Physics Formula Booklet

1
PHYSICS
FORMULA SHEET
IDEAL 21ST CENTURY COMPETITIONS

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ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS & INSTRUMENTS

Whenever an experiment is performed, two kinds of errors can appear in the measured quantity.
(1) random and (2) systematic errors.
1.
Random errors appear randomly because of operator, fluctuations in external conditions and variability of
measuring instruments. The effect of random error can be some what reduced by taking the average of
measured values. Random errors have no fixed sign or size.
2.
Systematic errors occur due to error in the procedure, or miscalibration of the intrument etc. Such errors
have same size and sign for all the measurements. Such errors can be determined.
A measurement with relatively small random error is said to have high precision. A measurement with small
random error and small systematic error is said to have high accuracy.
The experimental error [uncertainty] can be expressed in several standard ways.
Error limits Q Q is the measured quantity and Q is the magnitude of its limit of error. This expresses the
experimenters judgment that the true value of Q lies between Q Q and Q + Q. This entire interval within
which the measurement lies is called the range of error. Random errors are expressed in this form.
Absolute Error
Error may be expressed as absolute measures, giving the size of the error in a quantity in the same units as
the quantity itself.
Least Count Error : If the instrument has known least count, the absolute error is taken to be half of the
least count unless otherwise stated.
Relative (or Fractional) Error
Error may be expressed as relative measures, giving the ratio of the quantitys error to the quantity itself. In
general,
relative error =
absolute error in a measurement

size of the measurement
We should know the error in the measurement because these errors propagate through the calculations to
produce errors in results.
A. Systematic errors : They have a known sign. The systematic error is removed before begining calculations.
bench error and zero error are examples of systematic error.
B.
Random error : They have unknown sign. Thus they are represented in the form A a.
Here we are only concerned with limits of error. We must assume a worst-case combination. In the case
of substraction, A B, the worst-case deviation of the answer occurs when the errors are either
+ a and b or a and + b. In either case, the maximum error will be (a + b).
For example in the experiment on finding the focal length of a convex lens, the object distance(u) is found
by subtracting the positions of the object needle and the lens. If the optical bench has a least count of 1 mm,
the error in each position will be 0.5 mm. So, the error in the value of u will be 1 mm.
1.
Addition and subtraction rule : The absolute random errors add.

Thus if R = A + B,
r=a+b
and if R = A B,
r=a+b

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2.
Product and quotient rule : The relative random errors add.

r
a b
=
A B
R
Thus if R = AB,
a b
A
r
, then also
=
B
R
A B
and if R =
3.
Power rule : When a quantity Q is raised to a power P, the relative error in the result is P times the relative
error in Q. This also holds for negative powers.
r
q
= P
R
Q
If R = QP,
4.
The quotient rule is not applicable if the numerator and denominator are dependent on each other.
e.g if R =
XY
. We cannot apply quotient rule to find the error in R. Instead we write the equation as
XY
1 1 1
. Differentiating both the sides, we get
R X Y
follows
dR
R
dX
X
dY
Y
Thus
r
R
x
X
y
Y2
Examples
1.
A student finds the constant acceleration of a slowly moving object with a stopwatch. The equation used
is S = (1/2)AT2. The time is measured with a stopwatch, the distance, S with a meter stick. What is the
acceleration and its estimated error?
S = 2 0.005 meter.
T = 4.2 0.2 second.
Sol : We use capital letters for quantities, lower case for errors. Solve the equation for the result, a.
a
t s
2
A = 2S/T2. Its random-error equation is
A
T S
2
Thus A = 0.23 0.02 m/s .
SIGNIFICANT DIGITS
Significant figures are digits that are statistically significant. There are two kinds of values in science :
1.
Measured Values
2.
Computed Values
The way that we identify the proper number of significant figures in science are different for these two types.
MEASURED VALUES
Identifying a measured value with the correct number of significant digits requires that the instruments
calibration be taken into consideration. The last significant digit in a measured value will be the first estimated
position.For example, a metric ruler is calibrated with numbered calibrations equal to 1 cm. In addition,
there will be ten unnumbered calibration marks between each numbered position. (each equal to 0.1 cm).
Then one could with a little practice estimate between each of those marking. (each equal to 0.05 cm). That
first estimated position would be the last significant digit reported in the measured value. Lets say that we were
measuring the length of a tube, and it extended past the fourteenth numbered calibration half way between the

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third and fourth unnumbered mark. The metric ruler was a meter stick with 100 numbered calibrations. The
reported measured length would be 14.35 cm. Here the total number of significant digits will be 4.
COMPUTED VALUE
The other type of value is a computed value. The proper number of significant figures that a computed value
should have is decided by a set of conventional rules. However before we get to those rules for computed
values we have to consider how to determine how many significant digits are indicated in the numbers being
used in the math computation.
A.
1.
2.
3.
Rules for determining the number of significant digits in number with indicated decimals.
All non-zero digits (1-9) are to be counted as significant.
Zeros that have any non-zero digits anywhere to the LEFT of them are considered significant zeros.
All other zeros not covered in rule (ii) above are NOT be considered significant digits.
For example : 0.0040000
The 4 is obviously to be counted significant (Rule-1), but what about the zeros? The first three zeros would
not be considered significant since they have no non-zero digits anywhere to their left (Rule-3). The last
four zeros would all be considered significant since each of them has the non-zero digit 4 to their left (Rule2). Therefore the number has a total of five significant digits.
Here is another example : 120.00420
The digit 1, 2, 4 and 2 are all considered significant (Rule-1). All zeros are considered significant since they
have non-zero digits somewhere to their left (Rule-2). So there are a total of eight significant digits.
If in the question, we are given a number like 100, we will treat that the number has only one significant digit
by convention.
B.
Determining the number of significant digits if number is not having an indicated decimal.
The decimal indicated in a number tells us to what position of estimation the number has been indicated. But
what about 1,000,000?
Notice that there is no decimal indicated in the number. In other words, there is an ambiguity concerning the
estimated position. This ambiguity can only be clarified by placing the number in exponential notation.
For example : If I write the number above in this manner.
1.00 106
I have indicated that the number has been recorded with three significant digits. On the other hand, if I write
the same number as : 1.0000 106
I have identified the number to have 5 significant digits. Once the number has been expressed in exponential
notation form then the digits that appear before the power of ten will all be considered significant. So for
example : 2.0040 104 will have five significant digits. This means that unit conversion will not change the
number of significant digits. Thus 0.000010 km = 1.0 cm = 0.010 m = 1.0 102 m = 1.0 105 km
Rule for expressing proper number of significant digits in an answer from multiplication or division
For multiplication AND division there is the following rule for expressing a computed product or quotient
with the proper number of significant digits.
The product or quotient will be reported as having as many significant digits as the number involved in the
operation with the least number of significant digits.
For example : 0.000170 100.40 = 0.017068
The product could be expressed with no more that three significant digits since 0.000170 has only three
significant digits, and 100.40 has five. So according to the rule the product answer could only be expressed
with three significant digits. Thus the answer should be 0.0171 (after rounding off)
Another example : 2.000 104 / 6.0 103 = 0.33 107
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The answer could be expressed with no more that two significant digits since the least digited number
involved in the operation has two significant digits.
Sometimes this would required expressing the answer in exponential notation.
For example : 3.0 800.0 = 2.4 103
The number 3.0 has two significant digits and then number 800.0 has four. The rule states that the answer
can have no more than two digits expressed. However the answer as we can all see would be 2400. How do
we express the answer 2400 while obeying the rules? The only way is to express the answer in exponential
notation so 2400 could be expressed as : 2.4 103
Rule for expressing the correct number of significant digits in an addition or substraction :
The rule for expressing a sum or difference is considerably different than the one for multiplication of division.
The sum or difference can be no more precise than the least precise number involved in the mathematical
operation.Precision has to do with the number of positions to the RIGHT of the decimal. The more position to
the right of the decimal, the more precise the number. So a sum or difference can have no more indicated
positions to the right of the decimal as the number involved in the operation with the LEAST indicated positions
to the right of its decimal.
For example : 160.45 + 6.732 = 167.18 (after rounding off)
The answer could be expressed only to two positions to the right of the decimal, since 160.45 is the least
precise.
Another example : 45.621 + 4.3 6.41 = 43.5 (after rounding off)
The answer could be expressed only to one position to the right of the decimal, since the number 4.3 is the least
precise number (i.e. having only one position to the right of its decimal). Notice we arent really determining
the total number of significant digits in the answer with this rule.
Rules for rounding off digits :
There are a set of conventional rules for rounding off.
1.
Determine according to the rule what the last reported digit should be.
2.
Consider the digit to the right of the last reported digit.
3.
If the digit to the right of the last reported digit is less than 5 round it and all digits to its right off.
4.
If the digit to the right of the last reported digit is greater than 5 round it and all digits to its right off and
increased the last reported digit by one.
5.
If the digit to the right of the last reported digit is a 5 followed by either no other digits or all zeros, round
it and all digits to its right off and if the last reported digit is odd round up to the next even digit. If the last
reported digit is even then leave it as is.
For example if we wish to round off the following number to 3 significant digits : 18.3682
The last reported digits would be the 3. The digit to its right is a 6 which is greater than 5. According to the
Rule-4 above, the digit 3 is increased by one and the answer is : 18.4
Another example : Round off 4.565 to three significant digits.
The last reported digit would be the 6. The digit to the right is a 5 followed by nothing. Therefore according
to Rule-5 above since the 6 is even it remains so and the answer would be 4.56.
EXPERIMENTS
(i)
Measurement of length
The simplest method measuring the length of a straight line is by means of a meter scale. But there exists
some limitation in the accuracy of the result:
(i) the dividing lines have a finite thickness.
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(ii) naked eye cannot correctly estimate less than 0.5 mm
For greater accuracy devices like
(a)
Vernier callipers
(b)
micrometer scales (screw gauge) are used.
VERNIER CALLIPERS:
P
Vernier Scale
S
Main Scale
M
15
1
C
D
Vernier Callipers

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It consists of a main scale graduated in cm/mm over which an auxiliary scale (or Vernier scale) can slide
along the length. The division of the Vernier scale being shorter than the divisions of the main scale.
Least count of Vernier Callipers
The least count or Vernier constant (v. c) is the minimum value of correct estimation of length without eye
estimation. If N division of vernier coincides with (N-1) division of main scale, then
N (VS) = (N 1) ms 1VS =
N 1
ms
N
1ms
N 1
ms =
Vernier constant = 1 ms 1 vs = 1
, which is equal to the value of the smallest division
N
N
on the main scale divided by total number of divisions on the vernier scale.
Length as measured by Vernier Callipers

The formula for measuring the length is L
= main scale reading + least count of vernier scale Vernier scale division coinciding with a main scale division
Main scale reading is given by the zeroth division of the vernier scale as shown in the figure.
Zero error:
Main scale
Main scale
Main scale
10
Vernier scale
without zero error
10
Vernier scale
with positive zero error
10
Vernier scale
with negative zero error
(i)
(ii)
10
6th division
coinciding
Negative zero error = (-0.04 cm)
and its correction
If the zero marking of main scale and vernier callipers do not coincide, necessary correction has to be made
for this error which is known as zero error of the instrument.
If the zero of the vernier scale is to the right of the zero of the main scale the zero error is said to be positive
and the correction will be negative and vice versa.
The zero error is always subtracted from the reading to get the corrected value.
If the zero error is positive, its value is calculated as we take any normal reading. If the zero error negative
(the zero of vernier scale lies to the left of the zero of main scale),
negative zero error = [Total no. of vsd vsd coinciding] L.C.
Do not try to read the main scale at the point where the lines match best. This has no meaning. Read
from the vernier scale instead. Sometimes it is difficult to tell whether the best match of lines is for
vernier marks 9, 0, or 1. Make your best estimate, but realize that the final result including the vernier

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must round off to the result you would choose if there was no vernier. If the mark is close to 3.20 on the
main scale, but the vernier reading is 9, the length is 3.19 cm. If the mark is close to 3.2 on the main scale
and the vernier is 1, the length is 3.21 cm.
SCREW GAUGE (OR MICROMETER SCREW)
In general vemier callipers can measure accurately upto 0.01 em and for
greater accuracy micrometer screw devices e.g. screw gauge, spherometer
are used. These consist of accurately cut screw which can be moved in a
closely fitting fixed nut by tuming it axially. The instrument
is provided with two scales:

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(i)
The main scale or pitch scale M graduated along the axis of the screw.
(ii)
The cap-scale or head scale H round the edge of the screw head.
Constants of the Screw Gauge
(a)
Pitch : The translational motion of the screw is directly proportional to the total rotation of the head. The
pitch of the instrument is the distance between two consecutive threads of the screw which is equal to the
distance moved by the screw due to one complete rotation of the cap. Thus for 10 rotation of cap = 5 mm,
then pitch = 0.5 mm
(b)
Least count : In this case also, the minimum (or least) measurement (or count) of length is equal to one
division on the head scale which is equal to pitch divided by the total cap divisions. Thus in the aforesaid
Illustration:, if the total cap division is 100, then least count = 0.5mm/100 = 0.005 mm
(c)
Measurement of length by screw gauge :

L = n pitch + f least count, where n = main scale reading & f = caps scale reading
Zero Error : In a perfect instrument the zero of the heat scale coincides with the line of graduation along the
screw axis with no zero-error, otherwise the instrument is said to have zero-error which is equal to the cap
reading with the gap closed. This error is positive when zero line or reference line of the cap lies below the
line of graduation and versa. The corresponding corrections will be just opposite.

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(ii)
Measurement of g using a simple pendulum

A small spherical bob is attached to a cotton thread and the combination is suspended from
a point A. The length of the thread (L) is read off on a meter scale. A correction is added to
L to include the finite size of the bob and the hook. The corrected value of L is used for
further calculation. The bob is displaced slightly to one side and is allowed to oscillate, and
the total time taken for 50 complete oscillations is noted on a stop-watch.
The time period (T) of a single oscillation is now calculated by division.
Observations are now taken by using different lengths for the cotton thread (L) and
pairs of values of L and T are taken. A plot of L v/s T2, on a graph, is linear.
2
g is given by g = 4
L
T2
The major errors in this experiment are

(a)
Systematic : Error due to finite amplitude of the pendulum (as the motion is not exactly SHM). This may
be corrected for by using the correct numerical estimate for the time period. However the practice is to
ensure that the amplitude is small.
(b)
Statistical : Errors arising from measurement of length and time.

g L T
2
g
L
T
The contributions to L, T are both statistical and systematic. These are reduced by the process of averaging.
The systematic error in L can be reduced by plotting several values of L vs T2 and fitting to a straight line.
The slope of this fit gives the correct value of L/T2
(iii)
Determination of Youngs Modulus by Searles Method

The experimental set up consists of two identical wires P and Q of uniform
cross section suspended from a fixed rigid support. The free ends of these
parallel wires are connected to a frame F as shown in the figure. The length of
the wire Q remains fixed while the load L attached to the wire P through the
frame F is varied in equal steps so as to produce extension along .the length.
The extension thus produced is measured with the help of spirit level SL and
micrometer screw M attached to the F frame on the side of the experimental
wire.On placing the slotted weights on the hanger H upto a permissible value
(half of the breaking force) the wire gets extended by small amount and the
spirit level gets disturbed from horizontal setting. This increase in length is
measured by turning the micrometer screw M upwards so as to restore the
balance of the spirit level. If n be the number of turns of the micrometer screw
and f be the difference in the cap
reading, the increase in length M is obtained by
l = n pitch + f least count
In some situations, the change in length is obtained by vernier arrangement instead of the screw gauge.
The load on the hanger is reduced in the same steps and spirit level is restored to horizontal position. The
mean of these two observations gives the true increase in length of the wire corresponding to the given
value of load. This is to eliminate the effect of hysterisis.
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From the data obtained, a graph showing extension (l) against the load (W) is plotted which is obtained as
a straight line passing through the origin. The slope of the line gives
tan
Now, stress =
l
l
W Mg
Mg
r
and strain =
l
L
MgL
L
=
r 2l
r 2 tan
With known values of initial length L, radius r of the experimental wire and tan, Youngs modulus Y can be
calculated.
Y = Stress/ strain =
(iv)
Specific Heat of a liquid using a calorimeter:

The principle is to take a known quantity of liquid in an insulated calorimeter and heat it by passing a known
current (i) through a heating coil immersed within the liquid for a known length of time (t). The mass of the
calorimeter (m1) and, the combined mass of the calorimeter and the liquid (m2) are measured. The potential
drop across the heating coil is V and the maximum temperature of the liquid is measured to 2.
The specific heat of the liquid (Sl) is found by using the relation
(m2 m1)Sl(2 0) + m1Sc(2 0) = i. V. t
or,
(m2 m1)Sl + m1Sc = i. V. t /(2 0)
..... (1)
Here, 0 is the room temperature, while Sc is the specific heat of the material of the calorimeter and the
stirrer. If Sc is known, then Sl can be determined.
On the other hand, if Sc is unknown: one can either repeat the experiment with water or a different mass of
the liquid and use the two equations to eliminate m1Sc.
The sources of error in this experiment are errors due to improper connection of the heating coil, radiation,
apart from statistical errors in measurement.
Error analysis :
After correcting for systematic errors, equation (i) is used to estimate the remaining errors.
(v)
Focal length of a concave mirror and a convex lens using the u-v method.
In this method one uses an optical bench and the convex lens (or the concave mirror) is placed on the holder.
The position of the lens is noted by reading the scale at the bottom of the holder. A bright object (a filament
lamp or some similar object) is placed at a fixed distance (u) in front of the lens (mirror).
The position of the image (v) is determined by moving a white screen behind the lens until a sharp image is
obtained (for real images).
For the concave mirror, the position of the image is determined by placing a sharp object (a pin) on the
optical bench such that the parallax between the object pin and the image is nil.
A plot of |u| versus |v| gives a rectangular hyperbola. A plot of
1
1
vs
|u|
|v|
gives a straight line.

The intercepts are equal to
1
,where f is the focal length.
|f |
Error : The systematic error in this experiment is mostly due to improper position of the object on the

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holder. This error maybe eliminated by reversing the holder (rotating the holder by 180 about the vertical)
and then taking the readings again. Averages are then taken.
The equation for random errors gives:
u
2
f
u
v2
The errors u, v correspond to the error in the measurement of u and v. Actually, we know the errors in the object
position, lens position & image position. So, the errors in u & v are too be estimated as described before.
Index Error or Bench Error and its correction: In an experiment using an optical bench we are required
to measure the object and image distances from the pole or vertex on the mirror. The distance between the
tip of the needles and the pole of the mirror is the actual distance. But we practically measure distances
between the indices with the help of the scale engraved on the bench. These distances are called the observed
distances. The actual distances may not be equal to the observed distances and due to this reason an error
creeps in the measurement of the distances. This error is called the index or the bench error. This error is
estimated with the help of a needle of known length placed horizontally between the tip of the needle and
the pole.
Index Error
Index Correction
=
=
Observed distance actual distance and

Actual observed distance
Note: Index correction whether positive or negative, is always added algebraically to the observed distance
to get the corrected distance.
d1
Parallax
When two objects O1 and O2 are placed in such a way that both of them lie in the same line of sight as shown
in figure, then the object nearer to the eye covers the object farther from it. Their images on the retina are
superimposed and therefore, it is impossible to decide which is the nearer object. To identify this fact, the
observer displaces his eye to a position E1 or E2 until he is able to see two distinct objects.
E1
O2
O1
E
E2
The more distant object O2 apparently moves in the direction opposite to the displacement of the observers
eye with respect to the nearer object O1. This relative shift in the position of two objects due to the shift in
the position of the observers eye is called parallax.
Parallax between the two objects disappear if they are at the same position.
The figure shows the tips of two pins P1 and P2 kept in the upright positions. The parallax between P1 and
P2 is removed by shifting the position of observers eye sideways. As the farther pin P1 is displaced towards
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the pin P2 the relative shift (parallax) between their positions decreases as the position of eye is displaced
sideways. The relative shift vanishes when the pin P1 occupies the position P1, that is , when the tips of the
two are just coincident. At this position there is no parallax between the tips of the two pins.
P1
P1
P2
(vi)
Speed of sound using resonance column

A tuning fork of known frequency (f) is held at the mouth of a long tube, which is
dipped into water as shown in the figure.The length (l1) of the air column in the tube
is adjusted until it resonates with the tuning fork. The air temperature and humidity
are noted.The length of the tube is adjusted again until a second resonance length
(l2) is found (provided the tube is long)
Then, l2 l1 =/ 2, provided l1, l2 are resonance lengths for adjacent resonances.
= 2(l2 l1), is the wavelength of sound.

Since the frequency f, is known; the velocity of sound in air at the temperature () and humidity (h) is given
by C = f = 2(l2 l1)f
It is also possible to use a single measurement of the resonant length directly, but, then it has to be corrected
for the end effect:
(fundamental) = 4(l1 + 0.3d), where d = diameter
Errors : The major systematic errors introduced are due to end effects in (end correction) and also due to
excessive humidity.
Random errors are given by
C (l2 l1 ) l2 l1
C
l2 l1
l2 l1
(vii)
(a)
(b)
Verification of Ohms law using voltmeter and ammeter

A voltmeter (V) and an ammeter (A) are connected in a circuit along with a
resistance R as shown in the figure, along with a battery B and a rheostat, Rh
Simultaneous readings of the current i and the potential drop V are taken by
changing the resistance in the rheostat (Rh). A graph of V vs i is plotted and
it is found to be linear (within errors). The magnitude of R
is determined by either
V
and then
i
fitting to a straight line: V = iR, and determining the slope R.
taking the ratio
Errors :
Systematic errors in this experiment arise from the current flowing through V (finite resistance of the
voltmeter), the Joule heating effect in the circuit and the resistance of the connecting wires/ connections of
the resistance. The effect of Joule heating may be minimsed by switching on the circuit for a short while
only, while the effect of finite resistance of the voltmeter can be overcome by using a high resistance
instrument or a potentiometer. The lengths of connecting wires should be minimised as much as possible.

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Error analysis :
R
V i
V
The error in computing the ratio R =

is given by R
V
i
i
where V and i are of the order of the least counts of the instruments used.
(viii) Specific resistance of the material of a wire using a meter bridge :

A known length (l) of a wire is connected in one of the gaps (P) of a
metre bridge, while a Resistance Box is inserted into the other gap
(Q). The circuit is completed by using a battery (B), a Rheostat (Rh),
a Key (K) and a galvanometer (G).The balance length (l ) is found by
closing key k and momentarily connecting the galvanometer until it
gives zero deflection (null point). Then,
P
l
Q 100 l
.......(1)
using the expression for the meter bridge at balance. Here, represents the resistance of the wire while Q
represents the resistance in the resistance box. The key K is open when the circuit is not in use.
The resistance of the wire, P =
L
r 2
=
P .......(2)
r 2
L
where r is the radius of wire and L is the length of the wire, r is measured using a screw gauge while L is
measured with a scale.
Errors : The major systematic errors in this experiment are due to the heating effect, end corrections
introduced due to shift of the zero of the scale at A and B, and stray resistances in P and Q, and errors due
to non-uniformity of the meter bridge wire.
Error analysis : End corrections can be estimated by including known resistances P1 and Q1 in the two
ends and finding the null point:
P1
l1
Q1 100 l1
..... (2),
where and are the end corrections.
When the resistance Q1 is placed in the left gap and P1 in the right gap,
Q1
l2
P1 100 l2
..... (3)
which give two linear equation for finding and .

In order that and be measured accurately, P1 and Q1 should be as different from each other as possible.
For the actual balance point,
l1'
P
l
,
Q 100 l l2'
Errors due to non-uniformity of the meter bridge wire can be minimised by interchanging the resistances in
the gaps P and Q.
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'
'
P l1 l2
' '
P
l1
l2
where, l1 and l2 are of the order of the least count of the scale.
The error is, therefore, minimum if l1 = l2 i.e. when the balance point is in the middle of the bridge. The
error in is
P 2r L P
P
r
L
P
(ix)
Measurement of unknown resistance using a P.O. Box

A P.O. Box can also be used to measure an unknown
resistance. It is a Wheatstone Bridge with three arms
P, Q and R; while the fourth arm(s) is the unknown
resistan ce. P and Q are known as the ratio arms
while R is known at the rheostat arm.
At balance, the unknown resistance
P
S = R
Q
.....(1)
The ratio arms are first adjusted so that they carry 100
each. The resistance in the rheostat arm is now adjusted so
that the galvanometer deflection is in one direction, if R = R0
(Ohm) and in the opposite direction when R = R0 +1 (ohm).
This implies that the unknown resistance, S lies between R0and R0 + 1 (ohm). Now, the resistance in P and
Q are made 100 and 1000 respectively, and the process is repeated.
Equation (1) is used to compute S.
The ratio P/Q is progressively made 1:10, and then 1 :100. The resistance S can be accurately measured.
Errors : The major sources of error are the connecting wires, unclear resistance plugs, change in resistance
due to Joule heating, and the insensitivity of the Wheatstone bridge.
These may be removed by using thick connecting wires, clean plugs, keeping the circuit on for very brief
periods (to avoid Joule heating) and calculating the sensitivity.
In order that the sensitivity is maximum, the resistance in the arm P is close to the value of the resistance S.

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16
KINEMATICS
THINGS TO REMEMBER :
1.
v=
ds
dt
; a=
dv
dv
=v
dt
ds
; s = v dt ; v = a dt ;
v2
a ds
2
where the symbols have their usual meaning .

2.
3.
The equations of motion for a body moving in straight line with uniform acceleration, are
(i)
v = u + at
(iv)
sn = u +
1
a (2 n - 1)
2
a t2
a t2
u v
vt
t ut
2
2
2
(ii)
s=
(v)
vu
t
S=
2
(iii)
v = u + 2 as
If a body is thrown vertically up with a velocity u in the uniform gravitational field then (neglecting air
resistance) :
2
(i) Maximum height attained H =
(iii) Total time of flight =
u
2g
2u
g
(ii) Time of ascent = time of descent =
u
g
(iv) Velocity of fall at the point of projection = u downwards
4.
KINEMATIC GRAPH :
Slope of the displacement time graph at any particular time gives the magnitude of the instantaneous
velocity at that particular time .
Slope of the v - t graph will give the magnitude of the instantaneous acceleration.
The area between the v - t graph , the time axis and the ordinates erected at the beginning &
end of time interval considered will represent the total displacement of the body.
5.
LEVEL GROUND PROJECTILE MOTION :

When a body is thrown obliquely (in a vertical plane) into the uniform gravitational field then the trajectory
(actual path of motion) is a parabola. The horizontal component of velocity u cos remains unchanged
where as vertical component decreases up to the maximum height and then increases .
(a) Time taken to reach the height point tH =
u 2 sin 2
2g
2 u sin
=2
g
u sin
g
(b) Maximum height H =

(c) Total time of flight =
(d) Horizontal range = (u cos ) . T =
tH
2
g
(u cos ) (u sin ) =
u 2 sin 2
g
u2
(e) Rmax =
if = 45
g
Note that for a given velocity of projection & a given horizontal range there are in general two directions of
projection which are complement of each other and are equally inclined to the direction of the maximum range.
(f) VELOCITY & DIRECTION OF MOTION AT A GIVEN TIME :
Vcos ucos Squaring & adding these 2 equations we will get the velocity of the
projectile. Dividing the velocities in y and x directions gives the direction of
Vsin usin gt
motion.
(g) VELOCITY & DIRECTION OF MOTION AT A GIVEN HEIGHT h :
V 2 cos 2
V 2 sin 2
u 2 cos 2
on adding V2 = u2 2 gh
u 2 sin 2 2gh

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17
(h) EQUATIONS OF MOTION IN VECTOR NOTATION
:
S 1
(i) Vu gt (ii) Sut gt 2 (iii) Vav = u gt ( Vav = average velocity vector)
t
2
2
(i) EQUATION OF TRAJECTORY :
gx 2
x
= x tan 1
Oblique Projection (refer fig-1) y = x tan
2
2
2u cos
R
dy
Note that
represent the direction of motion .
dx
6. PROJECTILE UP AN INCLINED PLANE :

(a)
Total time of flight on the inclined plane

T=
(b)
2 u sin ( )
g
cos
Range PQ on the inclined plane

PQ =
(c)
2
2 u 2 cos . sin ( )
= u 2 [sin (2 ) sin ]
2
cos
g
g cos
For Maxmimum range 2 =
=
2
4 2
Hence the direction for maximum range bisects the angle between the vertical and the inclined
plane .
(d)
Greatest distance of the projectile from the inclined plane ;

S=
u 2 sin 2 ( )
when the projectile is at H, its velocity perpendicular to the plane is zero .
2 g cos
7. PROJECTILE DOWN AN INCLINED PLANE :
8.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
2 u sin ( )
g cos
(a)
Time of flight =
(b)
Range OP =
(c)
Angle of projection for maximum range =
2 u 2 sin ( ) . cos
g cos 2
4 2
RELATIVE VELOCITY :
Velocity of A relative to B is given by VAB VA VB .
VAB refers to the velocity which A appears to have as seen by B. The above idea of 1
dimensional relative motion can be extended to motion in 2 dimensions.
For crossing a river in minimum possible time, the velocity of the swimmer relative to the river should be
perpendicular to the river flow.
For crossing a river travelling least possible distance, the velocity of the swimmer relative to the ground
should be as close to the perpendicular to the river flow as possible.
If an athelete is running, his clothes will be furling in the direction of the velocity of the wind relative to him
self.
If you do not want to get drenched in a rain, you should hold the umbrella in a direction opposite to the
velocity of the rain relative to your self.
Two particles, 1 and 2, move with constant velocities v1 and v2. At the initial moment their radius vectors
are equal to r1 and r2. For the two particles to collide, the relative velocity of 1 with respect to 2 should be
directed towards 2 as seen by 2.
If the 2 particles do not collide, at the minimum seperation the relative velocity should be perpendicular to
line joining both.

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18
PARTICLES DYNAMICS
1.
(i)
FORCE
There are, basically, five forces, which are commonly encountered in mechanics.
Weight : Weight of an object is the force with which earth attracts it. It is also called the force of gravity or
the gravitational force.
(ii)
Contact Force : When two bodies come in contact they exert forces on each other that is called contact
forces.
(a) Normal force (N) : It is the component of contact force normal to the surface. It
measures how strongly the surfaces in contact are pressed together.
(b) Frictional force : It is the component of contact force parallel to the surface.
It opposes the relative motion (or attempted motion) of the two surfaces in contact.
(iii)
Tension : The force exerted by the end of a taut string, rope or chain is called the tension. The direction of
tension is to pull the body while that of normal reaction is to push the body.
(iv)
Spring force : The force exerted by a spring is given by F = kx, where x is the change in length and k is
the stiffness constant or spring constant (units Nm1).
2.
NEWTON'S LAWS
Newton's First Law : Every particle continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line
unless it is compelled to change that state by the action of an applied force.
3.
Newton's Second Law :
4.
Newton's Third Law : Whenever two bodies interact they exert forces on each other which are equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction. So whenever body A exerts a force F on body B, B exerts a force F
on A.
Fnet m a
Inertial Reference Frame : A reference frame in which Newtons first law is valid is called an inertial
reference frame. An inertial frame is either at rest or moving with uniform velocity.
Non-Inertial Frame :An accelerated frame of reference is called a non-inertial frame. Objects in noninertial frames do not obey Newtons first law.
Pseudo Force : It is an imaginary force which is recognized only by a non-inertial observer to explain the
physical situation according to Newtons law. The magnitude of this force FP is equal to the product of the
mass m of the object and acceleration a of the frame of reference. The direction of the force is opposite to
the direction of acceleration.
FP = ma
The force of friction comes into action only when there is a relative motion between the two contact
surfaces or when an attempt is made to have it.
The force of friction on each body is in a direction opposite to its motion (existing or impending) relative
to other body.

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5.
Static friction : The frictional force acting between any two surfaces at rest with respect to each other is
called the force of static friction (fs).
fs sN
where s is the static coefficient of friction.
6.
Kinetic friction : The frictional force acting between surfaces in relative motion
with respect to each other is called the force of kinetic friction or sliding friction
(fk).
fk = kN
where k is the coefficient of kinetic friction.
s > k
Angle of friction () : Mathematically, the angle of friction () may be defined as the angle between the
normal reaction N and the resultant of the maximum friction force f and the normal reaction.
f
N
Since f = N, therefore,
tan =
Thus tan =

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ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS
Types of motion :
1.
Translational If all the particles have same velocity at any given time than it is translational motion. Also
rigid body moves parallel to itself in translational motion.
2.
Pure Rotational A rigid body is said to be in pure rotation if every particle of the body moves in a circle
and the centres of all the circles lie on a straight line called the axis of rotation.
3.
Combined translation & rotational A general plane motion is a combination of translation and
rotation.
Relation between linear & angular variables

(A) Distance
S = r
(B) Acceleration
dV
(rate of change of speed)
dt
= r (tangentially directed)
at =
V2
r
= 2r (directed towards centre)
ar =
Angular velocity of a pt. on rigid body wrt other pt. on rigid body
all points are rotating with angular velocity with respect to each other.
ENERGY OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

Gravitational P.E.
U = mg hcm
Kinetic energy
K. =
1 2
I
2
MOMENT OF INERTIA
Definition : Property of a rigid body by virtue of which it opposes change in its rotational velocity (angular
velocity) is known as MI.
* This is always written wrt a axis of rotation.
* This plays same role in rotational motion as mass plays in translational motion
* Difference between mass & MI is that mass is property of body & is independent of any reference from
choosen but MI depends on the
(i) axis of rotation
(ii) shape of the body
(iii) size of the body
(iv) density of the material of the body mass depends only on these two things
1.
MI of a point mass :
Iyy = mr2
2.
MI for point mass distribution :

then Iyy = m1r12 + m2r22 + m3r32 + .........

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21
For continuous mass distribution
Iyy = . dm r 2
where r is distance of any element from axis of rotation.
Important point
MI of two or more than two bodies can be added or subtracted only when all MI are written w.r.t. same
axis.
Uniform ring
(about an axis passing through centre and perpendicular to the plane.)
I = mr2
MR 2
=
2
Disc
(about axis passing through centre and perpendicular to plane of disc).
m
R
y
r
= mr2
Hollow cylinder (about yy axis)

Note : Independent of length of cylinder of same mass.
y
y
MR 2
2
Hollow sphere (about a diameter)
2
MR2
3
Solid sphere (about a diameter)
2M 2
R
5
Uniform rod mass M length
ml 2
=
3
Solid cylinder (about yy axis)
(about axis passing through one end & perpendicular).

L
uniform rod (about an axis passing at
from one end and perpendicular)
4
=
l/2
l/2
ml 2
12
I=0
uniform rod (about axis passing through rod)

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22
Parallel-axis theorem :
Used to find moment of inertia about an axis which parallel to the axis passing through C.M.
IP = ICM + Md2
ICM MI of the rigid body about an axis through CM
IP MI of the rigid body about an axis which is parallel to the above axis through CM & is at distance d
from the axis through CM
Theorem of perpendicular axis
Iz = Ix + Iy
This theorem is applicable only for the laminar bodies (i.e. plane bodies). (e.g. ring, disc, not sphere)
Ix & Iy are MI of body about a common pt. O in two mutually directions in the plane of body
Iz is MI of body about a axis to X & Y axis & passing through pt. O
Radius of gyration :
I
M
I is Mi about the axis, for which k is written.
k=
Torque :
= F l sin
O
r
Vectorial representation & understanding of torque :
F||

r F
Torque due to force of gravity :

rcm (Mg )
Relation between torque and angular acceleration of a rigid body :
=
ext I
where and I are both written about axis of rotation.
Angular momentum of a particle :

L rP
Angular momentum of a system of particle :
(a)
(b)
For collection of point massesL = Li

For rigid body Laxis = Iaxis
Here Laxis means component of angular momentum along the axis
Relation between torque and angular momentum :
dL axis
dL
ext =
axis =
dt
dt
Conservation of angular momentum :
If external torque about a axis is zero then angular momentum of the system about that axis will remains
conserved. So if axis = 0 Laxis = constant
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23
COMBINED ROTATION AND TRANSLATION
dLamberts theorem says that every possible motion of a rigid body can be represented as a
combination of translational motion of the centre of mass and rotation about an axis through the centre
of mass.
Kinetic Energy
KE =
1
1
2
MVcm
+ Icm 2
2
2
Angular momentum
Theorem : Angular momentum of a body about any point or axis A = L of body about C.M. (parallel to
axis A) + L of C.M. about axis A.
+ L cm
L = L body cm
Instantaneous Point/Axis of rest
Axis about which combined rotation & translational motion of a body can be represented as pure rotation.
Note :
1. The axis is to the plane of motion
2. Can not be used for acceleration
3. KE =
1
I
2
2 IAOR
Equilibrium & Toppling

necessary conditions for equilibrium of an object :
1.
The resultant external force must equal zero.
F 0
2.
The resultant external torque about any axis must be zero :

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24
MECHANICAL WAVES
1.
Wave Equation :
(i)
The equation for a progressive wave travelling in the positive x-direction is

t x
y = sin 2 ,
T
where y is the displacemnet at point x, at time t, A is the amplitude, T is the period and is the wavelength.
The frequency is
(ii)
and the velocity of the wave is .

T
T
The velocity of propagation of a transverse wave in a streched string

v=
T
m
where T is the tension in the string and m is the mass per unit length of the string.
(iii)
The power transmitted along the string is proportional to the square of the square of the amplitude and
square of the frequency of the wave.
1 2 A 2 F
Pav =
= 22 vA2v2.
2
v
(iv)
The equation for a stationary wave is

2x
2t
sin
y = 2A cos

T
(v)
In a sonometer wire of length L and mass per unit length m under tension T vibrating in n loops
fn=
n
2L
T
m
(vi)
Pitch, loudness and quality are the characteristics of a musical note. Pitch depends on the frequency. Loudness
depends on intensity and quality depends on the waveform of the constituent overtones.
(vii)
Resonance occurs when the forcing frequency is equal to the natural frequency of a vibrating body.
(viii)
Velocity of propagation of sound in a gas =
P
, where D is the density of the gas and is the ratio of
D
specific heats.
2.
Vibrating air columns :
(i)
In a pipe of length L closed at one end, the funamental note has a frequency f1 =
of sound in air.
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v
, where v is the velocity
4L
25
v
= 2f1
L
(ii)
The first overtone f2 =
3.
(i)
Propagation of sound in solids :

The velocity of propagation of a longitudinal wave in a rod of Youngs modulus Y and density is given by
v=
(ii)
In a sonometer wire of length L and mass per unit length m under tension T vibrating in n loops
(iii)
n
T
2L m
Propagation of sound in gases
fn=
Laplace formula v =
where is the ratio of specific heats, P is the pressure and is the density.
vt
T
v0
T0
4.
(i)
273 t
273
Doppler Effect :
When a source of sound moves with a velocity vs in a certain direction, the wavelength decreases in front of
the source and increases behind the source.
(in front) =
v
v
v vs
fs
;
f
=
' v vs
fs
(behind) =
v
v
v vs
fs
;
f
=
' ' v vs
fs
Here v is the velocity of sound in air.

(ii)
(a)
v v0
fs
v
When the source is moving towards the observer and the observer is moving away from the source, the
apparent frequency
The apparent frequency =
v v0
fa = v v f s
s
(b)
When the source and the observer are moving towards each other.
v v0
fa = v v f s
s
(c)
When the source and observer are moving away from each other,
v v0
fa = v v f s
s
(d)
When the source is moving away from the observer and the observer is moving towards the source
v v0
fa = v v f s
s
Here all velocities are relation to the medium.

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26
5.
Loudness of sound :
The loudness level B of sound is expressed in decibels,
I
B = 10 log I
where I is the intensity, I0 is a reference intensity.

6.
Beats :
When two tuning forks of close but different frequencies f1 and f2 are vibrating simultaneously at nearby
places, a listener observes a fluctuation in the intensity of sound, called beats. The number of beats heard
per second is f1 f2.

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27
FLUID MECHANISM
PART (A) - HYDROSTATICS
1.
DENSITY AND RELATIVE DENSITY :

Density is mass per unit volume. Densities of solids and liquids are frequently compared with density of
water and the relative density of a substance is defined as follows :
RELATIVE DENSITY with respect to water =
=
densityof thesubs tan ce

densityof water
mass of any volume of subs tan ce

mass of an equalvolume of water
(Also known as specific gravity of the substance ) .

Note that relative density being a ratio of same type of physical quantities, it is a number only , without
any physical dimension .
2.
PRINCIPLE OF ARCHIMEDES :
The principle of Archimedes states that any body , totally or partially immersed in a fluid , experiences an
upward force or thrust which is equal to the weight of fluid it displaces and acts vertically up through the C.
G. of the displaced fluid . The term fluid covers liquids and gases .
3.
LAW OF FLOTATION :
If a body floats in equilibrium in a fluid , its entire weight is supported by the upward thrust of the
fluid . Hence , the weight of a floating body is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body
at the equilibrium state .
4.
FLUID PRESSURE :
Pressure at any point in a fluid is defined as the normal force (or thrust) exerted by the liquid on
the surface per unit area .
Pressure is measured in dyne cm-2 in C G S units and in N m-2 in SI units , (also known as pascal ) .
[ Note that pressure is a scalar quantity ] .
When a plane surface is placed inside a liquid , the liquid exerts hydrostatic pressure on the surface
, because of the weight of the liquid column above the surface . The total force exerted normally
on the plane surface is called the thrust. The thrust over the surface is the vector sum of the thrusts
over small area of the surface , over which the pressure can be considered to be uniform. Then :
If the plane surface is horizontal, the pressure over the surface is uniform and the thrust
= (area) (the uniform pressure)
If the plane surface is rectangular with its plane vertical and a pair of sides horizontal , the
thrust = (area) (pressure at the centre of the area).
(i)
(ii)
5.
(i)
(ii)
PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS :
The hydrostatics pressure 'p' at any point in a liquid varies directly.
As the vertical height (h) of the point below the surface &
As the density (d) of the liquid.
It can be shown that p = hdg.
When a liquid is at rest, the pressure is same at all points at the same horizontal level . The
pressure at a point in a liquid does not depend on either the shape of the vessel or the area of cross
- section of the vessel.
6.
PASCAL 'S LAW :

Pressure applied to a liquid (at rest) at one point is transmitted equally in all directions throughout
the liquid . This is known as Pascal's Law .
The compressibility of all liquids is exceedingly small & for all practical purposes, liquids may be

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28
considered incompressible . Hence , the density is constant throughout the liquid .
Pressure at a point in a liquid is the same in all directions and is perpendicular to the surface upon
which its acts .
7.
(i)
(ii)
8.
GUAGE PRESSURE AND TOTAL PRESSURE (ABSOLUTE PRESSURE) :

The total pressure at any point in a liquid is the addition of :
The pressure due to the liquid above the point. It is called guage pressure &
The atmospheric pressure acting on the surface of the liquid.
Thus total pressure = pressure due to liquid + atmospheric pressure
The total pressure is called absolute pressure.
THRUST DUE TO PRESSURE :
Total thrust on a horizontal surface immersed in a liquid = (PRESSURE ON SURFACE) (AREA OF SURFACE)
Total thrust on a vertical surface immersed in a liquid =(PRESSURE AT C.G. OF AREA) (AREAOF SURFACE)
PART (B) - HYDRODYNAMICS
1.
The study of fluids in flow is called HYDRODYNAMICS.
2.
VELOCITY - FIELD :
It is that space, where at every point in that space, there is a definite velocity. Then the space, where
a fluid is in flow is a VELOCITY - FIELD.
3.
FLOW - LINE :
In a velocity field is an imaginary line in that space , where the tangent to the line at any point on the
line gives the direction of the velocity at that point. A flow line is also called a VELOCITY - LINE or a
STREAM - LINE .
4.
TYPES OF FLOW OF A FLUID :

Then the flow of a fluid can be classified as :
A STREAM-LINE FLOW , the stream lines in the flow space remains steady as time progresses.
A TRUBULENT-FLOW , the stream lines in the flow space shift their positions as time progresses.
In a STREAM-LINE FLOW , a group of stream lines form a tubular volume of the flow space, the
surface of which is tangential to the stream lines , forming the lateral boundary of that tubular
volume. Such a tubular volume in the flow space is a TUBE OF FLOW.
A steady state flow is the flow in which the fluid properties at any point in the velocity field
do not change with time.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
5.
EQUATION OF CONTINUITY :
Equation of continuity states that for a steady state flow of a fluid in a pipe , the rate of mass flow
across any cross section is constant .
dM
= AV = constant .
dt
If the fluid is incompressible density is constant at all points , hence , equation of continuity is
AV = constant .
6.
BERNOULLI 'S EQUATION :

Consider a tube of flow in the space of the stream line flow of a fluid , in a uniform gravitational
field . The flow is steady state .

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29
Then :
P1 V12
P2 V2 2
gz1
gz 2
2
2
2
P V
Generalising and removing suffixes 1 gz = constant .
2
This equation is called BERNOULLI 'S EQUATION for steady, non-viscous and incompressible fluid flow.
1.
SURFACE TENSION
Surface Tension : Surface tension of a liquid is the normal force acting per unit length on either side of an
imaginary line drawn the free surface of a liquid. The direction of this force is perpendicular to the line and
tangential to the free surface of liquid.
F
L
Note: The surface tension of a liquid varies with temperature as well as dissolved impurities, etc. When soap
mixed with water, the surface tension of water decrease.
T=
2.
Surface Energy : If the area of the liquid surface has to be increased work has to be done against the force
of surface tension. The work done to form a film is stored as potential energy in the surface.
W = T A
3.
Excess Pressure : Excess pressure inside a liquid drop

2T
r
For a soap bubble in air, there are two surfaces, and so,
p =
2T
4T
=
r
r
Capillarity : Water in the capillary rises to a height
p = 2
4.
h=
2T
rg
where r is the radius of meniscus, and r =
2T cos
R
where is the angle of contact and thus h =
Rg
cos

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VISCOSITY
If a glass plate in contact with a water column of height h is moved with constant velocity v. Forces of
viscosity appear between the solid surface and the layer in contact.
dv
dz
where h is a consant called coefficient of viscosity, its cgs unit is poise.
Dimension is ML1T1. The SI units of viscosity equal to 10 poise.
F = A
Stoke's Law and Terminal Velocity

When a sphere of radius r moves with a velocity v through a fluid of viscosity h, the viscous force opposing
the motion of the sphere is
F = 6rv
If for a sphere viscous force become equal to the net weight acing downward, the velocity of the body
become constant and is known as terminal velocity.
6rvT =
vT =
4 3
r ( )g
3
2 2
r
g
9

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31
ELASTICITY THERMAL EXPANSION
CALORIMETRY
Definition of Heat :
Heat is a form of energy which is transferred between a system and its surrounding as a result of temperature
difference only.
Thermal Expansion : Expansion due to increase in temperature.
1.
Type of thermal expansion

Coefficient of expansion
(i) Linear
Lim
(ii) Superficial
Lim
(iii) Volume
Lim
t 0
t 0
t 0
For temperature change

t change in
1 l
l0 t
length l = l0 t
1 A
A0 t
Area A = A0t
1 V
V0 t
volume V = V0t
(a)
For isotropic solids 1 = 2 = 3 = (let)

so =2 and = 3
(b)
For anisotropic solids =1 + 2 and = 1 + 2 + 3

Here 1 , 2 and 3 are coefficient of linear expansion in X , Y and Z directions.
2.
Variation in density : With increase of temperature volume increases so density decreases and vice-versa.
d
d0
(1 t )
For solids values of are generally small so we can write d = d0 (1t) (using bimomial expansion)
Note :
(i)
for liquids are in order of 103
(ii)
For water density increases from 0 to 4C so is ve (0 to 4 C) and for 4 C to higher temperature is
+ve. At 4 C density is maximum.
3.
Thermal Stress : A rod of length l0 is clamped between two fixed walls with distance l0. If temperature is
changed by amount t then
F
stress =
(area assumed to be constant)
A
strain =
so,
or
l
l0
FA
Fl0
F
Y = l l =
=
At
Al
0
F = Y A t

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32
4.
If is not constant
(i)
( varies with distance) Let = ax+b

1
Total expansion = expansion of length dx = (ax b)dx t

0
(ii)
( varies with tempearture)

Let
= f (T)
T2
l =
l0 dT
T1
Caution : If is in C then put T1 and T2 in C.

similarly if is in K then put T1 and T2 in K.
CALORIMETRY
Quantity of heat transfered and specific heat
The amount of heat needed to incerase the temperature of 1 gm of water from 14.5 C to 15.5C at STP is
1 calorie
dQ = mcdT
T2
Q = m C dT (be careful about unit of temperature, use units according to the given units of C)
T1
Heat transfer in phase change

Q = mL
L = latent heat of substance in cal/ gm/ C or in Kcal/ kg/ C
Lice = 80 cal/ gm for ice
L steam = 540 cal/ gm

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33
HEAT TRANSFER, KINETIC THEORY OF GASES &

THERMODYNAMICS
(A)
Conduction : Due to vibration and collision of medium particles.
(i)
Steady State : In this state heat absorption stops and temperature gradient throughout the rod becomes
dT
constant i.e.
= constant.
dx
Before steady state : Temp of rod at any point changes
(ii)
Note : If specific heat of any substance is zero, it can be considered always in steady state.
1.
Ohms law for Thermal Conduction in Steady State :

Let the two ends of rod of length l is maintained at temp T1 and T2( T1 > T2)
T1 T2
dQ
Thermal current
= R
dT
Th
Where thermal resistance RTh =
1 l
KA
2.
Differential form of Ohms Law
(B)
dQ
dT
dT
= KA
= temperature gradient
dT
dx
dx
Convection : Heat transfer due to movement of medium particles.
(C)
Radiation: Every body radiates electromagnetic radiation of all possible wavelength at all temp>0 K.
1.
Stefans Law : Rate of heat emitted by a body at temp T K from per unit area E =T4 J/sec/m2
dQ
Radiation power
= P = AT
T4 watt
dT
If a body is placed in a surrounding of temperature TS
dQ
= A (T4 Ts4)
dT
valid only for black body
heat from general body
Emissivity or emmisive powere = heat from black body
If temp of body falls by dT in time dt
dT eA 4
( T Ts4 )
(dT/dt = rate of cooling)
dt
mS
2.
Newtons law of cooling

dT
(T Ts )
dt
3.
Average form of Newtons law of cooling

If a body cools from T1 to T2 in time t
T1 T2
t
K T1 T2
Ts (used generally in objective questions)

mS 2
dT K
(T Ts )
dt mS
(for better results use this generally in subjective)

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34
4.
Weins black body radiation

At every temperature (>0K) a body radiates energy radiations of all wavelengths.
According to Weins displacement law if the wavelength corresponding to
maximum energy is m. then mT = b where b = is a constant (Weins constant)
T = temperature of body
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

1. Assumption of kinetic theory of gases
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
A gas consist of particles called molecules which move randomly in all directions.
These molecules obey Newtons law of motion.
Size of molecule negligible in comparison to average separation between the molecules.
The forces on molecule are negligible except at the time of collision.
All collision between molecules or between molecules and wall are pefectly elastic. Time of collision is
very small.
For large number of molecules the density and distribution of molecules with different velocities are
independent of position, direction and time.
2. Pressure of an ideal gas
P=
1
1
v 2 = v 2 rms
3
3
Here
= mean square speed
vrms = root mean square speed

= density of gas
P=
2 1 2
( v )
3 2 rms
P=
2
E
3
E=
3
P
2
3
PV
2
3. R.M.S. velocity depends on tempearture only for any gas.
So total K.E.
rms
P=
K=
v12 v 22 v32 .......... v 2n

n
1 2
v rms
3
vrms =
3P
3RT
M

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4. Most Probable velocity velocity which maximum number of molecules may have
vmp =
2 RT
M
5. Average velocity
vavg =
v 1 v 2 ......... v n .
0
n
6. Average speed
vavg =
v 1 v 2 v 3 ....... v n .
n
8RT
M
7. Ideal gas equation

PV= nRT ( container form of gas law/ pressure volume form)
P = RT
M
(open atmosphere / pressure density form)
8. Grahams law of diffusion :

When two gases at the same pressure and tempearture are allowed to diffuse into each other the rate of diffusion
of each gas is inversely proportional to the square root of the density of the gas
r vrms
where r = rate of diffusion
so,
r1
r2 =
2
1
9. Degree of Freedom (f) No. of ways in which a gas molecule can distribute its energy
10. Law of equipartition of energy : Energy in each degree of freedom = 1/2 KT joules
If degree of freedom is f. Energy =
U=
f
2
f
2
KT joules.
KTnNA =
f
2
nRT
T
11. Degree of freedom(f) in different gas molecules

Molecules
Monoatomic
Diatomic
Polyatomic
Translational
Rotational
3
3
3
Translational energy for all type of molecules =
0
2
2 (linear molecule)
3 (non-linear molecule)
3
(nRT)
2
Law of Thermodynamics
1. Zeroth law of thermodynamics : If two bodies A and B are in thermal equilibrium and A and C are also in
thermal equilibrium.Then B and C are also in thermal equilibrium.

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2. First law of Thermodynamics: Energy conservation for gaseous system.
Heat supplied to the gas = Increment in internal energy + work done by the gas.
Q = U + W
Q is +ve for heat supplied
in differential form dQ = dU + dW
Q is ve for heat rejected
and
dQ = nCdT
C = molar specific heat
C = CP (constant pressure) ; C = CV = (constant volume)
f
dU =
nRdT
2
v2
dW =
P dv
(P = pressure of the gas of which work is to be calculated)
v1
W = +ve for work done by gas

(in expansion of gas)
W = ve for work done on the gas (in contraction of gas)
f
R PdV
R PdV
R+
= CV +
2
PdV VdP
PdV VdP
Molar specific heat for a given process
C=
Process
Monoatomic Diatomic
Polyatomic
V= constant
CV = (f/2)R
(3/2)R
(5/2)R
3R
P = constant
CP =
(5/2)R
(7/2)R
4R
Mayors Relation
CP = CV + R
f 2
R
2
Note : C of a gas depends on the process of that gas, which can be infinite in types.
Ratio of specific heat :
tomic
monoa
diatomic
polyat
omic
C
f 2
P
CV
f
5/3 = 1.67
7/5 = 1.4
4/3 = 1.33
and f =
CV =
2
1
R
1
Isochoric Process ( V= constant)
CP =
R
1
Isobaric Process (P = constant)
dV = 0 dW = 0
By FLT dQ = dU = nCV dT
By FLT
T2
dP = 0
dQ = dU + dW
f
Q = nCv dT nCv (T2 T1)
nCp (T2T1) = ( 2 )nR(T2T1)+nR(T2T1)
T1
* Be careful if V = 0 then not necessarily

an Isochoric Process.
W = nR(T2T1)
* If P = 0 then not necessarily an Isobaric Process.
Isothermal Process (T = constant)

dT = 0 , dU = 0
v2
Q = W = (nRT) dV / V
v1

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37
V2
P1
W = nRT ln V = nRT ln P
1
2
V2
P1
( V = P = compression ratio)
1
2
Adiabatic Process dQ = 0 but if Q = 0, it is not necessaserily adibatic.

dW = dU By FLT
T2
W=
nRdT nR(T1 T2 ) P1V1 P2 V2
1
1
1
T1
So PdV + VdP = (1)

.........(ii)
For Adiabatic Process PV = constant
dP
dV
adiabatic
dP
dV
Work done is least for monoatomic gas
isothermal
Polytropic process
PVn= constant
P=
Vn
dP
K
n n 1
dV
V
C=
R
R
1 1n
So C is constant for polytropic process

Efficiency of a cyclic process
so
U = 0
Q = W
Efficiency
work donebygas
heat input
W
Q
1 out
Q in
Qin

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38
ELECTROSTATICS
1.
ELECTRIC CHARGE
Charge of a material body is that property due to which it interacts with other material body
electromagnetically. It can be postive or negative. S.I. unit is coulomb. Charge is quantized, conserved,
and additive.
2.
COULOMBS LAW : F =
1 q1q 2
1 q1q 2
.
In
vector
form
F
r where
40 r 2
40 r 3
0 = permittivity of free space = 8.85 1012 N1 m2 c2 or F/m and
NOTE : The Law is applicable only for static and point charges.
Moving charges may result in magnetic interaction. And if charges are
extended, induction may change the charge distribution.
3.
PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION

Force on a point charge due to many charges is given by F F1F2 F3 ..........
NOTE : The force due to one charge is not affected by the presence of other charges.
4.
ELECTRIC FIELD, ELECTRIC INTENSITY OR ELECTRIC FIELD STRENGTH (VECTOR

QUANTITY)
The physical field where a charged particle, irrespective of the fact whether it is in motion or at rest,
experiences force is called an electric field. The direction of the field is the direction of the force
experienced by a positively charged particle & the magnitude of the field (electric intensity) is the
F
force experienced by the particle carrying unit charge E =
unit is NC 1 ; S.I. unit is
q
V/m.
5.
ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO
1 q
1 q
r (vector form)
Point charge : E
r =
2
4 0 r 3
40 r
(i)
(ii)
Where r = vector drawn from the source charge to the point. q value is to be put with sign.

1
dq
Continuous charge distribution E

r
d
E
; dE = electric field due to an elementry charge .
4 0 r 2
Note E dE because E is a vector quantity .
(iii)
(iv)
dq = dl (for line charge) = ds (for surface charge) = dv (for volume charge) In general , &
are linear, surface and volume charge densities respectively.
2k
Infinite line of charge | E | =
where r = perpendicular distance of the point from the line charge.
r
k
k
2 k
as , Ex =
& Ey =
at a point above the end of wire at an
r
r
r
Semi line of charge | E | =

angle 45 .
(v)
KQ x
Uniformly charged ring , Ecentre = 0 , Eaxis = (x 2 R 2 )3 / 2
(vi)
Electric field is maximum when
dE
= 0 for a point on the axis of the ring. Here we get x = R/2.
dx

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39
(vii)

Infinite non conducting sheet of charge E
n where
2 0
n
= unit normal vector to the plane of sheet, where is surface charge density
(viii) Infinite charged conductor sheet having surface charge density on both surfaces E = .
(ix)
Just outside a conducting surface charged with a surface charge density , electric field is always given as
E = /0.
(x)
Uniformly charged solid sphere (Insulating material)

Q
Eout =
;
r R , Behaves as a point charge situated at the centre for these points
40 r 2
Ein =
(xi)
Qr
r
; r R where = volume charge density

3
4 0 R 3 0
Uniformly charged spherical shell (conducting) or uniformly charged solid conducting sphere.
Q
Eout =
; r R Behaves as a point charge situated at the centre for these points
40 r 2
Ein = 0 ; r < R
(xii)
Uniformly charged cylinder with a charge density is

r
Ein = 2 ; for r < R
0
R 2
Eout =
;for r > R
2 0 r
(xiii) Uniformly charged cylinderical shell with surface charge density is
Ein = 0 ;
for r < R
r
Eout = r ; for r > R
0
6.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
7.
(i)
(ii)
8.
ELECTRIC LINES OF FORCE (ELF)

The line of force in an electric field is a hypothetical line, tangent to which at any point on it represents
the direction of electric field at the given point.
Properties of (ELF) :
Electric lines of forces never intersects .
ELF originates from positive charge and terminate on a negative charge.
Preference of termination is towards a negative charge .
If an ELF is originated, it must require termination either at a negetive charge or at .
Quantity of ELF originated or terminated from a charge or on a charge is proportional to the magnitude
of charge.
ELECTROSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM
Position where net force (or net torque) on a charge(or electric dipole) = 0
STABLE EQUILIBRIUM : If charge is displaced by a small distance the charge comes (or tries to come
back) to the equilibrium .
UNSTABLE EQUILIBRIUM : If charge is displaced by a small distance the charge does not return to the
equilibrium position.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL (Scalar Quantity)
Work done by external agent to bring a unit positive charge(without accelaration) from infinity to a
point in an electric field is called electric potential at that point .
If Wr is the work done to bring a charge q (very small) from infinity to a point then potential at that
www.21stideal.com
40
point is V =
9.
( Wr )ext
; S.I. unit is volt ( = 1 J/C)

q
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
VAB = VA VB =
( WBA ) ext
VAB = p.d. between point A & B .

q
WBA = w.d. by external source to transfer a point charge q from B to A (Without acceleration).
10.
ELECTRIC FIELD & ELECTRIC POINTENIAL

E = grad V = V {read as gradient of V} grad = i j k
;
x y z
Used when EF varies in three dimensional coordinate system.
For finding potential difference between two points in electric field, we use
B
VA VB = E .d
if E is varying with distance
= Ed
11.
if E is constant & here d is the distance between points A and B.
(i)
POTENTIAL DUE TO
Q
A point charge V =
40 r
(ii)
Many charges V =
(iii)
Continuous charge distribution V =
(iv)
Spherical shell (conducting or non conducting) or solid conducting sphere

Q
Q
Vout =
; (r R)
; (r R) , Vin =
4 0 r
40 R
Non conducting uniformly charged solid sphere :
(v)
Vout
12.
q1
q2
q3
4 0 r1 4 0 r2 4 0 r3
Q
=
; (r R) ,
40 r
+ ......
1
dq
40 r
1 Q(3R 2 r 2 )
Vin =
; (r R)
2 40 R 3
EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACE AND EQUIPOTENTIAL REGION

In an electricfield the locus of points of equal potential is called an equipotential surface. An equipotential
surface and the electric field meet at right angles.
The region where E = 0, Potential of the whole region must remain constant as no work is done in displacement
of charge in it. It is called as equipotential region like conducting bodies.
13.
MUTUAL POTENTIAL ENERGY OR INTERACTION ENERGY

The work to be done to integrate the charge system .
qq
For 2 particle system Umutual = 1 2
40 r
For 3 particle system Umutual =
q1q 2
q q
q q
2 3 3 1
40 r12 40 r23 40 r31

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41
n (n 1)
terms . Total energy of a system = Uself + Umutual
2
For n particles there will be

14.
P.E. of charge q in potential field U = qV. Interaction energy of a system of two charges
= q1 V2 = q2 V1 .
15.
(a)
ELECTRIC DIPOLE
Dipole moment p qd
(d is the separation between the charges and from q to +q)
(b)
Electric field at a general point P(r, ) in polar co-ordinate system is

Radial electric field Er =
E 2r
Net electric field at P is Enet =

tan =
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
2Kp cos
r3
Tangentral electric field ET =
Er
P
Enet
ET
Kp sin
r3
E 2T
r
+q
kp
3 1 3 cos 2
r
1
tan
2

p r
Kp cos
= 4 r3
Electric Potential at point P is VP =
r2
0

Electric Dipole in uniform electric field : Torque p E ; F = 0 .
Work done in rotation of dipole is W = PE (cos 1 cos 2 )

Potential energy of an electric dipole in electric field U = p E .
16.
(i)
ELECTRIC FLUX
For uniform electric field; = E . A = EA cos where = angle between E & area vector ( A ). Flux
is contributed only due to the component of electric field which is perpendicular to the plane.
(ii)
If E is not uniform throughout the area A , then =
17.
q en
GAUSSS LAW (Applicable only to closed surface) Net flux emerging out of a closed surface is .
0
q en

E
d
A
=
does not depend on the
18.
19.
E.d A
q = net charge enclosed by the closed surface .

(i)
(ii)
Shape and size of the closed surface

The charges located outside the closed surface.
CONCEPT OF SOLID ANGLE :

R
l
q
Flux of charge q having through the circle of radius R is

q
q / 0
=
x = 2 (1 cos)
4
0
Solid angle of cone of half
0 E 2
angle is =2(1cos)
Energy stored per unit volume in an electric field =
2
2
Electric pressure due to its own charge on a surface having charged density is Pele =
.
2 0
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42
20.
Electric pressure on a charged surface with charged density due to external electric field is Pele = E1
IMPORTANT POINTS TO BE REMEMBERED
(i)
Electric field is always perpendicular to a conducting surface (or any equipotential surface) . No
tangential component on such surfaces .
(ii)
Charge density at sharp points on a conductor is greater.
(iii)
When a conductor is charged, the charge resides only on the surface.
(iv)
For a conductor of any shape E (just outside) =
(v)
Potential difference between two points in an electric field does not depend on the path joining them
.
(vi)
Potential at a point due to positive charge is positive & due to negative charge is negative.
Positive charge flows from higher to lower (i.e. in the direction of electric field) and negative charge
from lower to higher (i.e. opposite to the electric field) potential .

(viii) When p||E the dipole is in stable equilibrium

(ix)
p||( E ) the dipole is in unstable equilibrium
(vii)
(x)
When a charged isolated conducting sphere is connected to an unchaged small conducting sphere then
potential (and charge) remains almost same on the larger sphere while smaller is charged .
(xi)
KQ 2
Self potential energy of a charged shell =
.
2R
(xii)
3K Q 2
.
Self potential energy of an insulating uniformly charged sphere =
5R
(xiii) A spherically symmetric charge {i.e depends only on r} behaves as if its charge is concentrated
at its centre (for outside points).
(xiv) Dielectric strength of material : The minimum electric field required to ionise the medium or the
maximum electric field which the medium can bear without breaking down.

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43
GRAVITATION
1.
Gravitation:
Gravitation is the force of attraction between any two point particles in the universe. It is given by:
F=
Gm1m 2
r2
where G is universal gravitational constant. The value of G = 6.67 1011 Nm2/kg2.
2.
(i)
Variation of 'g':
Due to altitude: Acceleration due to gravity at a height h above the surface of earth is given by:
(ii)
2h
= g 1
(for h << R)
(R h )
R
Due to depth: Acceleration due to gravity at a depth h below the surface of earth is given by
gh =
GM
h
g 'h = g 1
R
(for all depths)
At h = R (i.e. at the centre of earth): g 'h = 0

(iii)
(iv)
3.
(i)
(ii)
Due to rotation of earth: Acceleration due to gravity at latitude is given by:

g = g R2cos 2
where = angular velocity of the earth
(a) At poles: gp = g R2cos2(/2) = g = gmax
(b) At equator: geq = g R2cos20 = g R2 = gmin
Due to non-spherical shape of earth: Due to the shape of the earth, g is maximum at poles and minimum at
equator.
Inertial and gravitational mass:
Inertial mass: It is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of external force applied on the body to the
magnitude of acceleration produced in it, i.e., a = (F/m).
Gravitational mass: Mass of the material of the body, which is determined by gravitational pull acting on it,
FR 2
GM
Inertial and gravitational masses are found to be equal by observation.
is called as gravitational mass, i.e., m =

(iii)
4.
Gravitational intensity:
In case of a solid or hollow sphere of mass M and radius R:
(a) For an external point (r > R): I0 = (GM/r2)
(b) For an internal point (r < R):
(i) of a spherical shell: Ii = 0
(ii) of a solid sphere: Ii = (GM/R3)r
5.
Gravitational potential:
In case of a solid or hollow sphere:
(a) For an external point (r > R): V0 = (GM/r)
(b) For an internal point (r < R):
(i) of a spherical shell: Vi = GM/R = constant
(ii) of a solid sphere: Vi =
GM
2R
(3R 2 r 2 )

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44
6.
Escape velocity:
(i) It is minimum speed with which a body must be projected away from the surface of the earth so that it
may never return to the earth.
(ii) Escape velocity of a body from the surface of earth is given by : ves =
2gR =
(2GM / R )
7.
Geostationary satellite:
(a) A satellite which appears to be stationary for a person on the surface of the earth is called geostationary
satellite.
(b) It revolves in the equatorial plane from west to east with a time period of 24 hours.
(c) Its height from the surface of the earth is nearly 35600 km and radius of the circular orbit is nearly 42000
km.
(d) The orbital velocity of this satellite is nearly 3.08 km/sec
(e) The relative velocity of geostationary satellite with respect to earth is zero.
(f) The orbit of a geostationary satellite is called as parking orbit.
8.
Kepler's laws:
(i) All planets move around the sun in elliptical orbits, with the sun being at rest at one focus of the orbit.
(ii) The position vector from the sun to the planet sweeps out equal area in equal time, i.e., areal velocity of
a planet around the sun always remains constant. This gives that the angular momentum or moment of
momentum remain constant.
(iii) The square of the time period of a planet around the sun is proportional to the cube of the semi-major
axis of the ellipse or mean distance of the from the sun, i.e. T2 a3 where a is the semi-major axis of the
ellipse.

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45
CAPACITANCE
1.
CAPACITANCE OF AN ISOLATED SPHERICAL CONDUCTOR :

C = 4 0r R in a medium
C = 4 0 R in air
*
*
2.
This sphere is at infinite distance from all the conductors .

The capacitance C = 4 0 R exists between the surface of the sphere & earth .
SPHERICAL CAPACITOR :
It consists of two concentric spherical shells as shown in figure. Here capacitance of region
between the two shells is C1 and that outside the shell is C2. We have
4 0 ab
and C2 = 40 b
ba
Depending on connection, it may have different combinations of C1 and C2.
C1 =
3.
PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR :

(i)
UNIFORM DI-ELECTRIC M EDIUM :
If two parallel plates each of area A & separated by a distance d are charged with
equal & opposite charge Q, then the system is called a parallel plate capacitor & its capacitance is
given by,
C=
0 r A
in a medium
d
C=
0 A
with air as medium
d
This result is only valid when the electric field between plates of capacitor is constant.
(ii)
C=
M EDIUM PARTLY AIR :
0 A
d t t
When a di-electric slab of thickness t & relative permittivity r is

introduced between the plates of an air capacitor, then the distance between the
plates is effectively reduced by t
t
irrespective of the position of
r
the di-electric slab .
(iii)
4.
COMPOSITE M EDIUM :
C=
0 A
t3
t1
t2
r1 r 2 r 3
CYLINDRICAL CAPACITOR :
It consist of two co-axial cylinders of radii a & b, the outer conductor is earthed . The
di-electric constant of the medium filled in the space between the cylinder is
20r Farad
r . The capacitance per unit length is C =
.
m
n ba

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46
5.
CONCEPT OF VARIATION OF PARAMETERS:
0 kA
, if either of k, A or d varies in the region between the
d
plates, we choose a small dc in between the plates and for total capacitance of system.
1
dx
If all dC's are in series
,If all dC's are in parallel
CT = dC
CT
0 k ( x ) A( x )
COMBINATION OF CAPACITORS :
(i)
CAPACITORS IN SERIES :
In this arrangement all the capacitors when uncharged get the same
charge Q but the potential difference across each will differ (if the
capacitance are unequal).
1
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
+
........
+
.
Ceq .
C1
C2
C3
Cn
As capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor isC =
6.
(ii)
\
7.
CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL :
When one plate of each capacitor is connected to the positive
terminal of the battery & the other plate of each capacitor is
connected to the negative terminals of the battery, then the
capacitors are said to be in parallel connection.
The capacitors have the same potential difference, V but the
charge on each one is different (if the capacitors are unequal).
Ceq. = C1 + C2 + C3 + ...... + Cn .
ENERGY STORED IN A CHARGED CAPACITOR :

Capacitance C, charge Q & potential difference V ; then energy stored is
U=
1
1
1 Q2
CV2 = QV =
. This energy is stored in the electrostatic field set up in the di-electric
2
2
2 C
medium between the conducting plates of the capacitor .

8.
HEAT PRODUCED IN SWITCHING IN CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT

Due to charge flow always some amount of heat is produced when a switch is closed in a circuit which can
be obtained by energy conservation as
Heat = Work done by battery Energy absorbed by capacitor.
9.
SHARING OF CHARGES :
When two charged conductors of capacitance C1 & C2 at potential V1 & V2 respectively are connected
by a conducting wire, the charge flows from higher potential conductor to lower potential conductor,
until the potential of the two condensers becomes equal. The common potential (V) after sharing of
charges;
V=
net ch arg e
C V C2V2
q q
= 1 2 = 1 1
.
net capaci tan ce
C1 C2
C1 C 2
charges after sharing q1 = C1V & q2 = C2V. In this process energy is lost in the connecting wire as heat
. This loss of energy is Uinitial Ureal =
10.
C1 C 2
(V1 V2)2 .
2 C1 C 2
REMEMBER :
(i) The energy of a charged conductor resides outside the conductor in its EF, where as in a condenser it
is stored within the condenser in its EF.
(ii) The energy of an uncharged condenser = 0 .
(iii) The capacitance of a capacitor depends only on its size & geometry & the di-electric between the
conducting surface . (i.e. independent of the conductor, like, whether it is copper, silver, gold etc)

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47
MAGNETIC EFFECT OF CURRENT

1.
A static charge produces only electric field and only electric field can exert a force on it.
A moving charge produces both electric field ans magnetic field and both electric field and magnetic field
can exert force on it.
A current carrying conductor produces only magnetic field and only magnetic field can exert a force on it.
2.
Magnetic charge (i.e. current) , produces a magnetic field . It can not produce electric field as net charge on a
current carrying conductor is zero. A magnetic field is detected by its action on current carrying conductors (or
moving charges) and magnetic needles (compass) needles. The vector quantity B known as MAGNETIC INDUCTION
is introduced to characterise a magnetic field . It is a vector quantity which may be defined in terms of the force
it produces on electric currents . Lines of magnetic induction may be drawn in the same way as lines of electric
field . The number of lines per unit area crossing a small area perpendicular to the direction of the induction bring
numerically equal to B . The number of lines of B crossing a given area is referred to as the MAGNETIC FLUX
linked with that area. For this reason B is also called MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY .
MAGNETIC INDUCTION PRODUCED BY A CURRENT (BIOT-SAVART LAW):

The magnetic induction dB produced by an element dl carrying a current I at a distance r is given by :
I d x r
0 r Idsin
0 r
dB
dB =
or
,
4
r3
4
r2
here the quantity Idl is called as current element strength.
= permeability of the medium = 0 r ; 0 = permeability of free space
r = relative permeability of the medium (Dimensionless quantity).
Unit of 0 & is NA2 or Hm1 ; 0 = 4 107 Hm1
MAGNETIC INDUCTION DUE TO A MOVING CHARGE
dB P
5.
6.
7.
0qv sin
4r 2
q (v xr )
dB 0
In vector form it can be written as
4 r 3
MAGNETIC INDUCTION DUE TO AN INIFINITE ST. CONDUCTOR
0I
B=
2r
MAGNETIC INDUCTION DUE TO SEMI INIFINITE ST. CONDUCTOR
0I
B=
4 r
MAGNETIC INDUCTION DUE TO A CURRENT CARRYING STRAIGHT CONDUCTOR
I
B = 0 (cos 1 + cos 2)
4R
If the wire is very long 1 2 0 then , B =
8.
0I
2 R
MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A FLAT CIRCULAR COIL CARRYING A CURRENT :

0 NI
(i)
At its centre B =
, direction
2R
Where N = total number of turns in the coil
I = current in the coil
R = Radius of the coil
(ii)
On the axis
B=
0 NIR 2
3/ 2
2 x 2 R 2
Where x = distance of the point from the centre . It is maximum at the centre .

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48
9.
MAGNETIC INDUCTION DUE TO FLAT CIRCULAR ARC

I
B= 0
4R
10.
MAGNETIC INDUCTION DUE TO SOLENOID

B = 0nI, direction along axis.
where n no. of turns per m.
I current
MAGNETIC INDUCTION DUE TO TOROID
B = 0nI
N
where n =
(no. of turns per m)
2R
11.
N = total turns
12.
MAGNETIC INDUCTION DUE TO CURRENT CARRYING SHEET

1
B = 0 I
2
where I = Linear current density (A/m)
13.
MAGNETIC INDUCTION DUE TO THICK SHEET

1
At point P2
Bout = 0Id
2
At point P1
Bin = 0Jx
14.
R >> r
GILBERT'S MAGNETISM (EARTH'S MAGNETIC FIELD) :

(a) The line of earth's magnetic induction lies in a vetical plane coinciding with the magnetic North - South direction
at that place. This plane is called the MAGNETIC MERIDIAN. Earth's magnetic axis is slightly inclined to the
geometric axis of earth and this angle varies from 10.50 to 200. The Earth's Magnetic poles are opposite to
the geometric poles i.e. at earth's north pole, its magnetic south pole is situated and vice versa.
(b) On the magnetic meridian plane , the magnetic induction vector of the earth at any point, generally inclined to the
horizontal at an angle called the MAGNETIC DIP at that place , such that B = total magnetic induction of the earth
at that point.
B v = the vertical component of B in the magnetic meridian plane = B sin .
BH = the horizontal component of B in the magnetic meridian plane = B cos .

Bv
= tan .
BH
(c) At a given place on the surface of the earth , the magnetic meridian and the geographic meridian may not
coincide . The angle between them is called "DECLINATION AT THAT PLACE" .
15
16.
17.
AMPERES LAW B . d I
I = algebric sum of all the currents .
LORENTZ FORCE :
An electric charge 'q' moving with a velocity V through a magnetic field of magnetic

induction B experiences a force F , given by F qV x B . There fore, if the charge moves
in
a space where both electric and magnetic fields are
.
superposed

F = nett electromagnetic force on the charge = q E q V B

This force is called the LORENTZ FORCE .
MOTIONOFACHARGEINUNIFORMMAGNETICFIELD:
(a) When v is || to B: Motion will be in a st. line and F = 0
mv
(b) When v is | to B : Motion will be in circular path with radius R =
and angular
qB
qB
velocity =
and F = qvB.
m

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49
mv sin
When v is at to B : Motion will be helical with radius Rk =
and pitch
qB
PH = 2 mv cos and F = qvBsin.
qB
MAGNETIC FORCE ON A STRAIGHT CURRENT CARRYING WIRE :

F I ( L B)
I = current in the straight conductor
L = length of the conductor in the direction of the current in it
B = magnetic induction. (Uniform throughout the length of conduction)

Note : In general force is F I (d B)
(c)
18.
19.
(i)
(ii)
20.
21.
MAGNETIC INTERACTION FORCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL LONG STRAIGHT CURRENTS :

When two long straight linear conductors are parallel and carry a current in each , they
magnetically interact with each other , one experiences a force. This force is of :
Repulsion if the currents are anti-parallel (i.e. in opposite direction) or
Attraction if the currents are parallel (i.e. in the same direction)
II
This force per unit length on either conductor is given by F = 0 1 2 . Where r = perpendicular distance
2 r
between the parallel conductors
MAGNETIC TORQUE ON A CLOSED CURRENT CIRCUIT :
When a plane closed current circuit of 'N' turns and of area 'A' per turn carrying a current
I is placed in uniform magnetic field , it experience a zero nett force , but experience a

torque given by NI A B M B BINA sin
When A = area vector outward from the face of the circuit where the current is anticlockwise,
B = magnetic induction of the uniform magnetic feild. M = magnetic moment of the current
circuit = IN A
Note : This expression can be used only if B is uniform otherwise calculus will be used.
MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER :
It consists of a plane coil of many turns suspended in a radial magnetic feild. when a current
is passed in the coil it experiences a torque which produces a twist in the suspension. This deflection
is directly proportional to the torque NIAB = K
I = K
NAB
K = elastic torsional constant of the suspension

I=C
22.
C=
K
= GALVANOMETER CONSTANT..
NAB
FORCE EXPERIENCED BY A MAGNETIC DIPOLE IN A NON-UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD :
| F | = M r where M = Magnetic dipole moment.

23.
FORCEONARANDOMSHAPEDCONDUCTORINMAGNETICFIELD
1.
Magnetic force on a loop in a uniform B is zero
2.
Force experienced by a wire of any shape is equivalent to force on a wire joining
points A & B in a uniform magnetic field .
24.
MAGNETIC MOMENT OF A ROTATING CHARGE:
If a charge q is rotating at an angular velocity ,
q
its equivalent current is given as I =
& its
2
magnetic moment is M = IR2 = 1/2qR2.
NOTE: The rate of magnetic moment to Angular momentum of a uniform rotating object which is charged uniformly
is always a constant. Irrespective of the shape of conductor M/L = q/2m
B

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50
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION & ALTERNATING CURRENT

When a conductor is moved across a magnetic field, an electromotive force (emf) is produced in the conductor.
If the conductors forms part of a closed circuit then the emf produced caused an electric current to flow
round the circuit. Hence an emf (and thus a current) is induced in the conductor as a result of its movement
across the magnetic field. This is known as "ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION."
1.
MAGNETIC FLUX :

= B . A = BA cos weber for uniform B .
= B . d A for non uniform B .
2.
(i)
FARADAY'S LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION :

An induced emf is setup whenever the magnetic flux linking that circuit changes.
(ii)
The magnitude of the induced emf in any circuit is proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux
d
linking the circuit,
.
dt
3.
LENZ'S LAWS :
The direction of an induced emf is always such as to oppose the cause producing it .
4.
LAW OF EMI :
d
e=
. The negative sign indicated that the induced emf opposes the change of the flux .
dt
5.
EMF INDUCED IN A STRAIGHT CONDUCTOR IN UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD :

E = BLV sin volt where
B = flux density in wb/m2
;
L = length of the conductor (m) ;
V = velocity of the conductor (m/s) ;
= angle between direction of motion of conductor & B .
6.
COIL ROTATION IN MAGNETIC FIELD SUCH THAT AXIS OF ROTATION IS PERPENDICULAR TO THE
MAGNETIC FIELD :
Instantaneous induced emf .
E = NAB sin t = E0 sin t , where
N = number of turns in the coil
;
A = area of one turn ;
B = magnetic induction
;
= uniform angular velocity of the coil ;
E0 = maximum induced emf .
7.
SELF INDUCTION & SELF INDUCTANCE :

When a current flowing through a coil is changed the flux linking with its own winding changes & due to
the change in linking flux with the coil an emf is induced which is known as self induced emf & this
phenomenon is known as self induction . This induced emf opposes the causes of Induction. The property
of the coil or the circuit due to which it opposes any change of the current coil or the circuit is known as
SELF - INDUCTANCE . It's unit is Henry .
Coefficient of Self inductance L = s

or
s = Li
i
L depends only on ;
(i)
shape of the loop
&

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51
(ii)
medium
i = current in the circuit .
s = magnetic flux linked with the circuit due to the current i .
d s
d
di
=
(Li) = L
(if L is constant)
self induced emf es =
dt
dt
dt
8.
MUTUAL INDUCTION :
If two electric circuits are such that the magnetic field due to a current in one is partly or wholly linked with
the other, the two coils are said to be electromagnetically coupled circuits . Than any change of current in
one produces a change of magnetic flux in the other & the latter opposes the change by inducing an emf
within itself . This phenomenon is called MUTUAL INDUCTION & the induced emf in the latter circuit due to
a change of current in the former is called MUTUALLY INDUCED EMF . The circuit in which the current is
changed, is called the primary & the other circuit in which the emf is induced is called the secondary. The
co-efficient of mutual induction (mutual inductance) between two electromagnetically coupled circuit is the
magnetic flux linked with the secondary per unit current in the primary.
m
flux linked with sec ondary
Mutual inductance = M =
=
mutually induced emf .
Ip
current in the primary
d
dI
dm
=
(MI) = M
(If M is constant)
dt
dt
dt
M depends on (1) geometery of loops (2) medium (3) orientation & distance of loops .
Em =
9.
SOLENOID :
There is a uniform magnetic field along the axis the solenoid
(ideal : length >> diameter)
B = ni
where ;
= magnetic permeability of the core material ;
n = number of turns in the solenoid per unit length ;
i = current in the solenoid
;
Self inductance of a solenoid L = 0 n2Al ;
A = area of cross section of solenoid .
10.
SUPER CONDUCTION LOOP IN MAGNETIC FIELD :

R = 0 ; = 0. Therefore total = constant. Thus in a superconducting loop flux never changes.
(or it opposes 100%)
11.
(i)
(ii)
12.
ENERGY STORED IN AN INDUCTOR :

1
LI2 .
W=
2
Energy of interation of two loops U = I12 = I21 = MI1I2 , where M is mutual inductance .
GROWTH OF A CURRENT IN AN L R CIRCUIT :

E
I=
(1 eRt/L) . [ If initial current = 0 ]
R
L
= time constant of the circuit .
R
E
I0 =
.
R

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52
(i)
L behaves as open circuit at t = 0 [ If i = 0 ]
L behaves as short circuit at t = always .

L
Curve (1)
Large
R
L
Curve (2)
Small
R
DECAY OF CURRENT :
Initial current through the inductor = I0 ;
Current at any instant i = I0eRt/L
(ii)
13.

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53
GEOMETRICAL OPTICS
1.
(i)
LAWS OF REFLECTION :
The incident ray (AB), the reflected ray (BC) and normal (NN') to the surface (SS') of reflection at the
point of incidence (B) lie in the same plane. This plane is called the plane of incidence (also plane of
reflection).
(ii)
The angle of incidence (the angle between normal and the incident ray)
and the angle of reflection (the angle between the reflected ray
and the normal) are equal
i = r
2.
(a)
(b)
OBJECT :
Real : Point from which rays actually diverge.
Virtual : Point towards which rays appear to converge
3.
IMAGE :
Image is decided by reflected or refracted rays only. The point image for a mirror is that point
Towards which the rays reflected from the mirror, actually converge (real image).
OR
From which the reflected rays appear to diverge (virtual image) .
(i)
(ii)
4.
(a)
(b)
(c)
5.
CHARACTERISTICS OF REFLECTION BY A PLANE MIRROR :

The size of the image is the same as that of the object.
For a real object the image is virtual and for a virtual object the image is real.
For a fixed incident light ray, if the mirror be rotated through an angle the reflected ray turns through an
angle 2.
SPHERICAL MIRRORS :
6.
Concave
Convex
PARAXIAL RAYS : Rays which forms very small angle with axis are called paraxial rays.
7.
SIGN CONVENTION :
We follow cartesian co-ordinate system convention according to which
(a)
The pole of the mirror is the origin .
(b)
The direction of the incident rays is considered as positive x-axis.
(c)
Vertically up is positive y-axis.
Note : According to above convention radius of curvature and focus of concave mirror is negative and of convex
mirror is positive.
1
1 1
8.
MIRROR FORMULA :
= .
f
v u
f = x- coordinate of focus ;
u = x-coordinate of object ;
v = x-coordinate of image
Note : Valid only for paraxial rays.

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54
9.
TRANSVERSE MAGNIFICATION :
m=
h2
= v
h1
u
h2 = y co-ordinate of image
h1 = y co-ordinate of the object
(both perpendicular to the principle axis of mirror)
10.
NEWTON'S FORMULA :
They are called conjugate positions or foci. X,Y are the distance along the principal axis of the object and
image respectively from the principal focus .
XY = f 2
11.
OPTICAL POWER : Optical power of a mirror (in Diopters) =
1
;
f
f = focal length (in meters) with sign .
REFRACTION -PLANE SURFACE

1.
(i)
(ii)
LAWS OF REFRACTION (AT ANY REFRACTING SURFACE) :

The incident ray (AB), the normal (NN') to the refracting surface (II') at the
point of incidence (B) and the refracted ray (BC) all lie in the same
plane called the plane of incidence or plane of refraction .
N
A
Sin i
= Constant :
Sin r
for any two given media and for light of a given wave length. This is known as
SNELL'S Law .
Sin i
n
v
= 1n2 = 2 = 1 = 1
Sin r
n1
v2
2
Note : Frequency of light does not change during refraction .

2.
DEVIATION OF A RAY DUE TO REFRACTION :
3.
REFRACTION THROUGH A PARALLEL SLAB :
(i)
Emerged ray is parallel to the incident ray, if medium is same on

both sides.
A
N
(ii)
Lateral shift x =
t sin(i r )
cos r
AIR
GLASS(M)
r
t
N'
90
t = thickness of slab
C
i
Note : Emerged ray will not be parallel to the incident ray if the medium on both the sides
are different .

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x
D
55
4.
APPARENT DEPTH OF SUBMERGED OBJECT :
(h < h)
at near normal incidence
h =
2
h
1
Note : h and h' are always measured from surface.

5.
(i)
(ii)
CRITICAL ANGLE & TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION ( T. I. R.)
CONDITIONS OF T. I. R.
Ray is going from denser to rarer medium
Angle of incidence should be greater than the critical angle (i > c) .
n
Critical angle C = sin-1 r
ni
6.
REFRACTION THROUGH PRISM :
1.
2.
3.
4.
= (i + i) - (r + r)
r + r = A
Variation of versus i (shown in diagram) .
There is one and only one angle of incidence for which the angle
of deviation is minimum.
When = m then i = i & r = r , the ray passes symetrically
about the prism, & then
sin
n=
A m
2
sin

A
2
, where n = absolute R.I. of glass .
Note : When the prism is dipped in a medium then

n = R.I. of glass w.r.t. medium .

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56
5.
6.
7.
8.
For a thin prism ( A 10o) ; = ( n 1 ) A

DISPERSION OF LIGHT :
The angular splitting of a ray of white light into a number of components when it is refracted in a medium
other than air is called Dispersion of Light.
Angle of Dispersion : Angle between the rays of the extreme colours in the refracted (dispersed) light is
called Angle of Dispersion . = v r .
Dispersive power () of the medium of the material of prism .
=
angular dispersion
deviation of mean ray (yellow)
For small angled prism ( A 10o )
nv nR
2
nv, nR & n are R. I. of material for violet, red & yellow colours respectively .
=
9.
(i)
v R
n n
= v R
y
n 1
;n=
COMBINATION OF TWO PRISMS :

ACHROMATIC COMBINATION : It is used for deviation without dispersion .
Condition for this (nv - nr) A = (nv - nr) A .
nv nR
Net mean deviation =
n v n R
1 A
1 A .
or + = 0 where , are dispersive powers for the two prisms & , are the mean deviation.
(ii)
DIRECT VISION COMBINATION : It is used for producing disperion without deviation condition
nv nR
for this
n v n R
1 A =
1 A .
2
Net angle of dispersion = (nv - nr) A (nv - nr) A .
REFRACTION AT SPERICAL SURFACE

1.(a)
(b)
2.
(a)
2 1 2 1

v
u
R
v, u & R are to be kept with sign
as
v = PI
u = PO
R = PC
(Note radius is with sign)
1 v
m= u
2
LENS FORMULA :
1 1 1

v u f
(b)
1
= ( 1)
f
(c)
m=
1
1
R1 R 2
v
u

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57
WAVE OPTICS
1.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
If two coherent waves with intensity I1 and I2 are superimposed with a phase difference of , the resulting
wave intensity is
I = I1 + I2 + 2 I1I 2 cos
For maxima, optical path difference = n [optical path = (geometrical path)]
1
1
For minima, optical path difference = (n ) or (n + )
2
2
2
Phase difference =
(optical path difference)
: Wavelength in vacuum
2.
The phase difference between two waves at a point will depend upon
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
the difference in path lengths of two waves from their respective sources.( geometrical path difference)
the refractive index of the medium (media)
phase difference at source (if any).
In case, the waves suffer reflection, the reflected wave differs in phase by with respect to the incident
wave if the incidence occurs in rarer medium. There would be no phase difference if incidence occures in
denser medium.
3.
Young's Double Slit Experiment
Fig. in Youngs interference experiment, incident monochromatic light is diffracted by slit S0, which then
acts as a point source of ligh that emits semicircular wavefronts. As that light reaches screen B, it is diffracted by slits S1 and.S2, which then act as two point sources of light. The light waves traveling from slits
S1 and S2 overlap and undergo interference, forming an interference pattern of maxima and minima on
viewing screen C. This figure is a cross section; the screens, slits, and interference pattern extend into and
out of the page. Between screens Band C, the semicircular wavefronts centered on S2 depict the waves that
would be there if only S2 were open. Similarly, those centered on S1 depict waves that would be there if only
S1 were open.
(i)
If d << D
x = S2P S1P = d sin
If << d then sin tan as when P is close to D so is small.
dy
x =
D

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58
(ii)
(iii)
dy
= n
D
D
2 D
or y = 0,
,
d
d
dy
For minima
= [n + (1/2)]
D
For maxima
5D
D
3D
,
,
, so on
2d
2d
2d
D
Fringe width, =
d
or y =
(iv)
4.
Displacement of fringe Pattern

When a film of thickness 't' and refractive index '' is introduced in the path of one of the source's of light,
then fringe shift occurs as the optical path difference changes.
Optical path difference at P.
x = S2P [S1P + t t]
= S2P S1P ( 1) t = y. (d/D) ( 1)t
5.
The fringe shift is given by
y =
D( 1) t
d
Intensity Variation on Screen

If I0 is the intensity of light beam coming from each slit, the
resultant intensity at a point where they have a phase difference
of is
I = 4I0 cos2
6.
(i)
(ii)
2(d sin )
, where =
2
Interference at thin film

optical path difference = 2t cos r
= 2t (in case of near normal incidence)
For interference in reflected light
Condition of minima 2t cos r = n
1
Condition of maxima 2t cos r = n

2

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air
r
t
air
59
MODERN PHYSICS
1.
(a)
(b)
CATHODE RAYS :
Generated in a discharge tube in which a high vaccum is maintained .
They are electrons accelerated by high potential difference ( 10 to 15 Kilo Volt)
(c)
K.E. of C.R. particle accelerated by a p.d. V is eV =
(d)
Can be deflected by Electric & magnetic fields .
2.
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM :
Ordered arrangement of the big family of
electro magnetic waves (EMW) either in
ascending order of frequencies or of wave
lengths
Speed of E.M.W. in vacuum
C = 3 108 m/s =
3.
PLANK'S QUANTUM THEORY :

A beam of EMW is a stream of discrete
packets of energy called PHOTONS , each
photon having a frequency and energy = E
=h .
h = plank 's constant = 6.63 10-34 Js .
4.
PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT :

The phenomenon of the emission of electrons, when metals are exposed to light (of a certain
minimum frequency) is called photo electric effect.
Results :
Can be explained only on the basis of the quantum theory (concept of photon) .
Electrons are emitted if the incident light has frequency 0 (threshold frequency) emission of electrons
is independent of intensity . The wave length corresponding to 0 is called threshold wave length 0 .
0 is different for different metals .
Number of electrons emitted per second depends on the intensity of the incident light .
EINSTEINS PHOTO ELECTRIC EQUATION :
Photon energy = K. E. of electron + work function .
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
1 2 P2
.
mv
2
2m
1
mv 2
2
= Work function = energy needed by the electron in freeing itself from the atoms of the metal .
= h 0
STOPPING POTENTIAL OR CUT OFF POTENTIAL :
The minimum value of the retarding potential to prevent electron emission is :
eVcut off = (KE)max
h=
(vi)
Note : The number of photons incident on a surface per unit time is called photon flux.
5.
WAVE NATURE OF MATTER :

Beams of electrons and other forms of matter exhibit wave properties including interference and diffraction
h
with a de Broglie wave length given by =
p
(wave length of a praticle) .

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60
6.
(a)
ATOMIC MODELS :
THOMSON MODEL : (PLUM PUDDING MODEL)
(i)
Most of the mass and all the positive charge of an atom is uniformly distributed over the full size
of atom (10-10 m) .
(ii)
Electrons are studded in this uniform distribution .
(iii) Failed to explain the large angle scattering - particle scattered by thin foils of matter .
(b)
RUTHERFORD MODEL : ( Nuclear Model)

(i)
The most of the mass and all the positive charge is concentrated within a size of 10-14 m inside
the atom . This concentration is called the atomic nucleus .
(ii)
The electron revolves around the nucleus under electric interaction between them in circular orbits.
(iii) An accelerating charge radiates the nucleus spiralling inward and finally fall into the nucleus,
which does not happen in an atom. This could not be explained by this model.
(c)
BOHR ATOMIC MODEL :

Bohr adopted Rutherford model of the atom & added some arbitrary conditions. These conditions are
known as his postulates :
mv 2 k ze 2
2
r
r
(i)
The electron in a stable orbit does not radiate energy . i.e.
(ii)
A stable orbit is that in which the angular momentum of the electron about nucleus
h
h
. i.e. mvr = n ; n = 1 , 2 , 3 , .......(n 0).
2
2
is an integral (n) multiple of

(iii)
(iv)
The electron can absorb or radiate energy only if the electron jumps from a lower
to a higher orbit or falls from a higher to a lower orbit .
The energy emitted or absorbed is a light photon of frequency and of energy . E = h
FOR HYDROGEN ATOM : (Z = atomic number = 1)

(i)
Ln = angular momentum in the nth orbit = n
h
.
2
rn = radius of nth circular orbit = (0.529 A) n2 ; (1A = 10-10 m) ; rn n2.

13.6 ev
1
i.e. En 2 .
(iii) En Energy of the electron in the nth orbit =
2
n
n
Note : Total energy of the electron in an atom is negative , indicating that it is bound .
13.6 ev
Binding Energy (BE)n = - En =
.
n2
(iv)
En2 - En1 = Energy emitted when an electron jumps from n2th orbit to n1th orbit (n2 > n1) .
(ii)
E = (13.6 ev) 1 2 1 2 .
n 1
E = h
n 2
= frequency of spectral line emitted .
1
= wave no. [ no. of waves in unit length (1m)] = R 1 2 1 2 .
n 2
n 1
R = Rydberg's constant, for hydrogen = 1.097 107 m-1 .

(v)
For hydrogen like atom/species of atomic number Z :

rnz
n2
Z2
= (0.529 A)
;
Enz = ( 13.6) 2 ev
Z
n
Rydberg's constant for element of atomic no. Z .
Bohr radius
=
Z
Rz = RZ2
n2
Note : If motion of the nucleus is also considered , then m is replaced by .

Where = reduced mass of electron - nucleus system = mM/(m+M) .
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Where
61
7.
2
In this case En = (13.6 ev) Z .
n 2 me
SPECTRAL SERIES :
(i)
Lyman Series : (Landing orbit n = 1) .

Ultraviolet region
(ii)
1
1
R 2
n 22
1
n2 > 1
n2 > 2
n2 > 3
1
1
2
2
n 2
4
n2 > 4
n2 > 5
Balmer Series : (Landing orbit n = 2)
Visible region R 12 1 2
2
(iii)
n 2
Paschan Series : (Landing orbit n = 3)

1
1
2
n 22
3
In the near infrared region R

(iv)
Bracket Series : (Landing orbit n = 4)

In the mid infrared region R
(v)
Pfund Series : (Landing orbit n = 5)

1
In far infrared region R
n 2 2
In all these series n2 = n1 + 1 is the line

= n1 + 2 is the line
= n1 + 3 is the line ........... etc .
8.
where n1 = Landing orbit
EXCITATION POTENTIAL OF ATOM :

Excitation potential for quantum jump from n1 n2 =
E n 2 E n1
electron charge
9.
IONIZATION ENERGY :
The energy required to remove an electron from an atom . The energy required to ionize hydrogen atom
is = 0 ( 13.6) = 13.6 eV .
10.
IONIZATION POTENTIAL :
E n
Potential difference through which a free electron is moved to gain ionization energy = electronic charge
11.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
X - RAYS :
Short wavelength (0.1 A to 1 A) electromagnetic radiation .
Are produced when a metal anode is bombarded by very high energy electrons
Are not affected by electric and magnetic field .
k k-Characteristic Spectrum
They cause photoelectric emission .
Characteristics equation eV = hm
Continous
k k
Spectrum
e = electron charge ;
V = accelerating potential
I
35000 volt
m = maximum frequency of X - radiation
m

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62
Intensity of X - rays depends on number of electrons hitting the target .
Cut off wavelength or minimum wavelength, where V (in volts) is the p.d. applied to the tube
12400
A .
min
V
(vii) Continuous spectrum due to retardation of electrons .
(viii) Characteristic Spectrum due to transition of electron from higher to lower
v= a (z - b)2
[ MOSELEY'S LAW ]
b = 1 for k transition
(v)
(vi)
Note : (i)
Binding energy = - [ Total Mechanical Energy ]

c
137 n
(ii)
Velocity of electron in nth orbit for hydrogen atom
(iii)
For x - rays
(iv)
Series limit means minimum wave length of that series.
1
1
1
Rzb 2 2 2
n
1 n2

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c = speed of light .
63
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
1.
NUCLEAR DIMENSIONS :
R = Ro A1/3 Where Ro = is an empirical constant = 1.1 1015 m ;
A = Mass number of the atom
2.
RADIOACTIVITY :
The phenomenon of self emission of radiation is called radioactivity and the substances which emit these
radiations are called radioactive substances . It can be natural or artificial (induced) .
3.
(i)
, , RADIATION :
particle :
(a) Helium nucleus (2He4)
(c) Velocity 106 107 m/s
;
;
(b) energy varies from 4 Mev to 9 Mev ;

(d) low penetration
(ii)
particle : (a) electron or positron

(b) Have much less energy ; (c) more penetration ; (d) higher velocities than particles
(iii)
radiation : Electromagnetic waves of very high energy and maximum penetration.
4.
(A)
LAWS OF RADIOACTIVE DISINTEGRATION :

DISPLACEMENT LAW : In all radioactive transformation either an or particle(never both or more than
one of each simultaneously) is emitted by the nucleus of the atom.
(i)
emission : zXA
A 4
z 2Y
(ii)
emission : zXA +
+ 24 + Energy
A
z + 1Y
+ (antinuetrino)
(iii) emission : emission does not affect either the charge number or
the mass number .
(B)
STASTISTICAL LAW : The disintegration is a random phenomenon . Which atom disintegrates first is purely
a matter of chance .
Number of nuclei disintegrating per second is given ;
(disintegrations /gm is called specific activity) .
(i)
dN
dN
N
N = activity .
dt
dt
Where N = Number of nuclei present at time t
= decay constant
(ii)
N = No e t ; N0 = number of nuclei present in the beginning .
(iii)
Half life of the population T1/2 =
0.693
;
at the end of n halflife periods the number of nuclei left N =
5.
life time of all atoms

total number of atoms
; Tav =
(iv)
MEAN
(v)
CURIE : The unit of activity of any radioactive substance in which the number of disintegration
per second is 3.7 1010 .
LIFE OF AN ATOM
No
.
2n
ATOMIC MASS UNIT ( a.m.u. OR U) :

1 amu =
1
(mass of carbon 12 atom) = 1.6603 1027 kg
12

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64
6.
7.
MASS AND ENERGY :

The mass m of a particle is equivalent to an energy given by E = mc2
c = speed of light .
1 amu = 931 Mev
MASS DEFECT AND BINDING ENERGY OF A NUCLEUS :

The nucleus is less massive than its constituents . The difference of masses is called
M = mass defect = [ Zmp + (A Z) mn] MzA .
mass defect .
Total energy required to be given to the nucleus to tear apart the individual nucleons composing the
nucleus , away from each other and beyond the range of interaction forces is called the Binding Energy
of a nucleus .
B.E. = (M)C2 .
M C 2
.
A
Greater the B.E. per nucleon, greater is the stability of the nucleus .
B.E. per nucleon =
8.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
NUCLEAR FISSION :
Heavy nuclei of A , above 200 , break up into two or more fragments of comparable masses.
The total B.E. increases and excess energy is released .
The man point of the fission energy is liberated in the form of the K.E. of the fission fragments
. eg.
9.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
235
1
236
141
92
1
92 U o n 92 U 56 Ba 36 Kr 3 o n
+ energy
NUCLEAR FUSION ( Thermo nuclear reaction) :

Light nuclei of A below 20 , fuse together , the B.E. per nucleon increases and hence the excess energy is
released .
These reactions take place at ultra high temperature ( 107K to 109K)
Energy released exceeds the energy liberated in the fission of heavy nuclei .
eg . 411 P 42 He 2 01e . (Positron)
The energy released in fusion is specified by specifying Q value .
i.e. Q value of reaction = energy released in a reaction .
Note : (i)
(ii)
In emission of , Atomic number (Z) increases by 1 .

In emission of + , Atomic number (Z) decreases by 1 .

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1

IDEAL 21ST CENTURY COMPETITIONS

ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS & INSTRUMENTS

absolute error in a measurement

Addition and subtraction rule : The absolute random errors add.

IDEAL 21ST CENTURY COMPETITIONS

Product and quotient rule : The relative random errors add.

IDEAL 21ST CENTURY COMPETITIONS

IDEAL 21ST CENTURY COMPETITIONS

Length as measured by Vernier Callipers

IDEAL 21ST CENTURY COMPETITIONS

IDEAL 21ST CENTURY COMPETITIONS

Measurement of length by screw gauge :

IDEAL 21ST CENTURY COMPETITIONS

Measurement of g using a simple pendulum

The major errors in this experiment are

Statistical : Errors arising from measurement of length and time.

Determination of Youngs Modulus by Searles Method

Specific Heat of a liquid using a calorimeter:

gives a straight line.

IDEAL 21ST CENTURY COMPETITIONS

The equation for random errors gives:

Observed distance actual distance and

Speed of sound using resonance column

= 2(l2 l1), is the wavelength of sound.

Verification of Ohms law using voltmeter and ammeter

taking the ratio

IDEAL 21ST CENTURY COMPETITIONS

The error in computing the ratio R =

(viii) Specific resistance of the material of a wire using a meter bridge :

where and are the end corrections.

which give two linear equation for finding and .

Measurement of unknown resistance using a P.O. Box

IDEAL 21ST CENTURY COMPETITIONS

where the symbols have their usual meaning .

(ii) Time of ascent = time of descent =

(iv) Velocity of fall at the point of projection = u downwards

LEVEL GROUND PROJECTILE MOTION :

(b) Maximum height H =

(d) Horizontal range = (u cos ) . T =

IDEAL 21ST CENTURY COMPETITIONS

6. PROJECTILE UP AN INCLINED PLANE :

Total time of flight on the inclined plane

Range PQ on the inclined plane

For Maxmimum range 2 =

Greatest distance of the projectile from the inclined plane ;

7. PROJECTILE DOWN AN INCLINED PLANE :

Angle of projection for maximum range =

Velocity of A relative to B is given by VAB VA VB .

IDEAL 21ST CENTURY COMPETITIONS

Newton's Second Law :

IDEAL 21ST CENTURY COMPETITIONS

IDEAL 21ST CENTURY COMPETITIONS

Relation between linear & angular variables

ENERGY OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

MI for point mass distribution :

IDEAL 21ST CENTURY COMPETITIONS

Hollow cylinder (about yy axis)

Hollow sphere (about a diameter)

Solid sphere (about a diameter)

Uniform rod mass M length

Solid cylinder (about yy axis)

(about axis passing through one end & perpendicular).

IDEAL 21ST CENTURY COMPETITIONS