obtaining radiocarbon dates on the first sediments to be deposited at different depths as sea-level rose to progressively flood lowland Singapore following the last Glacial Maximum. The sediment types dated include
(where present):
(i) Basal sandy sediments that appear to relate to rapid outwashes of sand and clay following the arrival of the highest astronomical tide at a location, resulting in the rapid death of local forest vegetation
and the exposure of large areas of bare, easily erodable ground surfaces above and behind the intertidal
zone. These sediments mark the arrival of the Highest Astronomical Tide (HAT) at a location.
(ii) Basal peat units that mark the arrival of Mean High Water Spring (MHWS) tide mark at a location,
and the first development of backwater mangroves.
(iii) The top of basal peat units immediately underlying the marine clay, marking the arrival of Mean
Sea-Level (MSL) at a location, subsequent to which, sediments of wholly marine origin were deposited.
435
Fig. 6 Preliminary sea-level curve for Singapore based on data from samples discussed in the text. Ages are
given in calendar years before present. Errors on radiocarbon dates are 1, depth errors are assigned based on
consideration of the stratigraphic position of samples with respect to mean sea-level at the time they were deposited. Not all data from Hesp et al. (1998) can be plotted on the figure due to uncertainties surrounding compaction of the sediments and reservoir corrections to the ages of carbonate samples analysed in that study.
Currently, samples have been obtained from excavations for the Circle and Marina Line MRT lines,
Singapore Management University and the new National Library building. In addition samples have
been obtained by hand coring of natural mangrove areas at Lim Chu Kang and Sungei Buloh and powered piston coring of a 30 m sequence of marine clay at the junction of Paya Lebar and Guillemard
Roads. Results are currently available from this study for depths down to 15 m below sea-level. In addition, optically stimulated luminescence dating is being undertaken on sand grains from the Old Alluvium and LMC to constrain the ages of these older deposits.
The preliminary results for the samples analysed to this point are presented in Figure 6 including the
results of Hesp et al. (1998). The data tightly define the sea-level curve for Singapore from 8,500 calendar years ago to the present. Mean sea-level was about 11 m below modern levels at 8,500 years, rising rapidly at approximately 1m per century (1cm/year) up to 7,500 years ago. Thereafter the rate of
sea-level rise gradually slowed to zero by 6,000 years, at which time mean sea-level was about 2 to 2.5
m above modern level. From 6,000 years ago mean sea-level decreased monotonically to modern sealevel.
The apparent height of the mid-Holocene highstand in Singapore suggests that the highest astronomical tide during the mid-Holocene probably reached about 4.25-4.5 m above modern sea-level, assuming a similar tidal range. This is in good agreement with the observation that the Tekong Formation,
deposited in a littoral environment during the mid-Holocene, forms prominent terraces at 3.6 to 5.5 m
436
above modern MSL (PWD, 1976). The results are also in agreement with the observation that the
highest occurrence of UMC occurs at +1.8 m above sea-level (PWD, 1976), and the existence of a relict wave-cut notch in granite 2.0 to 3.0 m above modern MSL (Teh and Bird, unpublished data).
4 CONCLUSIONS: AN INTEGRATED MODEL FOR THE LATE QUATERNARY SEDIMENTS
OF SINGAPORE
Advances in understanding of global Quaternary environments and particularly in the magnitude, timing and forcing of glacial-interglacial cycles in global climate and sea-level over the last two decades
allow a reappraisal of the Quaternary sedimentary history of Singapore. While the interpretation of the
sedimentologic and environmental characteristics of the Quaternary units identified by PWD (1976)
remain largely valid, the chronologies proposed for the depositions of the sediments are in need of
some revision. In addition, the units are best thought of as end-member facies that grade into one another and rapidly change their distributions in response to local paleogeographic changes during periods of rapidly changing sea-level. A schematic illustration of the stratigraphic relationships between
the Quaternary sedimentary units of Singapore is given in Figure 7.
The oldest late Quaternary unit in Singapore appears to be the alluvial member of the Kallang formation, which underlies the LMC and UMC. A single thermoluminescence age on this unit where it underlies the UMC suggests that had begun accumulating before 137,000 years ago (Chang, 1995). The
occurrence of this unit in deep paleochannels further suggests that these paleochannels were incised to
at least 55 m below modern sea-level prior to this time. Sandy, clay-rich and peaty sediments of the
Alluvial Member have been deposited episodically above local sea-level as valley fill from that time
up to the present.
Following the end of the penultimate glacial period, about 140,000 years ago, the LMC was deposited,
often preceded as sea-level rose by the equivalent of the Transitional and Littoral Members of the Kallang formation (peats, sands and mangrove sediments). Sea-level remained similar to modern levels
throughout the last interglacial from 125-115,000 years ago, blanketing the sea-floor with a thick sequence of LMC. Between 115,000 and 85,000 years ago, sea-level oscillated between 20 and 70 m,
and the lower marine clay in Singapore may have been intermittently deposited in deeper parts of the
downtown area during this time. Thereafter, the sea retreated from the Singapore region to a low of ~120 to 130 m during the Last Glacial Maximum ~20,000 years ago. As a result the LMC was exposed
to terrestrial pedogenetic processes, producing the stiff mottled clay at the top of the LMC. The stiff
clay therefore is at a variable depth, formed on LMC sediments that blanket the bedrock topography.
Two radiocarbon dates on wood from within the LMC sequence at the new National Library construction site contained only background levels of radiocarbon, confirming that the LMC in this area at
least is older than ~50,000 years, rather than of post-glacial age as proposed by Pitts (1983). A further
date of 35750600 BP from a woody peat close to the base of the LMC at the Pulau Tekong reclamation (-55m) suggests that the origin of the LMC may not solely be marine. As sea-level at this time
was probably below 60 m, this suggests that the LMC may at least in part be lacustrine in origin and
further work will be required to fully explain the origin of the LMC.
A radiocarbon date of 24,600 BP (Tan et al., 2002b) on organic matter at the top of the LMC suggests
that the sample was derived from vegetation growing on the exposed surface of the LMC during the
Last Glacial Maximum. During this period of terrestrial exposure, the thinnest and highest exposures
of the UMC may have been eroded and washed downslope, leaving only the deeper and thicker sections remaining. In addition, channels were incised into the LMC and, in places, the alluvial member
of the Kallang formation was deposited over the LMC.
437
Fig. 6 Schematic illustration of the stratigraphic relationships between the Quaternary sedimentary units of Singapore. Both the terminology of the PWD (1976) and current geotechnical descriptors are provided.
At the end of the Last Glacial Maximum, global sea-level began to rise rapidly from 120 m. Once
sea-level rose to about 25 m about 10,000-11,000 years ago, the sills to the east and west of the Singapore Straits were breached virtually simultaneously and the Singapore area was inundated in a matter of years or less. As sea-level continued to rise the Transitional and Littoral Members of the Kallang
Formation, and the facies equivalent of the Tekong Formation were deposited close to the advancing
shore line, while UMC was deposited further offshore, covering the sediments of the transitional
member as sea-level continued to rise. Radiocarbon dates on a core through the Marine Member at the
corner of Guillemard Road and Upper Paya Lebar Road (Figure 2) indicate that the UMC was deposited at rates of up to 1 cm per year between ~8,000 and 9,000 years ago, similar to the rate of sea-level
rise at that time. As the rate of sea-level rise began to slow after about 7,000 years ago, mangroves
could keep up with the rising seas by vertical accretion and thus sediments of the Transitional Member
became thicker and more widely distributed.
As sea-level rise slowed and then stopped rising about 6,000 years ago, the majority of the Tekong
Formation was deposited, building up thin cross-bedded sandsheets intercalated with clay and peat
layers in the uppermost intertidal zone. As the highest tides killed terrestrial vegetation in advance of
the arrival of mean sea-level, the resultant bare ground was exposed to severe erosion, providing the
sands for the Tekong Formation through erosion of the denuded ground surface. The Tekong Formation is particularly well developed where the underlying lithologies were the easily erodable, sand-rich
material of the Old Alluvium and weathered granite.
As sea-level began to fall after 6,000 years ago, the uppermost sediments deposited in the intertidal
zone, and particularly the muddy sediments were commonly eroded and the material moved offshore.
The removal of the finer grained sediments of the Transitional Member of the Kallang Formation exhumed older sediments of the Tekong Formation in places, which, by virtue of their less easily
erodable sandy sediments, were preserved as terrace-like geomorphic features. The Tekong Formation is best considered a transitional unit between the wholly terrestrial sediments of the Alluvial
Member and the fine, peaty sediments of the Transitional Member of the Kallang Formation. A more
peat-rich facies of the Transitional Member and sands of the Alluvial Member of the Kallang Formation were deposited over earlier sediments of the Transitional Member and UMC as sea-level fell
slowly from 6,000 years ago to the present.
438
There are two observations from the late Quaternary sediments of Singapore that currently lack an
adequate explanation, and both may be related to the genesis of the Straits of Singapore. The first is
the incision of paleochannels to at least 55 m, that is, 20 m below the current heights of the sills separating the Straits of Singapore from the Mallacca Straits to the West and South China Sea to the east.
The second is the absence of Marine Clay older than the LMC, related to earlier interglacial periods in
the Quaternary.
In the centre of the modern Straits of Singapore, south of St. Johns Island lie the Singapore Deeps
with a maximum depth of 204 m. This is one of several over-deepened closed basins on the Sunda
Shelf, considerably deeper than the lowest glacial age base-level for erosion (about 120 m). The
genesis of this and other such features are therefore problematic, and Hill (1968) suggested that the
Singapore Deeps may have formed by collapse of underlying karst, formation of a graben by downfaulting of the block beneath the Straits. To these suggestions might be added the possibility of the
Singapore Deeps being the result of a meteorite impact.
The presence of the Singapore Deeps provides a ready explanation for the incision of paleochannels to
depths beneath the sill heights at either end of the Straits, as the local base level for erosion was considerably deeper than 120 m of glacial sea-level. Local base level would have been determined by the
level of the lake that must have occupied the Straits of Singapore during glacial periods, and could
even have been 204 m if a comparatively dry climate stopped the confined basin that constituted the
Straits of Singapore filling with lake water.
If the Singapore Deeps did form over a short period, by whatever means, shortly before the last interglacial period, then it is possible that there was no avenue for the entry of marine waters during interglacial periods prior to 140,000 years ago. The absence of the Straits of Singapore prior to the last
interglacial period would explain the absence of older marine sediments beneath the LMC. A further
possibility, unrelated to the Singapore Deeps, is that the Singapore area may have been undergoing
slow plate tectonic-induced subsidence, and it was not until the last interglacial period that the area
was low enough to allow the entry of the sea. If Singapore is undergoing subsidence, then this is of
concern given predictions of future human-induced sea-level rise of about 50 cm over this century
(IPCC, 2001).
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We wish to acknowledge the support of the following in very generously facilitating access to the sites
sampled for this study: Howard Rosser, Nick Osborne, Joshua Ong, Prebarahan Nadarajah, Chiam
Sing Lih, Michael Eng, Lim Han Chong, Richard Page and Hong Zhu (LTA); Gary Png, Anthony Lim
and Kato Tetsuya (Singapore Management University construction site); Dennis Khoo and Roger
Kung (National Library construction site); John Miksic (National University of Singapore), Ng Ching
Huei and Cheryl-Ann Low (National Heritage Board); Joseph Lai (Sungei Buloh Wetland Reserve).
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440
AUTHOR INDEX
Algeo R.G.
111
Aromaa J.
52
Benson J.F.
187
Bian H.Y.
17, 38
Bird M.I.
428
Broch E.
17
Bye T.R.
17
Cai J.G.
62, 177, 276, 353
Chandrasekaran B.
338, 388
Chang C.H.
428
Chang K.B.
75
Chiam S.L.
267, 396
Chow Y.K.
256
Chu J.
285, 408
Chua H.C.
239
Chua K.G.
308
Daniels C.
75
Flanagan R.
353
Goh A.T.C.
103
Goh P.P.
285
Goh T.L.
95
Gong Q.M.
177, 276
Hefny A.M.
239
Hong Y.C.
344
Huang E.S.
267, 296
Jedlitschka G.
229
Jeyatharan K.
372
Jiao Y.Y.
169
Joos M.
131, 157
Kogler P.
23
Kongsomboon Thanadol
95
Kwong A.K.L.
215
Lammer E.
23
Lee F.H.
196
Lee K.F.
141
Lee K.W.
372
Leung C.F.
256
Liang X.
44
Lim K.C.
196
Lim K.W.
83
Lim P.C.
326
Lim T.L.
338
Ling A.S.
267
Mnttri M.
52
McLearie D.D.
215
Ni Q.
408
Ng P.B.
83
Ng S.V.
75
Ng W.K.
215
Ng W.L.
62
Nicholas P.
125
Ong J.C.W.
267, 296, 353
Orihara K.
83, 388
Osborne N.H.
75
Pakianathan L.J.
215, 372
Patterson-Kane K.J.
111
Pek S.C.
285
Phoon K.K.
196
Poh T.Y.
319
Pong S.F.
149
Ran X.
256
Ranjith P.G.
149
Ratty D.
Salminen P.
52
Saravanan N.
149
Satola I.
52
Schmeed H.C.
3
Schurch M.
131, 157
Seah C.C.
38
Seh C.P.
372
Sein Moe
296, 353
Seong H.E.
Sigl O.
229, 246
Shirlaw J.N.
111, 388, 428
Song H.
44, 169
Song H.W.
38
Stacherl B.
246
Stewart D.F.
3
Tan G.H.
308
Tan Thiam-Soon
Tan T.S.
95, 326, 408, 428
Tang S.K.
338, 353, 388
Teh C.I.
103
Teh T.S.
428
Varley N.J.
204
Wang C.
44
Wehrli J.M.
229
Wen D.
103, 111, 344
Wong I. H.
285, 319, 388
Wong K.S.
83, 103, 388, 408
Yeo H.P.
125
Yong K.Y.
95
Yoon S.I.
344
Yu Kyi
388
Zhang X.H.
62, 177, 276
Zhao J.
17, 38, 44, 62, 169,
177, 239, 276
Zhou Y.X.
38
Main
441

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Proceedings of

UNDERGROUND SINGAPORE 2003

Updating the Engineering Geology of Singapore

Geotechnical Research Centre

INTRODUCTION BY NICK SHIRLAW,

The Organising Committee wishes to express its gratitude to the two

SESSION 3: EXCAVATION 1 ...........................................................................................................73

SESSION 4: MICROTUNNELLING, GROUNDWATER & WATERPROOFING ...............................123

SESSION 6: SHAFTS & TUNNELS ................................................................................................213

SESSION 7: SITE INVESTIGATION AND MONITORING ...............................................................265

UPDATING THE ENGINEERING GEOLOGY OF SINGAPORE....................................351

on the Marine Clay

Underground Singapore 2003

Uetliberg Tunnel, Switzerland: State of the Art Tunneling

Figure 1 Layout Uetliberg Tunnel

Soft ground section Gjuch

Figure 2 Geological profile through Ettenberg and Uetliberg

1.3 Construction Program, Procedures and cost

TYPICAL TUNNEL CROSS SECTIONS

Exca va tion a rea

In-situ concrete lining

Exca va tion a rea

In-situ concrete lining

Temporary site road

Figure 5 Typical cross section in the Uetliberg rock section

2 EXCAVATION OF THE SOFT GROUND SECTIONS

Figure 6 Typical cross section of soft ground tunnel

Figure 7 Soft ground excavation with core method

2.2 Personnel and Equipment

2.3 Safety and stability of excavation

3 EXCAVATION OF THE ROCK SECTION

Figure 8 TBM-Excavation of the pilot tunnel

Figure 9 Breakthrough of first pilot tunnel

Figure 10 The TBE boring head

Figure 13 TBE back-up equipment

Figure 14 Cutterhead seen from the pilot tunnel

4 AUTOMATED SURVEYING AND SETTING OUT

Underground Singapore 2003

Feasibility of Developing Water Service Reservoirs in

H.Y. Bian, J. Zhao

Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

2 INTEGRATING ROCK CAVERNS TO PRESENT WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

Plan area (m2)Potential volume (m3)

Cavern invert elevation at +40 m MSL

Bukit Kallang (G)

Bukit Gombak (N)

Bukit Kallang (G)

Bukit Gombak (N)

Bukit Kallang (G)

Bukit Gombak (N)

Bukit Timah Nature Reserve (G)

Mount Faber (J)

Cavern invert elevation at +60 m MSL

Note: G : Bukit Timah granite; N: Gombak norite; J: Jurong Formation

Figure 3 Cross-section perpendicular to the caverns

Figure 4 Cross-section parallel to the caverns

Underground Singapore 2003

New Technologies Extend the Range of Applications of

Fig. 1 Roadheader ATM105 ICUTROC

2 THE ICACUTROC RTD PROJECT

RANGE FOR COMMON

AVERAGE PRESENT LIMIT FOR

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH c [MPa]