Types of Chips

Q1. State and discuss the types of chips formed during machining various materials on the lathe?

Every machining operation involves the formation of chips. The nature of the chips
depends on:
a) Operation
b) properties of the workpiece material
c) cutting environment
The chip is formed by deformation of the metal lying ahead of the cutting edge by a
process of shear. The cutting tool has to overcome the resistance of the work material to
give it a desired shape. So cutting tool must be harder, wear resistance than the w/p. The
main reason for the chip formation is due to the deformation by shear stress. This stress
is applied to metal lying ahead of the cutting edge of the tool. Four main types of chips
in machining process are:
a) Continuous or Ribbon Type Chips
b) Continuous Chip Built-up-Edge (BUE)
c) Serrated Chips
d) Discontinuous Chips
a) Continuous or Ribbon Type Chips
In this type of chip formation the chips are bonded together and form long coils. These
are continuous chips which undergo continuous plastic deformation. There isnt any
fracture ahead of the cutting edge of the tool. The inside part of the chip shows steps due
to intermittent slip. The outside is smooth.
This type of chip is produced while machining a ductile material, like mild steel, under
favourable cutting condition such as high cutting speed and minimum friction between
the chip and the tool face. Otherwise, it will break and form the segmental chip. The
friction at the chip-tool interface can be minimized by polishing the tool face and
adequate use of coolant. Also, with diamond tool the friction is less. The basis of the
production of a continuous chip is the continuous plastic deformation of the metal ahead
of the tool, the chip moving smoothly up the tool face.
Sometimes, continuous chips are produced at low cutting speed if effective cutting fluid
is used because this type of chip is associated with low friction between the chip and the
tool. Since finish is best, power consumption is low and tool life high with this type of
chip, this is most preferred type. Other factors responsible for promoting its production
are bigger Rake angle, finer Feed and Keen cutting edge of the tool.

b) Continuous Chip Built-up-Edge (BUE)

This type of chip is very similar to that of continuous type, with the difference that it is
not as smooth as the previous one. This type of chip is obtained by machining ductile
material, when high friction exists at the chip tool interface. The upward flowing chip
exerts pressure on the tool face. The normal reaction Nr of the chip on the tool face is
quite high, and is a maximum at the cutting edge or nose of the tool. This gives rise to
an excessively high temperature and the compressed metal adjacent to the tool nose gets
welded to it. The chip is also sufficiently hot and gets oxidized as it comes off the tool
and turns blue in colour. The extra metal welded to the nose or point of the tool is called
Built up Edge. This metal is highly strain hardened and brittle. With the result, as the
chip flows up the tool, the Built-up edge is broken and carried away with the chip while
the rest of it adheres to the surface of the workpiece, making it rough. Due to the Builtup-Edge the rake angle is also altered and so is the cutting force. The common factors
responsible for promoting the formation of Build-up Edge are low cutting speed,
excessive feed, small rake angle lack of lubricant.

c) Serrated Chips
These are semi-continuous chips, which possess a saw tooth profile; they are produced
when machining tool steels or Harden materials at high cutting speeds. The main reason
for this appearance is the alternating high shear strain followed by a low shear strain.
These chips are seen with metals like titanium alloys, austenitic stainless steel and
nickel based super alloys which are very difficult to machine. When materials are cut at
very high speed these chips are likely to be formed.

Reasons:
Ductile materials
Low-to-medium cutting speeds
Tool-chip friction causes portions of chip to adhere to rake face
BUE forms, then breaks off, cyclically

d) Discontinuous or segmental chip

These types of chips are produced during machining of hard and brittle metals like
bronze, brass and cast-iron. Sometimes, cutting of ductile metals at very low feeds with
small rake angle of the cutting tool and high speeds and high friction forces at the chip
tool interface also result in the production of discontinuous chips. Discontinuous chips
in ductile materials are formed when the hydrostatic pressure near the cutting edge is
tensile or the shear energy reaches a critical value. The formation of this type of chip in
brittle materials imparts good finish, increases tool life and consumes less power.
Presence of discontinuous chips in ductile-materials results in poor-finish and excessive
tool-wear. Smaller chips are easier to dispose of.
If discontinuous chips are produced from the brittle materials, then surface finish is fair,
power consumption is low and tool life is reasonable. However when these are produced
with ductile materials, then finish is poor and tool wear is excessive. Other factors
responsible for promoting the production of Discontinuous Chips are smaller rake angle
on the tool and too much depth of cut.

Q2. With the aid of sketches discuss the Principal angles of single point tools.
The different angles provided on single point tools play a significant role in successful
and efficient machining of metals. The thorough study of these tool angles is therefore
must the main angles provided on these tools are shown in Fig 5.4 and the average
values of these cutting different metals are given in chapter 6.
1. Rake angle. It is the angle form between the face of tool and plane parallel to its
base. If this inclination is towards the inclination it is known as back rake or top rake.
When it is towards the side of tool it is called the side rake. These rake angles guide the
chips away from cutting edge thereby reducing the chip pressure on face and increasing
the keenness of the tool so that less power is required for cutting. It is important to note
that an increased rake angle will reduced the strength of cutting edge. With the result,
the tools used for cutting hard metals are given smaller rake angles whereas those used
for softer metals contain larger rakes.
Negative rake. The rake angles described above are called positive rake angles. When
no rake is provided on the tool, it is said to have a zero rake. When the face of tool is so
ground that it slopes upward from the point it is said to contain a negative rake. It
obviously reduces the keenness of the tool and increases the strength of the cutting edge.
Such a rake is usually employed on carbide tipped tools when they are used for
machining extra hard surfaces, hardened steel parts and for taking intermittent cuts. A
tool with negative rake will have a larger lip angle, resulting in a stronger tool. Another
advantage of negative rake, particularly in case of tipped tools is that the tendency of the
chip pressure is to press the tip against the body of the tool. This is obviously, a
favorable factor for tipped tools. The value of negative take o these tools normally vary
from 5 to 10 degree.
2. Lip angle. The angle between the face and the flank of the tool is known as lip angle.
It is also sometimes called the angle of keenness of the tool. Strength of the cutting edge
or point of the tool is directly affected by this angle. Larger the lip angle stronger will be
the cutting edge and viceversa. It would be observed that since the clearance angle
remains practically constant in all the cases, this angle varies inversely as the rake angle.
It is only for this reason that when harder metals are to be machined, i.e., a stronger tool
is required, the rake angle is reduced and consequently the lip angle is increased. This
simultaneously calls for reduced cutting speeds, which is a disadvantage. The lip angle
is, therefore, kept as low as possible without making the cutting edge weak, that it
becomes unsuitable for cutting.
3. Clearance angle. It is the angle formed by the front or side surfaces of the tool which
are adjacent and below the cutting edge when the tool is held in a horizontal position. It
is the angle between one of these surfaces and a plane normal to the base of the tool.
When the surface considered for this purpose is in front of tool, i.e., just below the
point, the angle formed is called front clearance and when the surface below the side
cutting edge is considered the angle formed is known as side clearance angle. The
purpose of providing front clearance is to allow the tool to cut freely without rubbing
against the surface of the job, and that of the side clearance to direct the cutting thrust to
the metal area adjacent to the cutting edge.

4. Relief angle. It is the angle formed between the flank of the tool and a perpendicular
line drawn from the cutting point to the base of the tool.
5. Cutting angle. The total cutting angle of the tool is the angle formed between the tool
face and line through the point, which is a tangent to the machined surface of the work
at that point. Obviously, its correct value will depend upon the position of the tool in
which it is held in relation to the axis of iob.

NB: t1 = to and t2 = tc ; and r = to/tc = t1/t2 =

sin
cos ( )

Q3. What are the various tool materials used? Explain desirable properties of
cutting tool materials?
Various cutting tool materials have been used in industry for different applications. The
important characteristics of a cutting tool material are:
a)
Higher hardness than that of the workpiece material being machined, so that it
can be penetrating into the work material.
b)
Hot hardness, which is the ability of the material to retain its hardness at elevated
temperatures in view of the high temperatures existing in the cutting zone. This
requirement becomes more and more stringent with the increasing emphasis on
higher cutting speeds to bolster productivity.
c)
Wear resistance The chip tool and chip work interfaces are exposed to such
severe conditions, that adhesive and abrasion wear is very common. The cutting
tool material should, therefore, have high abrasion resistance to improve the
effective life of tool.
d)
Toughnessthe tool, even though is hard, should have enough toughness to
withstand the impact loads that come in the beginning of the cut or to force

e)
f)

fluctuations due to imperfections in the work material. This requirement is going

to be more useful for interrupted cutting, for example milling.
Low frictionthe coefficient of friction between chip and tool should be low,
which would allow lower wear rates and better chip flow.
Better thermal characteristicsSince a lot of heat is generated at the cutting
zone, it is necessary that the tool material should have higher thermal
conductivity to dissipate this heat in the shortest time, otherwise the tool
temperature will become too high thus reducing its life. All these properties may
not be found in a single tool material. Improvements in tool materials have been
taking place over the past century to give us better cutting performance.

Q4. Explain the necessity of a coolant in machining and its properties?

Cutting fluids sometimes referred to as lubricants or coolants are liquid and gases
applied to the tool and workpiece to assist in the cutting operations. Purpose of Cutting
Fluids: Cutting fluids are used for the following purposes:
a) To cool the tool: Cooling the tool is necessary to prevent metallurgical damage and
to assist in decreasing friction at the toolchip interface and at the toolworkpiece
interface. Decreasing friction means less power required to machine and more
important increased tool life and good surface finish. The cooling action of the
fluids is by direct carrying away of the heat developed by plastic deformation of
shear plane and that due to friction. Hence, a high filmcoefficient for heat transfer
is necessary for a good coolant. For cooling ability, water is very effective, but is
objectionable for corrosiveness and lack of friction reducing wear.
b) To cool the workpiece: The role of cutting fluid in cooling the workpiece is to
prevent its excessive thermal distortion.
c) To lubricate and reduce friction: (i) The energy or power consumption in removing
metal is reduced: (ii) abrasion or wear on the cutting tool is reduced thereby
increasing the life of the tool; (iii) by virtue of lubrication, less heat is generated
and the tool, therefore, operates at lower temperatures with the tendency to extend
tool life; and (iv) chips are helped out of the flutes of drills, tapes, dies, saws,
broaches, etc. An incidental improvement in the cutting operation is that builtup
edge will be reduced which, in turn, will decrease friction at the toolworkpiece
area and contribute toward a cooler tool. It is important to give the optimum
cooling effect and lubrication condition in metal cutting.
d) To improve surface finish.
e) To protect the finished surface from corrosion: To protect the finished surface from
corrosion, especially in cutting fluids made up of a high percentage of water,
corrosion inhibitors are effective in the form of sodium nitrate or triethanolamine.
f) To cause chips break up into small parts rather than remain as long ribbons which
are hot and sharp and difficult to remove from workpiece.
g) To wash the chips away from the tool: This is particularly desirable to prevent
fouling of the cutting tool with the workpiece.

Properties of Cutting Fluids - A cutting fluids should have the following properties:
a) High heat absorption for readily absorbing heat developed.
b) Good lubricating qualities to produce lowcoefficient of friction.
c) High flash point so as to eliminate the hazard of fire.
d) Stability so as not to oxide in the air.
e) Neutral so as not to react chemically.
f) Odorless so as not to produce any bad smell even when heated.
g) Harmless to the skin of the operators.
h) Noncorrosive to the work on the machine.
i) Transparency so that the cutting action of tool may be observed.
j) Low viscosity to permit free flow of liquid.
k) Low priced to minimize production cost.
Factors that determine the choice of cutting fluids:
The choice of cutting fluid depends upon the following factors.
a) Type of operation
b) The rate of metal removal
c) Material of the workpiece
d) Material of the tool
e) Surface finish requirement
f) Cost of cutting fluids
Q5. What is machinability of metal? What factors affect the machinability?
Machinability of a material gives the idea of the case with which it can be machined.
The parameters generally influencing the machinability of a material:
a) Physical properties of the material.
b) Mechanical properties of the material.
c) Chemical composition of the material.
d) Microstructure of the material.
e) Cutting conditions.
Since the machinability property of the material depends on various variable factors, it
is not possible to evaluate the same in terms of precise numerical values, but as a
relative quantity. The criteria of determining the same may be as follows:
a) Tool life. The longer the tool life it enables at a given cutting speed the better is
the machinability.
b) Surface finish. It is also directly proportional, i.e.., the better the surface finish the
higher is the machinability.
c) Power consumption Lower power consumption per unit of metal removed
indicates better machinability.
d) Cutting forcesThe lesser the amount of cutting force required for the removal
of a certain volume of metal or the volume of metal removed under standard
cutting forces the higher will be the machinability.
e) Shear angleLarger shear angle denotes better machinability.

f) Rate of metal removal under standard cutting conditions.

Q6. What are types of chips formed during machining various materials on lathe.
The chips produced during machining of various metals can be broadly classified
into the following three types. The production of any particular type will largely
depend upon the type of material being machined and the cutting conditions.
1) Discontinuous or segmental chips

Fig 1: Discontinuous or segmental chips

This type of chips is produced during machining of brittle materials like cast iron and
bronze. These chips are produced in the form of small segments, as illustrated in Fig .1.
In machining of such materials, as the tool advances forward, the shearplane angle
gradually reduces until the value of compressive stress acting on the shear plane
becomes too low to prevent rupture. At this stage, any further advancement of the tool
results in the fracture of the metal ahead of it, thus producing a segment of the chip.
With further advancement of the tool, the processes of metal fracture and production
of chip segments go on being repeated, and this is how the discontinuous chips are
produced. Such chips are also sometimes produced in the machining of ductile
materials when how cutting speeds are used and adequate lubrication is not provided.
This causes excessive friction between the chip and tool face, leading to the fracture
of the chip into small segments. This will also result in excessive wear on the tool and a
poor surface finish on the workpiece. Other factors responsible for promoting the
production of discontinuous chips are smaller rake angle on the tool and too much depth
of cut.
2) Continuous chip

Fig 2: Continuous chip

As is evident from the name, the presence of separated segmental elements is totally
eliminated in this case. This type of chip is produced while machining a ductile
material, like mild steel, under favorable cutting conditions, such as high cutting speed
and minimum friction between the chip and the tool face, otherwise, it will break and
from the segment chip. The friction at the Chiptool interface can be minimized by
polishing the tool face and adequate use of coolant. Also, with diamonds tools the
friction is less. The basis of the production of a continuous chip is the continuous plastic
deformation of the metal ahead of the tool, the chip moving smoothly up the tool face.
Other factors responsible for promoting its production are bigger rake angle, finer feed
and keen cutting edge of the tool.
3) Continuous chip with builtup edge

Fig 3: Continuous chip with builtup edge

Such a chip is usually formed while machining ductile material when high friction
exists at the chip tool interface. The upward flowing chip exerts pressure on the tool
face. The normal reaction NR of the chip on tool face is quite high, and is a maximum
at the cutting edge or nose of the tool. This gives rise to an excessively high temperature
and the compressed metal adjacent to the tool nose gets welded to it. The chip is also
sufficiently hot and gets oxidized as it comes of the tool and turns blue in color. The
extra metal welded to the nose or point of the tool is called built up edge. This metal is
highly strain hardened and brittle. With the result as the chip flows of the tool, the built
of edge is broken and carried away with chip while the rest of it adheres to the surface
of the work piece, making it rough. Due to the built up edge the rack angle is also
altered and so is the cutting force. The common factors responsible for promoting the
formation of built of edge are low cutting speed excessive feed, small rake angle and
lack of lubricant.
Adverse effects of built up edge formation are:
a) Rough surface finish on the work piece.
b) Fluctuating cutting force, causing the vibration in cutting tool.
c) Chances of carrying away some material from the tool by the builtup surface,
producing crater on the tool face and causing tool wear.

To avoid the formation of built up edge the following precaution are required:
a) The coefficient of friction at the chip tool interface should be minimized by
means of polishing the tool face and adequate supply of coolant the operation.
b) The rake angle should be kept large.
c) High cutting speeds and low feeds should be employed because at high speed the
strain of the weld becomes low. Similarly at very high temperature also the strain
of the weld becomes low.
Q7. Writes short notes on the following:
a) Effect of cutting speed, feed and depth of cut on tool life
Effect of cutting speed: Out of all the above factors the maximum effect on tool life is of
cutting speed. The tool life varies inversely as the cutting speed, i.e., higher the cutting
speed the smaller the tool life. Generally, the reduction in tool life corresponding to an
increase in cutting speed is parabolic, as shown in figure below. Based on pioneer work
of F.W. Taylor, the relationship between cutting speed and tool life can be expressed as:
VTn = C
V = Cutting speed (m/min); T = Tool life (minutes); n = An exponent, whose value
largely depends on the material of the tool, called tool life index. Up to a certain extent,
its value is also influenced by some other variables like tool material, cutting conditions,
etc.;
C = A constant, called machining constant, which is numerically equal to the cutting
speed in meters per minute that would give a tool life of one minute.

Curve showing parabolic reduction in tool life with the increase in cutting speed
For all practical purposes the average values of exponent n for common tool materials
can be taken as:
n
= 0.1 to 0.15 for high speed steel tools
= 0.2 to 0.5 for cemented carbide tools
= 0.6 to 1.0 for ceramic tools
For measuring tool life the tools are operated at different cutting speeds to failure and
the results recorded. If the relationship between different cutting speeds and the

corresponding tool lives are plotted on loglog graph, straight lines obtained, which
reveal that the tool life decreases with the increase in cutting speed.
Feed and depth of cut: Feed rate and depth of cut are the other important cutting
variables which also effect the tool life appreciably. An increase in the feed rate and
depth of cut has a similar effect i.e., reduction in tool life, as is experienced by the tool
when cutting speed is increased. However, the effect is not to severe as produced in the
latter case. The different variable, cutting speed, tool life, feed rate and depth of cut are
interrelated as given in the following empirical formula:
VT0.19f0.36t0.30 = 257 m/min
Where, V = Cutting speed in m/min
T = Tool life in minutes
f = Feed rate in mm/min; and,
t = Depth of cut in mm
For a given tool life the relationship among the other variables is also given by the
following empirical formula:
Vfatb = C
Where, V = Cutting speed in (m/min) for the given tool life
f = Feed rat in mm/min
t = Depth of cut in mm
C = A constant
The expression a and b of (f) and (t) will depend upon the mechanical properties of
the workpiece material. From the expression, Vfatb = C, it is quite clear that if the tool
life is considered as constant the cutting speed (V) will decrease if the feed rate (f) and
depth of cut (t) are increased.
b) Machinability index
As mentioned in the previous article, the machinability of a material is relative quantity.
The machinability of different materials is compared to in terms of their machinability
indexes. For this purposes machinability indexes are compared. The machinability index
of this steel is taken as 100%. For computing the machinability index of any other
material the following relationship is used:
Machinability index (%)
Cutting speed of metal for 20 min. tool life
= x 100
Cutting speed of standard freecutting steel for 20 min. tool life
But, this is only one methods used for determining machinability ratings of different
materials. The selection of a suitable criterion or method for evaluating the
machinability will depend upon the type of cutting operation. For example, a

comparison between the cutting forces required for machining a particular material and
those required for a standard material may form the basis of evaluating relative
machinability. Similarly, a comparison between the rate of wear on a cutting tool while
machining certain material with that obtained with a standard material under similar
conditions may also form a basis for evaluating machinability. However, all these
methods fail to provide standard ratings due to the involvement of several variable
factors and, hence, not considered very reliable.
Considering that the machinability index for free cutting steel is 100% the relative
machinability index for some materials given in Table 1., as representative figures.
Table 1. Representative machinability index for some materials
Material
Machinability Material
Machinability
Index (%)
Index (%)
Stainless steel
25
Red brass
150
Low carbon steel
5565
Aluminum alloys 3001500
Magnesium alloys 5002000
Copper
70
Q8. What do you mean by oblique and orthogonal cutting? How do they differ
from each other?
A comparison between these two methods is clearly illustrated in Figs. (a) and (b). In
Fig. (a) is shown as to how these two cutting methods differ while turning a job on a
lathe. Similarly, Fig (b) shows the difference between these two methods as applied to
the planning work, in which t h e tool remains stationary and the work piece
reciprocates. Orthogonal and oblique cutting:
The process of metal cutting is divided into the following two main classes:
1. Orthogonal cutting, and 2. Oblique cutting

Orthogonal and oblique cutting processes in turning

In Orthogonal Cutting shown in Fig. (a), the cutting edge of the tool remains at right
angles to the direction of cutting velocity or work feed; this type of cutting is also as
known as twodimensional cutting. In Oblique Cutting shown in Fig. (b), the cutting

edge of the tool is inclined at an acute angle with the direction of the tool feed or work
feed, the chip being disposed of at a certain angle. This type of cutting is also called
threedimensional cutting.

(a) Orthogonal cutting

(b) Oblique cutting
Orthogonal and oblique cutting processes in planning
The main features of the two types of cutting are summarized as below:
Orthogonal cutting
a) The cutting edge of the tool remains normal to the direction of tool feed or work
feed.
b) The direction of the chip flow velocity is normal to the cutting edge of the tool.
c) The angle of inclinationt of the cutting edge of the tool with the normal to the
velocity Vt is zero.
d) The chip flow angle , i.e., the angle between the direction of chip flow and the
normal to the cutting edge of the tool, measured in the plane of the tool face is
zero.
e) The cutting edge is longer than the width of the cut.
The last condition may not be fulfilled in some cases. It is then called semi
orthogonal or restricted orthogonal cutting.
Oblique cutting
a) The cutting edge of the tool always remains inclined at an acute angle to the
direction of too feed or work feed.
b) The direction of the chip flow velocity is at angle with the normal to the
cutting edge of the tool. The angle is known as chip flow angle.
c) The cutting edge of the tool is inclined at angle t with the normal to
the direction of tool feed or work feed. i.e., the velocity Vt.
d) Three mutually perpendicular components of cutting forces act at the cutting
edge of the tool.
e) The cutting edge may or may not be longer than the width of the cut.
An interesting feature to note here will be that most of the metal cutting carried out in
workshops is through oblique cutting method, but all our further discussions on
metal cutting will be in the context of orthogonal cutting because of its simplicity.

However, it wont matter much since most of the general principles of orthogonal
cutting are equally applicable to oblique cutting.
Q9. The cutting force increases with depth-of-cut and decreasing rake angle.
Explain why.
It is logical that the cutting force increases as the depth of cut increases and rake angle
decreases. Deeper cuts remove more material, thus requiring a higher cutting force. As
the rake angle, , decreases, the shear angle, , decreases, and hence shear energy
dissipation and cutting forces increase.
Q10. What are the effects of performing a cutting operation with a dull tool or a
very sharp tool?
There are many effects of performing a cutting operation with a dull tool. Note that a
dull tool has an increased tip radius; as the tip radius increases (the tool dulls), the
cutting force increases due to the fact that the effective rake angle is decreased. In
addition, shallow depths of cut may not be possible because the tool may simply ride
over the surface without producing chips. Another effect is inducing surface residual
stresses, tearing, and cracking of the machined surface due to the heat generated by the
dull tool tip rubbing against this surface. Dull tools also increase the tendency for BUE
formation, which leads to poor surface finish.
Q11. Explain whether it is desirable to have a high or low n value and C value in
the Taylor tool-life equation.
High n values are desirable because, for the same tool life, we can cut at higher speeds,
thus increasing productivity. Conversely, for the same cutting speed, high n values give
longer tool life. Note that as n approaches zero, tool life becomes extremely sensitive to
cutting speed. As for the value of C, its magnitude is the same as the cutting speed at T
= 1. Consequently, it is desirable to have high C values because we can cut at higher
speeds.
Q12. a) i) Describe the main factors in machine tool design and operation that can lead
to dimensional error in part machining.
ii) What are the consequences of designing a machine tool with low stiffness and how
can these be addressed?
b) i) What properties of the work material have a significant influence on the success of
the machining operation?
ii) What criteria would you use to assess the success or otherwise of a proposed work
material for a particular machining operation?
Solution
i) Describe the main factors in machine tool design and operation that can lead to
dimensional error in part machining.
a) i) The factors that affect work piece accuracy stem from the machine tool itself, the
tool actions and the work piece material. Sources of error are those from geometrical

errors, cutting processes, drive systems, or the environment. These can all be linked to
the mechanical system components and error generating processes, which result in
machining accuracy limitations.
Some answers may offer further detail in terms of static and dynamic effects:
Static Effects
Dynamic Effects
Tool Design
Poor tolerancing
Wear (cutting tools)
Material flow problems Non-linear coupling (chatter)
Set-up
Degradation (wear/erosion)
Shrinkage
Machine Design Precision
Dynamic vibration
Materials
Thermal stability
Environment
Environment
Installation
Environment
Dynamics thermal
Location
Operators
Material
Performance
Poor fixture design
ii) What are the consequences of designing a machine tool with low stiffness and how
can these be addressed?
ii) Low stiffness leads to a collection of vibrations in the machining system as a whole.
There are two causes of this:
Forced Vibrations These are caused by some periodic force present in the machine
tool, such as from gear drives, imbalance of the machine tool components,
misalignment, or motors and pumps.
Self-excited vibration or machine tool chatter - In machining, chatter is the vibration
that feeds on itself as the tool moves across the part. The tool, tool-holder and spindle
together will vibrate at some natural frequencya frequency at which this assembly
"naturally" wants to vibrate. In fact, the assembly is likely to vibrate at more than one
such natural frequency at the same time. At the tool tip, this vibration leaves waves in
the machined surface. The waviness can cause the next cutting edge to experience a
variable load. When that happens, this variable load feeds the vibration that already
exists, making it worse. "Self-excited vibration" is one term for this phenomenon.
"Regenerative chatter is another.
Adverse Effects
1) Poor surface finish
2) Loss of dimensional accuracy
3) Premature wear, chipping, and failure of the cutting tool
4) Damage to the machine tool components from excessive vibration
5) Objectionable acoustic emission, such as high frequency squeal

6) A serious consequence relates to efficiency. Most shops deal with chatter by

setting their machining parameters low. Therefore, instead of tool strength and
spindle power defining the metal removal rate, chatter becomes the limiting factor
that keeps the process from reaching its potential.
How can these be addressed?
Forced vibrations: The basic solution to forced vibrations is to isolate or remove the
forcing element. If this is not possible, the amplitude of the vibration can be reduced by
increasing the stiffness or damping of the system.
Self-excited vibrations: For self-excited vibrations, increasing rigidity is one option. Use
a shorter tool or tool-holder, or switch to a tool-holder that clamps the tool more rigidly
these are examples of changes that might make the process less apt to vibrate. When
milling at high spindle speeds, there is a potentially more promising option. Certain
limited ranges of spindle speed may be stable zones. Within these ranges, the rate of
cutting edge impacts synchronizes with a natural frequency of the system. The chip load
becomes level, so the cut is smooth. The depth of cut can therefore be increased, and
sometimes it can be dramatically increased. A stable value of spindle rpm applies only
to a particular combination of spindle, tool, and tool-holder.
These three factors make up a complete assembly. Every different assembly has to be
evaluated separately; evaluating just the spindle is not enough. However, any particular
spindle and tooling assembly is likely to have more than one stable zone. Therefore,
finding just one stable speed zone might not be enough. Another, much faster speed may
also be stable.
b) i) What properties of the work material have a significant influence on the success of
the machining operation?
b) i) Material properties that have an influence on the ability of a material to be
machined are: properties such has density, hardness, toughness, thermal conductivity,
yield stress, chemical affinity to the cutting tool material, coefficient of friction with the
cutting tool material.
ii) What criteria would you use to assess the success or otherwise of a proposed work
material for a particular machining operation?
ii) Various criteria are used to assess the success of a machining operation. The most
important of which is (1) tool life because of its economic significance in a machining
operation. Other criteria include (2) cutting forces (which determines the power of the
machine), (3) accuracy and surface finish, and (4) ease of chip disposal.
It should be recognized that machining performance depends on more than just material.
The type of machining operation, tooling, and cutting conditions are also important
factors. One work material may yield a longer tool life, whereas another material

provides a better surface finish. All of these factors make evaluation of a materials
suitability for machining complex.