Wisdom Vocabulary in the Hebrew Psalter: A Contribution to the Study of "Wisdom

Psalms"
Author(s): Avi Hurvitz
Source: Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 38, Fasc. 1 (Jan., 1988), pp. 41-51
Published by: Brill
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1518121
Accessed: 11-07-2016 05:17 UTC
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Vetus Testamentum XXXVIII, 1 (1988)

WISDOM VOCABULARY IN THE HEBREW

PSALTER: A CONTRIBUTION TO THE STUDY OF

"WISDOM PSALMS"1
by
AVI HURVITZ
Jerusalem
I

The term "Wisdom Psalms" is widely used in biblical research.

However, a close examination reveals that the lists of "Wisdom
Psalms" compiled by different scholars vary greatly. As noted by

R. E. Murphy, who discussed this problem in detail, "no two

authors will agree in listing these Pss."2
In the present article we shall approach this subject from a purely
linguistic standpoint. Our working hypothesis is that if there is in

fact such a thing as "Wisdom Psalms", i.e. Psalms which were

created in a Wisdom milieu, we may assume that these texts have
absorbed words and expressions which were current specifically in
Wisdom literature. Therefore, by identifying phraseology and terminology characteristic of Wisdom literature, it should be possible
to identify "Wisdom Psalms".
To be sure, this line of reasoning was suggested in the past by
various scholars who dealt with supposed Wisdom influences on
non-Wisdom texts.3 However, their works were often severely
A paper read at the 12th Congress of the International Organization for the
Study of the Old Testament in Jerusalem on 27 August 1986.
2 "A Consideration of the Classification, 'Wisdom Psalms' ", SVT 9 (1963),
p. 156 [ = J. L. Crenshaw (ed.), Studies in Ancient Israelite Wisdom (New York,
1976), p. 456]. J. Luyten, who also dealt with this issue, goes so far as to state
that "The first impression received when reviewing what has been written about
wisdom in the psalms since the work of H. Gunkel is one of chaos" ("Psalm 73
and Wisdom", in M. Gilbert [ed.], La Sagesse de l'Ancien Testament [Gembloux,
1979], p. 59).
3 See in particular R. N. Whybray, The Intellectual Tradition in the Old Testament,

BZAW 135 (Berlin and New York, 1974), which G. E. Bryce has described as
"the most complete treatment of the vocabulary of the wisdom tradition up to the

present" (JBL 94 [1975], p. 598. Whybray's "intellectual tradition" is equivalent

to the commonly accepted term "wisdom tradition").

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42

AVI HURVITZ

critized, mainly on methodological grounds.4 It seems, then, that

a fresh examination of the matter is in order.

To this end, we shall first present the general guidelines and

philological considerations which underlie our suggested analysis,
and then apply them to two concrete examples.5
II

The study of Wisdom literature has made great progress in re-

cent years. The abundance of scholarly publications devoted

specifically to this subject treat a variety of its aspects, ranging from
the social and political roles of the sages within Israelite society, to
their literary and cultural contributions to biblical literature.6 One

of the major causes of this intensive interest in ancient Wisdom

was, no doubt, the exciting discovery of numerous Wisdom texts
all over the ancient Near East. These texts have severely shaken
some long-standing theories and demolished time-worn doctrines
and conceptions. Another stimulus to the renewed interest in sapiential writings was the extremely influential article of G. von Rad

on "The Joseph Narrative and Ancient Wisdom",7 which inspired

hosts of scholars to search for "Wisdom elements" in almost every
corner of the Bible. Needless to say, these studies have contributed
much to a better understanding of the phenomenon usually referred
to as "the Wisdom tradition" or "the Wisdom movement". Un-

fortunately, however, as various critics have noted, the quest for

Wisdom "influence" or "contacts" is often carried to extremes.

"The excitement of new directions in scholarship has led to exaggerated claims supported by dubious arguments and assumptions,
so that a study of methodology in determining wisdom influence is
imperative at this juncture."8
4 Cf. Whybray, pp. 74, 121; J. L. Crenshaw, Old Testament Wisdom-An Introduction (Atlanta, 1981), p. 39.
5 The subject is treated at length in a special study in progress, which is due

to appear as a monograph (in Hebrew).

6 Cf., for instance, Crenshaw's recent Introduction (n. 4), and J. A. Emerton,
"Wisdom", in G. W. Anderson (ed.), Tradition and Interpretation (Oxford, 1979),
pp. 214-37.
7 "Josephsgeschichte und altere Chokma", SVT 1 (1953), pp. 120-7 = Gesam-

melte Studien zum Alten Testament (Munich, 1958), pp. 272-80; E. tr. in The Problem
of the Hexateuch and Other Essays (Edinburgh, London and New York, 1966), pp.

292-300 = Crenshaw (n. 2), pp. 439-47.

8 J. L. Crenshaw, "Method in Determining Wisdom Influence upon
'Historical' Literature", JBL 88 (1969), pp. 129-30 = Crenshaw (n. 2), pp.

481-2.

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WISDOM VOCABULARY IN THE HEBREW PSALTER

43

Of the main methodological guide lines suggested in this connection, two are of vital importance for the purposes of the present
study:

1. In an enquiry aimed at tracing characteristic Wisdom

features-linguistic, literary or conceptual-it is imperative that we
define with the utmost strictness the limits and scope of the corpus
which is supposed to provide us with the features we are seeking to

isolate. For this reason, a "maximalist" conception which allows

into this body of literature texts whose Wisdom connections are
problematic or disputed, will inevitably obscure its distinctive
qualities. It is, therefore, advisable to adhere to the commonly ac-

cepted definition-the "minimalist"9 one-which brings into this

biblical category only the three classical sapiential compositions of

Proverbs, Job, and Ecclesiastes.

2. The mere fact that a certain feature occurs within Wisdom

writings does not necessarily make it a specifically Wisdom

characteristic. This is particularly true in cases where the item
under consideration is attested also in non-Wisdom compositions.
Only when the use of the peculiar elements is typical of the distinc-

tive corpus of Wisdom literature are we entitled to view them as

reliable Wisdom indicators.10

Applying these rules to the specific requirements of our linguistic

investigation, we suggest the following "three-fold model" for

identifying "Wisdom Psalms":
1. The distinctive Wisdom corpus, from which we seek to derive the

biblical vocabulary and phraseology specifically characteristic of

Wisdom literature, comprises only Proverbs, Job, and Ecclesiastes.

As noted above, various scholars have suggested that additional

biblical compositions were also composed within the realm of
Wisdom. But since these suggestions have not won general accept-

ance, they have no place in our argument.

2. Distinctive Wisdom phraseology consists only of those linguistic

9 Crenshaw, "Prolegomenon" (n. 2), p. 5. For this methodological approach

cf. also A. Hurvitz, A Linguistic Study of the Relationship between the Priestly Source and

the Book of Ezekiel-A New Approach to an Old Problem (Paris, 1982), pp. 18-19.

10 Cf. Crenshaw (above, n. 8), p. 132 (= [n. 2], p. 484). It is on the basis of

this approach that the "Wisdom connection" of words such as 'asre and hoy was
rightly challenged. Out of 45 biblical occurrences of 'asre, only 10 appear in Proverbs, Job, and Ecclesiastes; hoy is not attested in these three compositions even

once. (Cf. Whybray [n. 3], pp. 125-6).

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44

AVI HURVITZ

elements whose usage is typical-exclusively or predominantly"-of the compositions assigned to the "distinctive Wisdom corpus"
(cf. above, n. 1). Words and phrases whose distribution pattern is
not peculiar to those writings will not be included in our "Wisdom

lexicon", even if they refer to themes and motifs regularly

associated with Wisdom concerns and interests. In addition, it is

extremely important to establish, whenever possible, a linguistic

"opposition" between the element which is supposed to reflect the

Wisdom phraseology and its non-Wisdom equivalent(s), employed

in similar contexts in standard Biblical Hebrew. Establishing this
"opposition" helps to rule out the possibility that the statistical data
gleaned from the concordance are the result of pure chance.
3. Distinctive Wisdom psalms we define as those containing a large

proportion of elements classified as "distinctive Wisdom

phraseology" (above, n. 2). Sporadic occurrences of isolated words
or expressions are not decisive in determining the linguistic nature
of a given text. However, if the psalm under consideration exhibits

a significant accumulation of linguistic elements attested overwhelmingly in Wisdom writings, that psalm may definitely be
labelled a "Wisdom psalm", i.e. a composition written within a
Wisdom milieu.'2

Our analysis of the following two examples may serve as a

demonstration of the method presented above. These examples, it
should be noted, represent two types of linguistic usage. The first
is a word whose distribution pattern is typical of Wisdom literature
(hon). The second usage is a combination of words whose occur"The vocabulary of the Book [of Proverbs] includes many words and expressions which are met with seldom or never in other parts of the OT., though here

they recur with considerable frequency" (S. R. Driver, An Introduction to the

Literature of the Old Testament [Edinburgh9, 1913], p. 403).

12 For the three methodological principles proposed above cf. our remarks in
Hebrew Abstracts 14 (1973), pp. 74-9 (where, to be sure, the main concern was
diachronic in nature [early/late phenomena], in contrast to the present discussion
whose focus is strictly synchronic [Wisdom/non-Wisdom features]). Our first and
second criteria suggested in the present article ( = Hebrew Abstracts, p. 76, 1 ["fre-

quency"] and 2 ["opposition"]) are similar to Whybray's (above, n. 3) first and

third principles (p. 75, a, c; 122, a [although he does not mention linguistic "opposition"]); our third criterion (= Hebrew Abstracts, pp. 76, 8; 77, 4 ["accumula-

tion"]) is equivalent to his sixth (p. 75, f). As is readily apparent, Whybray's

linguistic approach and ours have much in common (cf. also above, n. 10). At the
same time, however, there are some significant differences which must not be
overlooked. Note, for instance, that neither of the cases adduced below as
"classical" Wisdom expressions is discussed in Whybray's study at all.

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WISDOM VOCABULARY IN THE HEBREW PSALTER

45

rences are peculiar to Wisdom writings, though its individual com-

ponents are used separately quite often in biblical literature as a

whole (sur + merad).
III

1. hon

The money and property of the rich, mentioned so often in

biblical literature, are referred to in a variety of terms: 'tsar, hon,
zdhdb, kesep, nekds-m. Semantically, they all convey more or less the

same basic idea. However, on the basis of their distribution patterns, only hon can be singled out as a term whose usage within the
Bible is typical of a specific literary style. Of a total of 26 occurrences, 18 are concentrated in the book of Proverbs; hence we
would agree with the designation of the word hon as an element of

Wisdom vocabulary.13
The sapiential character of hon is indicated not merely by considerations of frequency and statistics. In not a few cases a linguistic

"opposition" can be shown to exist between Wisdom texts which

use hon, and non-Wisdom passages which employ, in similar contexts and situations, one of hon's synonyms listed above ('osdr, kesep,

etc.). For instance: 14

Lev. xxv 37: "You shall not lend him your money (kaspekd) at interest (benesek)";

Ps. xv 5: "(He ...) does not put out his money (kaspo) at interest
(benesek)";

Prov. xxviii 8: "He who augments his wealth (hono) by interest

(bendek). . ."

From these verses we can clearly see that, in expressing his

critical view of nesek, the Sage of the book of Proverbs employs hon.
By contrast, the comparable texts in the Pentateuch and the Psalter
use the standard word kesep, not hon, in connection with nesek.

Similarly, in the following case a certain literary idiom ("A

house full of precious things") is phrased in two different ways by

the narrator in Numbers and the Sage in Proverbs:

13 Cf., for instance, BDB, p. 223b ("poet., almost wholly Wisd. Lt., especially
Pr.").
14 Unless otherwise stated, the translations of the Hebrew text are taken from
the RSV.

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46i

AVI HUJRVTTZ

Num. xxii 18: "Though Balak were to give me his house (beto) full
of silver and gold (kesep wezdhdb) ...";
Prov. vi 31: "... he will give all the goods (hon) of his house (beto)."
And, finally, this phenomenon may be demonstrated by a com-

parison between Wisdom and Prophecy:

Zeph. i 18: "Neither their silver nor their gold (kaspam ... zehdbam)
shall be able";

Prov. xi 4: "Riches (hon) do not";

Zeph.: "to deliver them on the day of the wrath (beyom Cebrat) of the
LORD";

Prov.: "profit in the day of wrath (beyom Cebrdh)."15

In the book of Psalms the word hon appears three times, once
each in chapters xliv, cxii, and cxix:

Ps. xliv 13(12): "Thou hast sold thy people for no fortune16
(hon)"-contrast Jer. xv 13: "Your wealth and your treasures
( )serjtekd)";
Ps.: "demanding no high price for them (bimehzrehem)";

Jer.: "I will give as spoil, without price (bimehr)".

Ps. cxii 3: "Wealth (hon) and riches are in his house;

and his righteousness endures for
ever."17

Ps. cxix 14: "In the way of thy testimonies

I delight as much as in all riches (hon)."
The occurrence of hon in Pss. cxii and cxix (though, admittedly,

not in Ps. xliv) is only one of numerous linguistic elements

characteristic specifically of Wisdom literature. Indeed, these two

psalms exhibit a thorough familiarity with Wisdom phraseology

and use it extensively, thus conforming to the requirements of our

criterion of "accumulation" (above, p. 44).

We therefore conclude that the word hon, which found its way in15 Note that in both verses we find the expression yom Cebrah.
16 This is the rendering according to The Book of Psalms published by the Jewish

Publication Society of America (Philadelphia, 1972). The RSV translates less

literally: "for a trifle".

17 To be sure, Ps. cxii is an acrostic, and hon opens its h line. But this fact need
not invalidate the "Wisdom connections" of the word.

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WISDOM VOCABULARY IN THE HEBREW PSALTER

47

to Pss cxii and cxix, is indicative of Wisdom vocabulary and that

both18 texts fall, linguistically speaking, within the category of
"Wisdom Psalms."19
IV

2. sur + merda

The root sur, whose basic meaning is "turn aside", "depart

from",20 has also the nuance of "deviation" (KB), both physical
and moral. In the latter sense, sur refers metaphorically to norms

and codes of behaviour. It goes without saying that any "deviation" which involves the breaking of religious and moral commandments is severely criticized, while the abandonment of wicked

behaviour is highly praised. For instance:

Ex. xxxii 8: "they have turned aside (srui) quickly out of the
way which I commanded them";
Deut. xvii 20: "... that he may not turn aside (ulebiltz sur) from the
commandment, either to the right hand or to the
left";

1 Sam. xii 20: "... do not turn aside (aal-tdsuru) from following the

LORD";

Mal. iii 7: "From the days of your fathers you have turned
aside (sartem) from my statutes";
2 Ch. viii 15: "And they did not turn aside (welo) saru) from what

the king had commanded."

This use of sur is very common in all parts of the Old Testament,

where it appears in conjunction with various terms, both positive

and negative. However, sur + merad is a combination confined almost entirely to Wisdom writings-10 occurrences out of 13 are at-

tested in Proverbs and Job. Hence we may designate this a

distinctive Wisdom element.21 Consider the following examples:
18 The case of Ps. xliv must be left open, since this Psalm does not stand the

test of "accumulations".

19 For the sapiential nature of Ps. cxix cf., for instance, A. Deissler, Psalm
119(118) und seine Theologie (Munich, 1955), p. 272 (but note that Deissler's list of

"sapientielle Ausdriicke" includes some items whose validity is highly questionable). For Ps. cxii cf., for instance, C. A. Briggs-E. G. Briggs, The Book of
Psalms II (Edinburgh, 1907), p. 385.
20 Cf. BDB, p. 693b; KB, p. 653a.
21 Cf., for instance, Briggs (n. 19), p. 300); R. B. Y. Scott, The Way of Wisdom
in the Old Testament (New York, 1971), p. 195, n. 13 (the expression is "a stock
phrase of the wisdom writers"); M. Weinfeld, Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomic

School (Oxford, 1972), p. 304, n. 2.

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48

AVI HURVITZ

Prov. iii 7: "... fear the LORD, and turn away from evil (sur
merda')"- as against
Josh. xxiv 14: "... fear the LORD, and ... put away the gods
(wehdsfru 'et- elohi-m)".

Prov. iv 27: "Do not swerve to the right or to the left; turn your
foot away from evil (haser ... merad)"-as against
Deut. xvii 20: ... that he may not turn aside from the commandment (sur min-hammiswdh)

either to the right ... or to the left."

Job i 1:22 "... and that man was blameless and upright, one who
feared God"-as against
Ex. xviii 21: "choose able men from all the people, such as fear
God";
Ps. cxxviii 1: "A Song of Ascents. Blessed is everyone who fears the
LORD".

Job: "and turned away from evil"(wesdr merdc);

Ex.: "who are trustworthy ('anse 'emet)

and who hate a bribe" (sone'e basda);

Ps.: "who walks in his ways!" (haholek biderdkdw).

Job i 8: "... my servant Job ... a blameless ('is tdm) and upright
man"-as against
Gen. xxv 27: "... Jacob was a quiet man (s't tam)";

Gen. vi 9: "... Noah was a righteous man, blameless (Wzs ...

tdmim) ";

Ps. xviii 24(23): "I was blameless (tamim) before him";

Job: "who ... turns away from evil (wesar merdC)"23

22 It is true that the Prose Tale ofJob does not fall, formally, within the category

of "Wisdom". However, in its extant form the Prose Tale is "fused" with the
gnomic portions of the composition. Hence it is part and parcel of the book of Job
in its entirety, which does definitely belong to "Wisdom Literature" (cf., for in-

stance, recently Crenshaw [n. 4], pp. 122-3).

23 The description of Job's moral virtues, which is repeated three times in almost identical form, sounds like a conventional formula; "The formula of course
reflects standard sapiential teaching" (W. Brueggemann, "A Neglected Sapiential Word Pair", ZAW 89 [1977], p. 248).

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WISDOM VOCABULARY IN THE HEBREW PSALTER 49

Gen. xxv: - -"dwelling intents",

Gen.

vi:

-"in

his

generation";
Ps.: "and I kept myself from guilt (wd)estammer meawonz)."
In the book of Psalms the phrase sur + merdc is attested only
twice:

Ps. xxxiv 15(14): "Depart from evil (sur merdc), and do good;
seek peace ...";

Ps. xxxvii 27: "Depart from evil (sur merdC), and do good;
so shall you abide ..."-as against
Isa. vii 15: "... how to refuse the evil (mdaos bdrdc) and choose
the good";

Amos v 15: "Hate evil (sin uj24 rad), and love

good ..."
As noted above, however, this phrase is prevalent in the Bible
within sapiential writings (Proverbs, Job). Furthermore, Pss xxxiv
and xxxvii can be shown to contain a considerable number of

linguistic elements whose distribution pattern outside the Psalter is

predominantly indicative of Wisdom texts.25 We therefore conclude
that the appearance of sur + merdC-as well as the other relevant ex-

pressions (see n. 25)-in Pss xxxiv and xxxvii is indicative of their

peculiar Wisdom milieu. In other words, on the basis of language,
both compositions may definitely be classified as "Wisdom
Psalms".26
24 Brueggemann does not distinguish between Proverbs, Job and Pss. xxxiv and
xxxvii on the one hand, and Amos v 15 on the bther. He considers the text of
Amos "sapiential" (ibid., n. 51). This is in line with H. W. Wolff's theory that

"Amos' geistige Heimat" is grounded in "clan Wisdom"; see his book Amos'

geistige Heimat (Neukirchen-Vluyn, 1964), E. tr. Amos the Prophet- The Man and his
Background [Philadelphia, 1973]). The fact that Amos does not employ the distinctive Wisdom phrase sur + mera- lends support to the critics who reject the "Wisdom
connection" of Amos v 15.

25 References will be found in the study mentioned above, n. 5.

26 For Ps. xxxiv, or more precisely, for the second part of Ps. xxxiv, cf., for in-

stance, W. O. E. Oesterley, The Psalms (London, 1953), p. 214 (though not all the
examples adduced by Oesterley are of equal weight). For Ps. xxxvii cf., for instance, S. Holm-Nielsen, "The Importance of Late Jewish Psalmody for the
Understanding of Old Testament Psalmodic Tradition", Studia Theologica 14
(1960), p. 45 ("Ps. xxxvii makes it justifiable to talk about wisdom psalms in the
O.T.").

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50

AVI HURVITZ

In the preceding discussion we have presented a certain method

for linguistically characterizing and identifying "Wisdom Psalms".
Two widely held, but recently challenged,27 conclusions have been
confirmed by our analysis:

1) The literary corpus known as Wisdom Literature often

displays linguistic features which may legitimately be assigned to a

specific Wisdom "jargon";

2) Not a few of these features which characterize Wisdom
Literature are employed by the writers of Psalmodic Literature and
consequently may serve-under certain conditions and with certain

qualifications-as hallmarks of the sapiential nature of the psalms

in which they occur.
It goes without saying that our suggested method of analysis cannot cope with all the complex problems involved in the critical study

of the Wisdom Psalms. First of all, such an anlysis is by nature

limited since it seeks to reveal the "Wisdom dimension" 28 of cer-

tain psalms by means of linguistic criteria alone, ignoring other

aspects which play such a major role in modern scholarly research.
Secondly, at best the linguistic tools at our disposal can determine
that the outward form of a given psalm is indicative of the Wisdom
sphere. The possibility always exists, therefore, that the text under
consideration originated outside the realm of Wisdom, and assumed its sapiential guise only in a relatively late stage of its literary
history.

Yet both of these "limitations" have their advantages as well.

First, the limited linguistic study is an independent and

autonomous discipline. This means that it can be carried out without need of subscribing to any preconceived theory about literary
Gattungen or a sociological or religious Sitz im Leben.29 Second, the
virtue of confining our analysis exclusively to the extant biblical
text is that we reduce hypothetical reconstructions to a minimum.

This must surely be the goal of any sound philological analysis.

27 Cf. Crenshaw's somewhat despairing conclusion ([n. 4], p. 39), as to the
possibility of isolating characteristic Wisdom vocabulary ("such attempts at
discovering the special terminology of the wise inevitably abort"). Although we

agree with many of the methodological strictures imposed by Crenshaw, we con-

sider his verdict an overreaction to the undeniable difficulties.

28 Cf. Luyten (above, n. 2), pp. 63-4, 80.

29 On this point we share the view expressed by Luyten, p. 64.

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WISDOM VOCABULARY IN THE HEBREW PSALTER 51

In examining the problem of "Wisdom Psalms", biblical

scholars must take into account all the material at their disposal, including the linguistic data. The present article is an attempt to use

these data in a new way and to show that they constitute a rich
source for further study.

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