2 - Annas, Aristotle's Politics. A Symposium Aristotle On Human Nature and Political Virtue

Aristotle's "Politics": A Symposium: Aristotle on Human Nature and Political Virtue
Author(s): Julia Annas

Source: The Review of Metaphysics, Vol. 49, No. 4 (Jun., 1996), pp. 731-753
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ARISTOTLE'SPOLITICS
A
SYMPOSIUM*
ARISTOTLE
ON HUMANNATURE
AND POLITICAL
VIRTUE
JULIAANNAS
ISTOTLE GIVES us an account

of (jy?oi? or nature
in the Physics
Ar
which
for his immediate
is adequate
little in
purposes
there, but gives
dication of his broad deployment
in the ethical and political works of
nature
the concept
of the natural. He never systematically
investigates
as an ethical
or political
he
not
done
he
could
have
Had
so,
concept.
failed to see that there are some
tensions
within
the roles he assigns
to the natural.
one
cluding
ical attitudes
He might
thereby
of his most
unfortunate
have
avoided
several
in
problems,
that of reactionary
polit
legacies,
to
often
in
Aristotle's
name,
nature,
appealed
in society,
such as slavery
and the sub
inequalities
existing
to Aris
of women.
Some
of this legacy has got attached
to uphold
ordination
which
have
to his works
to defend
race-based
forms of sla
unfairly;
appeals
own
are
for
Aristotle's
very,
example,
patently
specious.
However,
ar
in his ethical and political
lack of precision
about the role of nature
totle
must
bear some
guments
Nature
in the Politics
context
of
Miller's
Nature,
the book
of the responsibility.
has been most
studied
extensively
1 argument
that the polis
is "by nature."
and Rights
Justice,
in Aristotle's
*With the exception

of John Cooper's
essay and
at a conference
these papers were presented
focused
in Aristotle's
tice, and Rights
by
Politics, codirected
and Jeffery Paul with the support of the Liberty Fund,
to: Department
of Philosophy,
Correspondence
zona, 213 Social Sciences,
Bldg. #27, Tuscon, Arizona
The
Review
of Metaphysics
49
(June
1996):
731-53.
Copyright
Politics
in the
Fred
is a landmark
Fred Miller's response,

on Miller's Nature,
Jus
Charles L. Griswold,
Jr.
Inc.
The University
of Ari
85721.
1996
Metaphysics

by The
Review
of
JULIAANNAS
732
as in many
in this respect
others,
of the polis
is, I think, definitive,
to Aristotle
that according
people
of the naturalness
and his discussion

and
should
put
their natural
find
an end
to the notion
as
functioning
in Ar
nature
end
social whole.
However,
large organic
parts in some
works
contains
and political
istotle's
ethical
complications
some points
to be made
that there remain
book
1, and I hope
sues to be elucidated.
mere
outside
is
and
and
in the ethical
tendency,
a
in
the
strand
Physics
particular
works,
political
con
to ignore it, and even to say things which
account
and sometimes
so with
is that
the idea that the natural
is notably
it. This
flict with
or for the most
discus
The main Physics
occurs
which
part.
always
source
an
of
internal
of
the
idea
around
which
revolves
changing
sion,
source
One
is Aristotle's
of confusion
to stress
sometimes
later.1
does not discuss
this, but it emerges
slightly
changed,
some
or
internal
nature
from
is natural
prin
if, starting
by
Something
the
towards
it
"always
something
going
continuously
develops
ciple,
or being
same
is the usual.
Thus the natural
if nothing
interferes."2
as an assumption,
but never
this emerges
expressed
assume
to
reasonable
it is
where
in the physical
works,
thing,
see why
can
fended,
the kinds
We
de
that
are due to its in

in which
that a thing can engage
of changes
will be
external
than
rather
of change,
ternal principle
interference,
or freakish
rather than by any imposed
revealed
by its usual behavior,
occurrences.
that
assumption
or for the most
this
works
way
always
to believe
difficult
for
gument
world
every
on
force
Greek
and
that
known
rather
polis
"nature
part,
society
from
than
could well
contained
the
to
chance
seemed
of what
political
is the same
ar
plays
In Aristotle's
and of slavery.
a
that
fact
clearly pre
slavery,
to Aristotle
it as an
institution
societies
other
to be,
Aristotle,
199bl5-18,
Physics
199bl5-18.
2Physics
specified.
3Aristotle, Eudemian
1194b37-9.
All
translations
Ethics
25-6;
cf. Aristotle,
are the author's,
1247a31-bl;
cf. Aristotle,
based
than
the
like the Persian
seem like
Empire, based on force. Thus the Greek polis might well
êe
641b24-6.
It is
of the opposite."3
role in Aristotle's
no
being able to think of

nature.
Furthermore,
have
and
ethical
is the cause
this assumption
of the polis
the naturalness
Aristotle
vented
over
carries
Aristotle
Sometimes
Parts
unless
of Animals
Magna

otherwise
Moralia
733
HUMAN NATURE AND POLITICAL VIRTUE

the
usual
to
form
Sometimes,
present.4
that
based on nature
when
develop
on the other
conflicts
with
were
conditions
interfering
an argument
hand, he develops
as
his
third
with
argu
this,
major
no
that only cer

the one that establishes
1 (chapters
8-10),
are natural.
of this ar
For the conclusion
of money-making
is
is one which
is that the only form of natural money-making
gument
to
be
whole
of
the
ancient
the
usual
for
it
rare; indeed,
extremely
the uppermost
to be revolutionized.
have
would
economy
Clearly
ment
in book
tain forms
in Aristotle's
idea
mind
here
not
is that of the natural
as the
found
not actually
ideal, something
reason
for the existence
One
as the usual
as it is.
in the world
of an unedifying
in the name of Aristotle
but
tradition
of reac
is surely his failure

to nature
appeals
as the usual and
nature
the role of
to analyze,
in his discussion,
clearly
an ideal.
Ifwe look at the no
from nature as providing
its distinctness
tionary
1with
in Politics
arguments
that while
the first two rely on the
torious
it leaps to mind
this point in view,
can be found
idea that the natural
is something
that the natural
to the usual,
the third argues
by looking
the argu
between
this difference
which
is not to be found.
However,
if na
Of course,
it deserves.
ments
has not been given the prominence
ture provides
can be found
draw
a number
of women
women
an
ideal,
this will
by looking
of familiar
is natural,
have
to the usual,
normative
then
no
force;
effort
are nearly always

to men,
subordinated
form of "appeal to nature" vigorously
simplistic
himself
does
Aristotle
like Mill and Sidgwick.5
if nature
is required
the subordination
conclusions:
reactionary
is to be endorsed
and hence
and
to
as a norm, because
so on. This is the
and
criticized
not make
by thinkers
this kind of
to the
those who do so have
looked
"appeal," but it is easy to see why
to re
fair
1 as support.
it
is
of Politics
first two arguments
Moreover,
more
as
for not having
open to criticism
carefully
thought
gard Aristotle
4Aristotle
of Greek civilization,
is thinking of the conditions
though he is
he considers
in book 2 of the Politics
not clear about this restriction:
while
in book 7
Carthage at length as an example of a type of constitution,
as in
to
for
he
write
off
reasons,
appears
non-Greeks,
differing
(1327b20-36)
capable of political development.
(However, he then adds that the same dis
tinctions that he has drawn between Greeks and non-Greeks
apply among the
Greeks themselves.)
5John Stuart
The Bobbs-Merrill
Company,
Mill, Nature
(Indianapolis:
1 of The Subjection
Hackett,
(Indianapolis:
1958); and chapter
of Women
of Ethics
1981),
(Indianapolis: Hackett,
1988); Henry Sidgwick, The Methods
80-2.

JULIAANNAS
734
uses
his
between
relationship
and his uses of it in the ethical
about
the
works
use
in Aristotle's
in the
physical
and political
works.
is not the source
of all the complexities
In what
I shall be
in the Politics.
follows
this conflation
However,
of nature
of nature
us towards
one which
an
points
distinction,
of human
arises within
Aristotle's
nature,
concept
to works
the Politics.
outside
on another
concentrating
that
uncertainty
reference
without
7 Aristotle
In book
that for people
says
to become
virtuous
three
things are required: nature (cj)?oic), habit (eOo?), and reason (X,oyo?);
he
and
proper
but what
son,
he
as a preliminary
to his discussion
far longer on habit
He spends
for citizens.
The
is significant.6
here
says about nature
the
develops
education
he
of
idea
and
the
rea
subjects
and not
be human
first, must
beings
a cer
nature
of
human
other
requires
being
this here, be
kind of body and soul. He does not further specify
like by na
be
what
should
has
said
that
he
already
people
saying
to the law-giver."
take up this
"amenable
to be
(We shall
he says
with,
This same
animal.
is concerned
some
tain
yond
ture
he says, are not an ad

Some natural
endowments,
below.)
alter
for habits
are, as far as nature
qualities
them; some
vantage,
or
worse
habit.
for
better
and
through
develop
ambivalent,
goes,
live mostly
Other
animals
by nature,
though habit plays a small role;
reference
a striking
sentence:
"So these
do many
for people
with one another;
must
harmonize
things because
that to
if they are persuaded
their habits and nature,
of reason against
of nature,
Here
is better."7
do otherwise
habit, and reason
"harmony"
reason.
have
but humans
is compatible
with
reason
Then
going
of harmonization).
is what
I call
here
conception
Nature
follows
against
"mere
nature."8
of human
others; but
and reason
provided
they develop morally

that
and the ways
by nature.
This
idea
1332a38-bl0.
6See Politics
7
1332b6-8.
Politics
8Julia Annas, The Morality
Press,
not
these
(a remarkable
the basic
It is simply
its own reliable
having
so far from
beings, which,
can
in
be
built-in
quite opposite
developed
goals,
some
start
out
with
Human
and reason.
beings
material
two
the other
directions
tendencies
by habit
and not
but through habit

through nature,
on the raw material
get to work
of mere
of Happiness
nature
is more
(Oxford:
familiar
Oxford
1993).

from
University
VIRTUE
HUMANNATUREAND POLITICAL
passages
in the Nicomachean
Ethics
full virtue.9
from
where
The
735
"natural
of nature
virtue"
is distin
that has
had most
concept
guished
in discussions
of the Politics
is the one that gets a star
prominence
is
role
in
book
and
different
from the raw material
clearly quite
1,
ring
be enough
to support
of mere
which
could never
the argu
nature,
ments
about
the naturalness
of the polis, slavery,

and certain
forms of
as that which
1 is itself a goal
in book
figures
Nature
money-making.
or end: "what we say the nature
of each
it is when
its
thing is, is what
Nature
here
is the end of the pro
nature
in this sense
is clearly norma
is completed."10
coming-into-being
not
the
cess,
Further,
beginning.
a
that
needs
for book
tive,
scarcely
point
argument
no
to
what
is
better and what worse,
explicitly
guide
doubt
that nature
proper
or nature
in the
full sense
1. Mere
while
does
nature
there
is
is no
a
establish
the appropriate
of a thing's devel
by virtue of being
end-point
to
not
This
is
restricted
book
within
7 and
books
opment.
1, however;
uses
8 themselves
in the more
there are frequent
of nature
familiar
norm,
of a thing's
sense
goal
or end, with
normative
implications.11
Aristotle himself does not explicitly distinguish these two uses of

nature,
although
they
differ
sufficiently
for
it to be as appropriate
him to draw the distinction as to draw the distinctions
for
that he does for
or one thing's
like place,
"from" another.
oneness,
concepts
being
uses of "nature"
in his philosophical
(His listing of different
lexicon,
our
is
not
is
for
since
it
concerned
purposes,
4,
Metaphysics
unhelpful
with
problems
and discusses
arising
only
from
physical
the ethical
applications
and
political
of nature.)12
use
of
the
term
dNicomachean
Ethics
1144M-12.
1103al8-26,
l0Politics
1252b32-33.
Here completion
in production
results
of a
in
reason
while
the
"mere
nature"
to
habit
and
need
passages
thing's nature,
it from raw material
towards a goal.
complete nature in order to develop
nSee Politics
1324b36-7
1332a21-4
and
1325b7-10,
(and 1325a27-30),
seem
and
1334M2-17
1342b22-8.
which
27-30,
24-5, 1337b28-33,
Passages
to stress mere
can be found at 1326a5-7,
nature
1327b 18-20 and 33-6,
and 17-18,
1328a9-10
1329al4-16,
1330a28-30,
1332a34-bll,
1332b35-41,
1337a3.
1334b6-8,1336b40in Physics
2 (nature as
12However, the chapter does add to the account
the internal source of change) the point that a thing's nature is both the mat
ter from which
or form which
the change begins and also the substance
is the
to the distinction
between
x?Xo? of the completed
change. This is analogous
mere nature and nature in the ethical and political works,
though Aristotle
never
connects
them.

JULIAANNAS
736
the difference
Noting
us to solve
ture
some
in the Politics.
hence
political)
that virtue does
development
and exercise
can
overall
help
of na
behavior,
the potentiality
I shall
however,
nature,
sense.
full
habit
and
in books
of mere
need
while
the state ex
by reason)
a norm for human
the polis establishes
to activate
since
it is natural
for humans
directed
in the full sense:
Here,
1 but with
nature
the
problems
As Fred Miller
nature
makes
conflict
points
out,13 the apparent
that the polis exists by nature and that ethical
(and
once we note
virtue does not exist by nature dissolves
not come about
in us because
nature
of mere
(to be
we
virtuous
ists by nature
book
and mere
the use Aristotle
the thesis
between
come
nature
between
with
for social
and political
virtue.
not with
the problems
of
for Aristotle's
treatment
of human
be
concerned
that arise
problems
an explicit
7 and 8. Here we find, as noted,
discussion
awareness
of the role of nature
clear
together with
we
find
also
the closest
Aristotle
comes
in
to
However,
a bridge
two ideas of human
nature.
between
these
In his
of reason
and habit,14 he says that the telos
of the relation
so that
is reason
and mind
xai vo??),
(t??,o?) of human nature
(koyo?
form the goal of the ways
this is what
should
that habits
should be set
providing
discussion
That
human
is, mere
habit
and
but
reason,
by
to develop.15
for humans
nature
up.
had provided
mere
nature
about
length
sition can be
reason
a developmental
to nature,
but
education
Aristotle's
account
in Politics
of various
constructed.16
nature
into full human
is developed
in which
it is natural
is also the way
would
position
of the progress
7 and 8, where
kinds,
are
Humans
an overall
equipped
be
clearer
if he
of reason
from
he
is talking
at
po
developmental
to
nature
by mere
in Aristotle's
Politics
Justice
and Rights
13Fred D. Miller, Jr., Nature,
Press, 1995), 44-5.
(Oxford: Oxford University
(hereafter, NJR)
14SeePo????csl334b6-28.
sense: that of mere or full nature? If reason is just
15"Natural" in which
it into full nature,
else to develop
part of mere nature, itwill need something
if reason is part of our nature in the full sense, itwill be, in the requisite
while
way, distinct from the mere nature it needs to get to work on. Of course no
reason; that is why we need to proceed
body starts with a fully developed
patterns until we are capable of our
through habit, and to follow established
uses of reason.
own fully autonomous
for not
16In The Morality
of Happiness
(pp. 146-9) I criticize Aristotle
an overall developmental
account of reason as the path from mere
providing
of Arius Didymus' account of
nature to nature, contrasting
the later positions
theory in terms of a Stoicized
ethics, which does recast Aristotle's
Peripatetic
returns to a more
of Aphrodisias,
who
and Alexander
story of o?xekooic,
uses
two
not
account
which
leaves
the
Aristotelian
clearly connected.
strictly

VIRTUE
habit
but do not do so unless
virtue,
a rational
life and
of one's
direction
develop
produce
In the context
goods.
thesis
we
of the Politics
also
737
to
by reason
of external
is directed
employment
to remember
need
the
are by nature politika

and po
(jto?mxa)?social
reason
to pro
is directed
habit
it is only when
by
with
and politically
to engage
culturally,
socially,
the
Aristotle
identifies with
of society
po
(one which
that humans
litical
For
beings.
duce
dispositions
in a form
others
achieve
lis) that humans
This is an attractive
The
laries.
the goal
of natural
development.
some equally attractive
in which
for humans
is one
and has
thesis,
natural
development
is not a matter
of mindless
virtue, which
to
and act
choose
reflective
disposition
achieve
corol
they
but a de
habituation
disposition
rightly?a
veloped
on the results of ha
which
frees the agent from dependence
precisely
to capture
too narrow
and conventional
if these have been
bituation
of Aristotle's
ideal state will
for virtue.
Thus the citizens
what matters
be
tion.
choose
who
individuals
a state whose
Moreover,
as a result
act
and
citizens
at the common
be
of autonomous
will
virtuously
developed
than the good of one par
The politi
aims will mesh.
have
rather
good
just, aiming
so individual
and political
ticular faction;
cal culture of the ideal state will be one in which
as
the young
hence
virtuously,
uate
will
choices
development
will
exhibit
they
will
educated
and
in turn
Miller
reflection
the factors
that habit
them
to develop
virtuous
encourage
and
rationally,
a culture
reflectively
tend to propagate
of rational
what
are
which
in the citizens.
calls moderate
Thus
their
encourages
the ideal
the aim
individualism:
not
of each
state
reflec
the
state
of
the
a col
is the virtue,
and hence
individual,
happiness,
some
This char
of
less
than
others.17
that
partake
might
goal
a
state
meets
demand
that
citizen
virtue
the further
acterizes
which
lective
of political
exercise
require active
over
for political
rule is rule
equals,
rule, not mere

and hence
has
to law;
conformity
ac
to be exercised
to the principle
ruled in turns, a principle
of ruling and being
an
in
form of political
democratic
government
attractively
generating
are constrained
of equality
which
institutions
by the demands
political
citizens.
among
cording
Aristotle's
a well-known
is also, however,
of the natural
view
development
discussion
of an ideal form of polis in books 7 and 8 makes
There
17See Miller, NJR,
and
unattractive
of political
213-24.

to
aspect
virtue.
His
it patent
JULIAANNAS
738
of political virtue not only is difficult but re
that the development
o%oXy] or "leisure,"18 and that this in turn requires

infrastructure?in
considerable
fact, a whole
layer of economic
are
not
citi
out
who
themselves
carried
is
which
by people
activity
zens and hence
The leisure,
and hence
not "parts" of the polis.
virtue,
quires
a very
considerable
of one
group
have
leisure,
of the citizens.
on the work
of others, who
depends
the ethical
do not develop
and hence
ideal
In the
state
there
are first-
is this unattractive,
has roundly
Taylor
Christopher
ideal polis
called
a political
is not
sufficient for life, much

is an exploiting
elite,
and political
second-class
for he
does not put it this way,

Aristotle
although
are
of the virtuous,
the
real
citizens
minority
only
of the city as noncitizens
of inhabitants
majority
only
themselves
insists
citi
that the
the
thereby
defining
and not a part of it.
As
unjust.
quite plainly
"As it stands,
the so
the matter:
it appears
put
it is not
at all, since
community
less for the good life (1252b27-30).
a community
virtue
and
zens,
Not
do not
of free-riders
whose
self
Rather, it
ability
to pur
of others to forgo
sue the good life ismade possible by the willingness
the Ideal' po
of slavery,
Even
that pursuit.
leaving aside the question
lis is thus characterized
by systematic
injustice."19
this unjust.
for us to consider
and straightforward
It is immediate
We
have
a distribution
of the city's benefits

labor for the benefit
in that some
uitable,
is abstracting
the ideal state, so Aristotle
of the real world.
features
nonideal
Why
What
unjust?
rangement
and others
tween citizens
is his
considered
in his
state?
and burdens
of others.
from what
does
Further,
he considers
he not
view
which
consider
of the distinction
is ineq
this is
to be
this ar
be
leisure from nec

state will provide
the well-run
1269b34-6:
18Cf.Politics
this as an agreed point, though one pro
Aristotle
essary activities.
presents
as
"Leisure" is apparently unavoidable
viding difficulty as to its achievement.
of trivial
connotations
a translation of oxoat|, despite the unsuitable modern
lacks a
that modern
English
significant
ity and relaxation.
(It is perhaps
in
determined
that
is
time
of
the
idea
word
for
ways
by
spent
having
handy
is devoted
your own priorities, not by the need to work for others, and which
There is another aspect to oxoXf) less
to serious, rather than trivial, pursuits.)
in the English
obvious
generated
"leisure," namely, freedom from pressures
"in
1273b6-7.
worries.
Cf.
money
1273a31-7,
(In some ways the English
by
the idea of financial freedom from want and sub
best combines
dependence"
to one's own plan, but
and the idea of shaping one's life according
ordination,
as a translation of oxoX.r|.)
would not be recognized
to Aristotle,
19C.C. W. Taylor, "Politics," in The Cambridge
Companion
ed. Jonathan Barnes (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1995), 250.

739
VIRTUE
assumes
Aristotle
some
that
will
of the noncitizens
or
be metics
to form part of the political

aliens, who will not even expect
as
not
this
and is simply as
He
does
problematic
community.
regard
a normal
life in the ancient
where
fact of everyday
world,
suming
resident
were
there
large
Aristotle
Athens.
he
though
himself
such
as
life as a metic,20
of metic
disadvantages
and,
al
communities
lived most
stresses
sometimes
in cities
metic
disfranchised
of his
the
status,21
seems to have found it obvious that many people would find it to their
to
overall
advantage
live
in cities
they were
of his
the dependence
of which
to engage
in trade, so that
would
of the economy
section
mostly
a metic
not
ideal
citizens,
state on
to any novel
be appealing
in
hidden
there are problematic
However,
assumptions
arrangement.
a
life to the ideal state.
of
fact of ordinary
transfer
Greek
Aristotle's
His
state
imal sense
nomically
can hardly
of being
dependent
primary
political
The farmers
which
expect
notorious
be a paradigm
able to meet
on
the
not
of self-sufficiency
its own economic
commercial
lie elsewhere.22
loyalties
as slaves
are envisaged
activities
in the most
min
if it is eco
needs,
of people
whose
as
jteQioixoi,
some degree
of unfreedom).23
We would
implies
to insist that he has in mind
natural
slaves,
given the
1. For when
he argues
in book
that slavery has a
discussion
(sometimes
presumably
Aristotle
to fit is the one

the only set-up
that his analysis
begins
where
labor is performed
slaves
under
the
by natural
heavy manual
a
his
of
natural
who
benefits
himself
and
slaves
master,
by
guidance
are
struc
in
of
This
them
that
unaided.
ways
they
incapable
directing
natural
basis,
ture can be seen

failing
as fitting ancient
to fit many
of the skilled
small-scale
and
farming,
though
roles which
supervisory
patently
ancient
own status and self-conception

as a metic,
see David
20On Aristotle's
the
"Aristotle
the
of
Whitehead,
Metic," Proceedings
Cambridge
Philological
Society 201 (1975): 94-9.
to metic
21See Politics
1278a34-8. However,
Aristotle's
attitude
status
seems to be objective and uninvolved;
comments
in
his occasional
(collected
aware
some
that
he
show
is
that
metics
their
Whitehead's
resented
article)
as
lack of political rights, but is apparently
resentment
free from personal
well as from any judgment that, in his own political
theory, the lot of metics
should be improved.
22It is not wholly
fanciful to compare modern worries
about loss of na
on the activities
in countries whose
tional autonomy
is dependent
economy
of multinational
based elsewhere.
companies
23See Politics
1330a25-30.
1329a25-6,

JULIAANNAS
740
slaves
filled.
often
If natural
fits anywhere,
it should
fit here;
slavery
an ideal state, Aristotle
of sketching
and in the context
could be ex
us
to
the
awkward
fact
that
the
actual
world
presents
pected
ignore
with
few if any examples
of those people whom
the theory categorizes
as natural
slaves.24
ing a part
existence,
product
possession
meaning
Further,
of the state with
without
and
the
Aristotle
here
contrasts
the relation
of be
that of being a necessary

condition
for its
a
common
as
case
in
there being
the
of a
good,
to make
tool needed
it. He adds
that this kind of
to the city will

include many
belonging
to recall
1 that
the statement
of book
living things, surely

the slave
is a living
tool.25
assumes
in question
Aristotle
that the slaves
However,
natural
far from lacking
power
slaves;
reasoning
enough
on their own,
are
as
better
motivated
they
envisaged
chance
combine
of achieving
forces and
and as having
freedom,
enough
measures
if
revolt,
precautionary
assumes
that these
throughout
will
not be
to function
if given
the
to
intelligence
are not taken.26
are people who

discussion
are capable
as free people,27
of functioning
but have been deprived
of
their freedom
he never
Notoriously,
through
xvyr\, bad luck.
gives
are not
to the injustice
of enslaving
theoretical
attention
those who
Aristotle's
his ideal city here rests on an injustice which

is never
slaves;
dealt with.
explicitly
in Aristotle's
The most
ideal state, how
type of injustice
striking
or
status
not
whose
does
involve
metics
ever,
exploited
slaves, people
we can understand
A majority
Aristotle
of the free
taking for granted.
?
are
of the ideal polis are not to be citizens.
residents
They
?dvauooi
natural
for natural slavery, see Annas, The Morality

240n the argument
of Hap
Shame and Necessity
and
Bernard
piness,
152-6,
Williams,
(Berkeley: Uni
versity of California Press, 1993).
cf. 1253b32-3.
25See Politics
1328b22-37;
1330a25-33.
26See Politics
in this ideal state is unex
towards
the farmers
27Aristotle's attitude
he regards the best type of democ
pected, given that in book 6 of the Politics
with workers
and traders worse
racy as one based on a farming population,
form of democracy
in character and leading to a worse
if they get into power.
and traders precludes
He adds that the life of workers
virtue, but conspicu
he
to
this
about
the
farmers.
fails
say
However,
praises the farmers' de
ously
it good is that farm
rather back-handedly,
mocracy
saying that what makes
ers lack the leisure to go to the Assembly
often or to take much
interest in
was
to
state
his
ideal
Aristotle
when
Possibly,
sketching
unwilling
politics.
have half-leisured
citizens, and found it preferable,
despite the obvious prob
lems, to rely on a large body of slave or serf farmers.


a word
that has no
Social
own
the work
aspect;
they do
certain
against
prejudice
any
generate
ence
obvious
between
cannot,
ethical
exercising
claims
that there
and
female,
would
seem
to be to claim
the workers
and
of mere
presumably,
the workers
free
cannot
however,
them of political
on
its
rights.
think that this could be justified?
way
of nature
is regarded
kinds of work,
for depriving
justification
How might Aristotle

The
They are the productive

has an ineliminably
neg
as mechanical
and menial.
ready modern
equivalent.
to them
way of referring
but Aristotle's
class,
ative
741
citizens?a
achieving
After
all,
to the distinction
is a natural
basis
and
Females
and
there
slaves
their
full nature
in book
between
have
is a differ
difference,
can, while
the citizens
why
nature?explaining
into people
develop
and political
virtue.
slave.
the
that
by
1 Aristotle
male
and
a different
na
subordination
does not offend
the
ture, so that their political
against
are
demands
of justice:
to unequals.
unequal
rights
assigned
Among
free males,
stresses
Aristotle
is ex
rule
by contrast,
equality:
political
over those who
are equal and similar
ercised
to you, which
is why
care has
cise
to be
of power
taken
which
that
lead
might
to become
how
it does
unacceptably
the roles of soldier
not
the ruled
dominant.28
assumption
of political
its can be
this
does
In book
as a mere
and
exer
the rulers
7 itself, when
ruler
the older men
deliberate.
The
is clearly
that any principle
of exclusion
from the exercise
is
resented.
and
prima facie
rights
objectionable
Age-lim
tolerated
exclude
only because
they do not permanently
disadvantaged,
merely
is a natural
difference
not
regarded
to resentment
discussing
and
policy
(deliberating
he is careful
to point out that
a difference
as
that all can respect
and of political
should be assigned,
legal cases)
judging
the natural
fact of aging provides
relevant:
the young
should
fight while
those
become
exclude
people
them wait
for a time. Moreover,
making
will accept
it
one; hence
people
it, since
are
from what
entitled
to.29
they
Surely,
28Cf. Politics
reiterates
that rule over free
1325a24-30, where Aristotle
is as different
from rule over slaves as is the naturally free from the
people
where he derides those who think that su
naturally slave, and 1325a41-bl0,
preme power gives one the chance to do the most fine actions; fine actions
can only be performed
by treating those who are in fact equal to you as
equals: treating them as unequal to you is contrary to nature, and hence not
fine. In this context Aristotle
repeats the lack of equality between male and
rule
female, and free and slave (and adds that of father and child): political
respects natural equality and natural inequality.
29See Politics
esp. M3-17.
1329a2-bl7,

JULIAANNAS
742
a natural basis for his principle

of
ought to provide
are
from
ruled
the
citi
the
workers
by
political
rights. They
excluding
as
zens
in a way
that is wholly
one-sided;
they do not get treated
more
women
or
to
in
than
the
slaves
and
rule
turn, any
do,
equals,
get
seem to be not "political"
over them would
control
and so the citizens'
Aristotle
therefore,
but
"despotic":
is not
straints,
what
(c()?o8i)
is not."30
he
if we
8, we
talks about
for people
is required
an ethnic distinction.
of power
by
own
between
However,
7 and
books
When
constrained
In Aristotle's
ruled.
tion
it is an exercise
what
terms,
is suited
him
the basis
who
The
it has
while
some
con
are
the political
rights of those who
"it is odd if there is no natural
distinc
to despotic
concern
trace Aristotle's
find
which,
rule
this
with
issue
vague.
that
nature)
mere
clearly
to develop
into citizens,
of the cold north
inhabitants
are
through
and
evasive
uncharacteristically
of nature
(here
and
(oeojtoox?v)
he
first draws
of Europe
have
plenty of spirit (Buîo?) but are lacking in skill and intelligence, so that
of Asia are intelligent
the inhabitants
they are politically
disorganized;
in spirit, so that they put up with political
but lacking
subordination;
the fortunate Greeks, being in themiddle, have the right amount of both
spirit and political intelligence to develop political organizations that
and political
independence
cooperation.31
is what
it is being Greek which
is required
it looks as though
as the basis of mere
How
nature
that can be developed
politically.32
encourage
Thus
ever,
both
Aristotle
among
Greeks
individual
immediately
themselves:
adds
some
that
have
the
same
difference
is found
that go to one
the desirable
mixture.33
characters
of two
Some
others
have
while
extremes,
are
for
the
of
it
full
appears,
development
political
incapable
Greeks,
a
few can develop
same reason
that non-Greeks
are, and only
political
not
the
does
virtue.
Aristotle's
set-up
here, however,
suggest
wording
have
each state would
need for his ideal state, whereby
that we would
disabling
a minority
would
with
a nature
be by nature
and
fit for virtue,
too recalcitrant
either
oped political activity.
Rather, Aristotle
a majority
or too
of workers
spineless
who
for devel
indicates that he is distin
1324b36-7.
^Politics
this ability to com
here connects
1327bl8-33.
Aristotle
31See Politics
bine factors that individually go to disabling extremes with the ability to rule
from this here.
others, but I shall prescind
32
fit the Carthaginians,
would
Aristotle
in this classification
Where
at length in book 2?
he discusses
whose
constitution
33SeePo?^csl327b33-8.

743
a
not drawing
of Greeks,
tribes or ethnicities
among different
the people
distinction
of a given Greek
state.34
among
mere
nature
for habitua
Some Greeks,
have
the
then,
requisite
guishing
horizontal
tion
and
reason
to work
have
no
natural
basis
on
for
to produce
virtuous
citizens.
So far we
between
distinction
citizens
and the
the
after making
the point
that not every necessary
Aristotle,
will be a part of that
for the functioning
of a natural whole
different
parts of the state, and raises
whole,
functioning
distinguishes
as in de
in
whether
all
shall
share
all
these
the question
functions,
workers.
condition
or not.
His answer,
is that
mocracies,
familiarly,
in
least
the ideal state: for the aim of the ideal state
this
virtue;
requires
(oxoXr|)
incompatible
and
developing
with
farming,
exercising
trading,
they shall not, at

is happiness,
and
virtue require a leisure

or exercising
a manufac
turing skill, but not incompatible with developing military skill early in
will not be farmers,
life. Citizens,
The
therefore,
traders, or ?ovauooi.
wisdom
of dividing
the state into distinct
of
and
farmers
soldiers
y?vr|
is supported
of the arrangement
by the antiquity
in
with
the
the oldest continuous
country
cially
Egypt,
Aristotle's
retical
in Crete
and
espe
political
history.
a theo
to support
in two ways.
First,
a point about the kind of
to the antiquity
of tradition
appeal
for his argument
is unfortunate
here
point
to a non-Greek
he appeals
to support
society
he
has
political
just said develops
only
among
organization
the antiquity
of Egyptian
what
relevance
does
institutions
Greeks;
are themselves
if the Egyptians
have to politically
po
capable
Greeks,
because
in
does
litically
incapable,
lacking
spirit?35 Moreover,
Egypt
not provide
stresses
the right model
here.
Aristotle
here
that the
that
Egyptians
divide
neither
the farming
class
own demand
to his
from
that
the fighting
farmers
the
sponds
are
in Egypt
since
farmers
JT8QLOLXOL
eign
nor to his own concern
to give a privileged
of political
virtue and political
development
is displayed
in all kinds of actions
tian free farmers
and nonpolitical
neither
place
and not
activity,
limited
soldiers
could
this corre
class;
or for
be slaves
slave
nor
to citizens
something
to fighting.
hardly
foreign,
for their
which
Egyp
correspond
34See Politics
1327b34: xa xoov e)dr|v<jov ?'Ovrj; eOvr] is the word used
shortly before for non-Greeks
(1327b23).
to non-Greeks
to certify Greek
35The oddity of appealing
institutions,
given what has just been said about the political
incapability of non-Greeks,
of common meals back to
applies also to the attempt to trace the institutions
the native inhabitants of Italy.

JULIAANNAS
744
to the
less
farmers
slave
and politically
needs
Aristotle
active
in Aristotle's
citizens
for separating
is a precedent
case,
the
not from farmers
but from his working
citizens
class,
out of the comparison,
What he really wants
presumably,
In any
state.
privileged
what
?cxvauooi.
is an established
a free
among
division,
political
function.
social
However,
by
population,
that Aristotle
it indicates
is inept. Moreover,
rigid
and
similar
the actual
son
is less
his own mind

and
citizens
here
as to what
for the development

is Greek
is?which
apt than others).
or withholds
confers
than
the distinction
ground
All he has committed
himself
the workers.
of citizen
virtue,
compari
clear in
the
between
does
is a nature?a
otherwise
to, as a basis
that
nature,
mere
are more
some
types of Greek
possibly
a
is
drawn which
distinction
this group
(though
Yet within
of the
by the antiquity
political
rights, justified
a
a
have
different
who
among
(mere) na
apparently
people
practice
ture, and so should not be comparable.
about
in books
of two points
7 and 8 make much
The discussion
the
life:
citizens'
it requires
for oneself,
or ?yoQa?o?.36
chosen
freely
?avau?oc
in ways
that one has
o%oXr], time spent
not have
of being
the quality
and it should
sense of
in
both
the
need
Citizens
"leisure,"
literally having the time to consider difficult matters

at appropriate
is at their own
zen
not
should
without
that
also
length,
tual
from
in the sense
We
disposal.
to make
have
independence
the question
of having
can
of public policy
to spend which
in principle
that a citi
time
readily agree
on complex
issues
mind
her
up
public
about them, and
informed
to become
properly
the time
having
someone
who
set by others
ends
and
may
that are desirable

of whether
to achieve
time working
the habits
develop
spends most
not adequately
of her
in a citizen.
Aristotle
sets
the
of
However,
level of
intellec
even
leisure
apart
too
ideas
he is unconsciously
because
relying on traditional
high, perhaps
of the leisured
life,37 it is clear that he is presupposing
"gentlemanly"
have
leisure at
to it which
that a minority
an economic
basis
implies
the expense
slaves
of a majority
he at least
try, no such
argues
that
appears
argument
do not.
who
there
However,
is a natural
in the case
in the case
while
basis
of
to this asymme
of free workers.
1328b39-1329a2.
36See Politics
177-87.
30 (1936):
Classical
37See J. Stocks,
Quarterly
"2XOAH,"
and also its
Stocks notes the parallel in the "digression" in Plato's Theaetetus,
views: "The man of leisure was in short for the Greeks
debt to conventional
...
a man
of means.
...
It is repugnant
gle for his life, or to take thought
to a Greek
for the morrow"
gentleman
to have
(p. 182).

to strug

in fact underlines
Aristotle
745
the difference
in
in a passage
re
insofar as is
himself
that a slave
he says
needs
virtue only
l,38 where
or
him
to
his
tasks
unhindered
for
by intemperance
perform
quired
same
can
true of workmen,
Is the
he asks, who
cowardice.
also be in
answer
a
a
is
is
His
that
there
slave be
temperate?
big difference;
book
to a natural
longs
other
is clearly
not true
workman"
(?avcruooc
kind, while
A "common
workmen.
this
or
of cobblers
TE%vixr\?) only
is subject
to "a limited kind of
for a living is like
the idea that working
Here we see openly
slavery."
being a slave, since one's time is not one's own and one has little free
time anyway;
but we also see Aristotle
that there is nothing
admitting
needs
this
natural
The
virtue
slave's
as he
insofar
in this position.
in any workman
being
in books
7 and 8 of the education
discussion
of citizens
takes
on the difference
do not quite mesh,
between
citizens
as
time
it were
of
the
Aristotle
proceeds
though
?avauooi.
structures
of activity,
like that of a working
obvious
that certain
man,
are
that
with
the
associated
with
pleasures
these,
typically
together
two
lines, which
and
Much
the living of a virtuous

life. The citizens must not live
simply preclude
a life which
or ?yoQa?o?;,
is ?dvauooc
for such a life is ignoble and is
en
inimical to virtue (ttq?? aQ8xr]v ujtevavxio?).39
But how can merely
or
in
certain
of
obstruct
the
of
exercise
types
prevent
activity
gaging
virtue?
political
virtue,
certain
and
the fact
that
laying weight
to virtue
the aspirant
If the models
in his
models
society.
ideals, then he
embody wrong
emulating
to develop
which
the right ideals.
a similar
Aristotle
elsewhere
shows
habituation
is absorbed
which
learn
to be virtuous.
chean
Ethics
he
on the development
is here
Aristotle
from
and
begin by copying
that he starts by
the starting-point
from
of action
lacks
on the content
of
emphasis
our social
as we
environment
In his
stresses
of
must
long discussion
that we become
of virtue
in the Nicoma
just, for example,

by per
some
latter we must
accept
people
of justice.
"to have been
So it is important
to do the
just actions,
forming
as examples
in our society
brought up right": if our society
is one
in which
there
is a systematically
cf. 1277a33-b7.
38See Politics
1260a36-b2;
39See Politics
cf. 1329al9-21
and 35-8, 1337b3-15,
1341a5
1328b39-41;
Outside books 7 and 8, cf. 1319a24-40,
and book 3, chapter 5,
9, 1342M8-22.
where Aristotle's
from being citizens
is
only ground for excluding
?ovauooi
that their way of life precludes
virtue (1278a8-ll
and 15-21).

JULIAANNAS
746
then we
of justice,
will make
perverted
conception
and thinking which
will
of acting
to ac
perhaps
impossible,
its requirements.
Aristotle
it difficult,
of justice
and
habits
acquire
quire a good understanding

is merely
this idea to political
see
virtue.
We can readily
extending
what
he means.
If you are brought
up to respect
you
profit-making,
will
think of public
from
the
of
individual
inter
projects
perspective
if you
est;
have
to bargain,
lack a
up always
you will
brought
of cooperation,
and so on.
This
is a notably
of virtue, one which
defines
it by the content
conception
are
in which
Just
as, in the ethi
dispositions
developed.
public-spirited
conventional
of the habits
cal works,
been
notion
Aristotle
spending
these are
does
not
("magnificence")
as virtues
regarded
that
question
and virtues
is a virtue
there
of public
because
of tact and
sociability,
so here
in the Politics
he
society,
can only be developed
does not question
the idea that political
virtue
in certain
and exercised
contexts
of action,
the ones which
specific
control
view
in one way
habituation
that defines
over
take
virtue
istotle
and
rather
but
attitude,
tradesmen.
being
the attitude
of over-conservative
with
which
small-mindedness
are
seen
flows
they
which
as a matter
from
of having
a less conventional
are
embodied
to
in these
to the charge
that here Ar
snobbish
prejudice
against
is not a matter
of personal
method.
in books
however,
a
matter
is
not
?avauooc
and
these
by contemporary
This
influence
7 and
Sometimes,
that
Unsurprisingly,
of habituation
tends
contexts
prejudices,
there is something
Hence
than another.
since
is over-influenced
craftsmen
rather
its social
by
conventional
contexts.
social
in his
8 Aristotle
takes
the
of the actions
are performed.
he associates
line
but
of
performed
In particular,
the crudity
with working
of life
ways
aim in what
the wrong
of
way
virtue,
regarding
is done.40
one which
it less tightly to the content of the initial habits of action which
This
ties
are
reason.
stress on the role of the agent's
puts more
on the way
an agent comes
focuses
in which
to reflect
a
of
which
has been acquired
given disposition
by ha
and which
formed,
When Aristotle
on
the content
bituation,
quired
he allows
patterns,
and
fering priorities.
When
he looks
not
as an alternative
40See Politics
more
room
recognizes
at virtue
to which
1337M7-21,
for flexibility
of attitude
that similar behavior
may
this way,
those
Aristotle
are
can
condemned
towards
ac
involve
dif
regard ?avauoia
who
do not have
1341b8-18.

VIRTUE
in citizenly
Most
that education.
education
of a failure
as the result
but sometimes
virtue,
747
in
conven
he says that Spartan
education,
notably,
a
as
in
its
whatever
training
high ide
failings,
tionally
being,
regarded
are "?ovauooi
in truth."41 This is, in
als, in fact produces
people who
a
is conven
to
conventional
say: ?avauoia
terms,
revolutionary
thing
for a living,
and working
with
associated
trading, bargaining,
tionally
of
mind
that
this
habits
and
the allegedly
produces,
petty
vulgar
would
education
of a Spartan military
it to the results
and to apply
contexts
its
of
habitua
virtue
who
define
those
by
normally
outrage
and
tion.
Yet here Aristotle
to say that what matters

for
can be found even among
those
if they lack insight
admired
activity,
not hesitate
does
is an attitude,
which
being ?avauooc
a conventionally
who
practice
into the value and point of that activity.
7 has a wider
in book
One passage
re
than Aristotle
significance
reasons
In
citizens
virtue.
for his view of political
alizes
why
giving
in
their
to
wait
before
be
made
may reasonably
youth
polit
exercising
to put up with being ruled without
ical rule, and expected
resentment,
Aristotle
says
that
the aim,
rather
than
ence in being ordered to do something.
the action,
may
make
a differ
"That iswhy it is fine (xcd?v)
seem ser
to perform many
of what
free people
for the young,
among
do not differ so
vice tasks; for as regards being fine or not fine actions
as in their end and their aim."42 The fine is the
in themselves
much
aim of the virtuous
with
patible
one does
does
not
virtue
not have
realize
person;
to serve
a menial
that
to find it incom
is refusing
here, Aristotle
as long as
in menial
kinds of ways,
others
or servile attitude.
Aristotle
unfortunately
this point undermines

of the conventional
much
of his
assumption
content
of political
virtue.
importance
on
more
must
stress
which
for
he
the
develop
attitude,
agent's
Laying
on
for
views which
he has absorbed,
allows
and less
society's
himself,
one
as
a far more
of
the
virtue,
conception
undermining
egalitarian
an
can
in themselves
that certain
activities
prevent
sumption
agent's
about
the
acquiring
virtue.
cf. 1333b5-25,
41Politics
9-10, where Aristotle
1338b24-38;
especially
stresses
the idea of vulgarity.
conflict with
There is an apparent
1333a4-ll.
^Politics
1277a338-37,
where Aristotle
calls it slavish to be able to perform the same thing, namely
ifwe assume Aristo
actions.
The conflict disappears
"service" (?iaxovixo?)
to be thinking of an ability that is so developed
that
tle in the earlier passage
the agent's indepen
it "comes naturally" to serve others, thereby damaging
dence of mind.

JULIAANNAS
748
two
seem
not
does
Aristotle
clear
the education
about
of thought
of his wavering
in themselves
harmful
lines
some
the difference
about
about
whether
of citizens;
forms
his
between
hence,
perhaps,
are
of training
certain
or only when
a certain point.
The
done beyond
on
reason
stress
of
the
of
habit
and
two approaches
different
roles
put
to
of virtue.
in the development
and exercise
Neither,
though, appeals
any
initial
we
so, when
And
souls
of nature.
difference
find
that
are distorted
of ?ctvauooi
in one
Aristotle
passage
the natural
from
says
that
the
state
(jiaQZGTQa\i\i?vai
in
is
music
which
take
because
they
pleasure
(j)?oLV eê ?)
as
we
to
to
nature
must
take
the
reference
be
similarly
"unnatural,"43
are
nature.
norm and goal, not the initial endowment
of mere
Citizens
xf]? xax?
from
divided
the ?ccvauooi
because
their
rational
(sometimes)
ation
and
takes
this
to show
the
towards
takes
plicitly
that
"natural"
I therefore
aptitude
tle is relying
their way
does not
women
virtue.
in mere
nature,
with
disagree
he never
However,
raw
in initial
material
Miller's
view
ex
and
that Aristo
on a natural
because
of
here. Workers
difference
may,
as a norm of political
but
this
of life, fail to attain nature
life,
from the start, like
show
that they are naturally
disqualified
that
would
have to show
for that Aristotle
and natural
slaves;
is an initial
there
they differ
norm of citizen
to differ
them
for virtue.
of habitu
their contexts
(mostly)
use of these differ, and Aristotle
in development
in virtue and hence
difference
of mere
nature.
in Aristotle's
best constitution.44
inequalities
if
should be less surprised
He suggests
by the inegalitarianism
as
neither
we remember
such
of
natural
that Aristotle's
"theory
justice
have equal rights ac
that individuals
the doctrine
entails nor excludes
Miller
discusses
the
that we
cording
to nature.
possess
equal
From
the standpoint
to nature
according
rights
to nature."45
equal according
natural
the alleged
inferiority
"Aristotle's
of whole
of natural
individuals
justice,
if, they are in fact

on
is based
inegalitarianism
if, and only

classes
and profession."46
by nationality,
gender
that natural
Miller's
justice
point,
general
on
basis
of
natural
the
inequalities,
criminating
as defined
of persons
is consistent
if there
It is interesting how often Aristotle

1342a22-8.
iZPolitics
of types of music.
discussion
ture in the concluding
?Miller, NJR, 240-5.
45Ibid., 241.
4,?Ibid., 242.

with
dis
are any
such,
refers
to na
VIRTUE
is evidently
totle claims
and
So are his discussions
correct.
to find natural
female.
However,
that the distinction
claims
ture.
749
inequalities
fails to find ways
he
free
in which
citizen
between
that the souls

only says once
in an unnatural
state, and, as we have
there
is a difference
of initial natural
of
that
ply
that
only
sense
of normative,
is due to habit
This
life cannot
a natural
reason;
those
and
in his
have
ent, or differently
things could have
distributed.
been
brought
informed
of women
that were
of cities
amples
ideal state and
Of course,
to
have
not
im
of a best
up
life.
human
in certain
of
ways
of choice
is not
cities
that they have.

the role of a natural
economic
roles
he
fails
to consider
could
have
been
differ
it is by failing to consider
that
into considering
slavery
that he falls
otherwise
is more
from workers
who
this does
seen,
the goal
infrastructure
otherwise:
the subordination
izens
on na
is based
disposition
as political
virtue.
This, however,
to convention,
to the way
and ultimately
economic
been
slave,
Aristotle
clearly
those
into allowing
this fact to play
of the ideal polis, because
construction
that it could
and
and
achieves
the reflective
it is due
fact;
the particular
slides
Aristotle
fact
one which
male
it means
endowment;
in the
life which
is natural
achieve
develop
is exercised
which
and action
need
do not
the workers
Aris
and
and worker
Aristotle
are
work
in which
of the ways
between
natural.
glaring,
However,
in that Aristotle
distinguishing
had available
cit
ex
in more
than his
ways
egalitarian
of
ancient
whereas
explicit
justifications
democracy,
were
in the ancient
of women
the subordination
universal
governed
slavery and
world
and so could more
readily be taken for granted.

Indeed, Aristo
tle pays some attention
to forms of democracy
where
farmers, work
the
and
citizens.
traders
have
of
When
he is study
ers,
political
rights
in books
5 and 6, as one form of
especially
ing this type of democracy,
constitution
he
studies
it
and
other
forms of constitu
others,
among
to it and from it dispassionately,

that change
giving no indication
a
to
is
from
to
from a natural
democracy
"polity"
change
change
an unnatural
in a way not true of, for example,
form of government
to
from
of the kind excluded
polity
change
Democracy
oligarchy.
by
tion
that
his
ideal
not
because
no
basis
state
for
it were
though
conventional
velopment
problem
because
it forms a tyranny of the majority,
is something
unnatural
about
it. Thus Aristotle
has
as
the distinction
between
citizen
and worker
treating
is criticized
there
a natural
factors.
from nature
on him:
fact; there is every

His own
insistence,
through
for the political
habit
and
indication
that
in these
reason
organization
books,
to virtue
it is due
on
to
the de
the
presses
is in fact unjust,
unless

JULIAANNAS
750
is a natural
there
and
receive
difference
an education
between
those
for political
who
have political
rights
those who do not.47
and
virtue,
I do not agree with Miller,
in
then, that all the forms of Aristotle's
are
in
the
ideal
state
to
be
at
the
door
of
his
egalitarianism
put
qualify
that there are natural
be
justice
by claiming
ing natural
inequalities
tween
of people.
From Hobbes
groups
onwards,
to think that all inequalities
in Aristotle's
tendency
on nature
to depend
and to use the argument
posed
to support
this. Hobbes
between
the powers
very
difference
claims
that Aristotle
of men
by nature
of all his politics
that
there
ideal
has
state
about
been
are sup
natural
sla
so much
"putteth
that he doubteth
not
as the ground
some men
are by na
ture worthy
to govern
and others
nature
to
serve."48
How
by
ought
claims
is
made
without
ever, one of his most
any
striking
inegalitarian
in a context where
such argument,
it is hard to see how such an argu
to set down
ment
could
be made.
That Aristotle
to see
this is partly due to his generally

adopt
an
and
context-bound
of
ing
unnecessarily
rigid
conception
virtue,
one which
areas of action.
ties it to conventionally
defined
This, how
be the whole
in
ever, cannot
story, as we have seen that sometimes
these
more
fails
books
Aristotle's
flexible
than
conception
of education
and political
virtue
is
this.
I believe,
to think
large part is played,
by simple unwillingness
own
in
the
that
terms
Aristotle's
is
point
injustice
through
produced
is not based
discrimination
which
upon natural
by political
inequali
I do not think that we should
ties.
rush to berate Aristotle
for this; it is
in our own case we can easily find ourselves
which
something
doing.
some
Let us take a modern
which
of
the
features
example
reproduces
is aimed at producing
of Aristotle's
and the best
state, which
happiness
life for its citizens
and does so by inculcating
virtue
in them.
political
47Outside
as to
these books we can at times see Aristotle's
unclarity
which
In Politics
he uses, in talk
inequalities are natural ones.
3.1277a5-12,
in book 1 imply natural
parts of the city, analogies which
ing of dissimilar
subordination
but in
reason/appetite,
man/wife,
(soul/body,
master/slave)
book 3 merely
show that there is no one single virtue of the good citizen. Cf.
1277M3-32.
48From
from the
Hobbes, Elements
of Law, 4:103. I take the reference
excellent
Politics"
article by J. Laird, "Hobbes on Aristotle's
Proceedings
of
theAristotelian
1-20.
Society 43 (1942-3):

VIRTUE
751
A university
of a community
is an example
while
many
where,
some
can
of
work
side
them
be
considered
every
by
side,
day
people
of the community
while
the neces
others provide
"parts" or members
of the community.
for the functioning
For a university
sary conditions
is defined
its activities
and research;
and
teaching,
studying,
in these share
in the community's
those who
life as members.
engage
The administrators,
and
those
who
secretarial
fund-raisers,
provide
in the commu
and janitorial
do not in the same way partake
support
by
withdrawn.
come
it would
life, although
nity's
of
if their own
activities
were
The fact that there is this distinction of role is not in itself
an indication
of injustice.
An
supporting
in it.
partaking
as fulfilling
a life as
as he does as an
life of the university,
individual
an administrator,
academic,
common
to a halt
the
have
may
In Aristotle's
he clearly
life of workers
case,
of his class
the
shares
and
some
traders
prejudices
against
a part of his position.
The
such, but this is not necessarily
nec
of
the
arises
when
division
between
and
question
parts
injustice
in ways which
individuals
affects
do not correspond
essary conditions
so that someone
as a
to their individual
who
could flourish
desert,
as
just
member
of
the
who
provides
because
merely
then the value
will
community
the necessary
of the bad
goods
the
nullify
a perfectionist
of intellectual
However,
unjustifiably
cation
does
rests
of his
ideal
live
luck of circumstances.
the
others
life of
someone
to be members
If this
is the case,
of the community
by the life of the members
as a community
The university
is often
injustice.
is
it
in
the
institution
which
the
justification:
if it depends
excluded
upon
to
for
achieved
not
given
is compelled
conditions
research
for
and
its existence
are best
achieved.
community
on the work
of those who are
in it, the perfectionist

from participating
justifi
the objection
that the community's
functioning
stresses
Aristotle
his perfectionist
injustice.
justification
state: in the best state "anyone whatsoever"49
can live the
not meet
the measure
of the problem
that this favors a
a
are
of
who
in a way
excluded
that
minority
majority
a clear argument
he cannot
defend.
Since Aristotle
does not provide
in his ideal state are naturally
that the workers
unfitted
for the political
best
life. He
fails
to take
at the expense
I agree with Miller that "anyone whatsoever"

re
49?oxi?ouv; 1324a23-5.
fers to individual members
of the polis, not any individual, citizen or not, with
the lawgiver is concerned;
whom
see no problem
hence Aristotle would
in
here; see Miller, NJR, 214 n. 65.
excluding workers

JULIAANNAS
752
that are denied
rights
in his
face
own
that his ideal state is

them, we have to conclude
not
and that he does not
merely
(and
ours) unjust,
he does not focus on the workers
because
and their sta
terms
this point
tus clearly
enough.
It is obvious,
Aristotle
live well
and to be happy.
in book
wants
to
7,50 that everyone
to do this
have the ability
However,
or nature
xiva
and others not,51 because
of some chance
(o?d
x?/riv
f|
some
requires
supplies
(that is, virtuously)
(j)i)OLv). For living finely
more
for those
(XOQTiYia), less for those who are of better disposition,
are of worse.
who
ficiency
cause
it requires
ment
of virtue
in the
and
wealth,
Aristotle
happiness,
school
lost,
in the agent.
poses,
place may
In accepting
consciously
in the Hellenistic
accepts
or never
be
fault
first
so on.
health,
can
some
This is a strikingly
candid passage
about
the insuf
for happiness.
Virtue needs
external
both be
goods,
material
for its exercise
and because
the achieve
of virtue
dal for his
says
achieved,
through
is striking
about
What
is its coupling
of chance
however,
kept at opposite
mally
is unclear
period,
here what
a certain
require
the insufficiency
what
was
amount
of
of virtue
for
to become
a scan
the position
that happiness
and not through
any
chance
the passage
for present
pur
two factors nor
and nature,
ends of the Aristotelian
it
spectrum.
Moreover,
is.
Is
their scope
Aristotle
the exclu
conjoining
chance
in an unprom
landed
(their being
through
slaves
with
the
natural
exclusion
of
and women
life)
ising way
and there is a par
This is the most
obvious
nature?
thought,
through
concerns
not
"for"
clause
external
the
allel.52
only
However,
goods,
sion
of the workers
of
natural
structure
and this would

endowments,
life which
for the virtuous
or nature.
If so,
the awkwardness
that it is lack of the infra

suggest
is being ascribed
to "some" chance
re
of the sentence
would
perhaps
1331b39-1332a2.
50See Politics
InNJR, Miller discusses
this term (pp. 102-4) as
51The word is kôvoia.
an indication
that Aristotle
has the locution to talk of liberty rights, but I do
in this passage.
Miller says: "The term exou
not think that this is in question
the unobstructed
sia is closely connected with freedom, and denotes
ability
lies in outward
to perform a particular action" (p. 102). Here the obstruction
not in any behavior of others that might create a duty not to
circumstances,
do the action in question.
52See Politics
Note that in The Politics
1295a25-8.
of Aristotle
(Oxford:
comments
that the "for"
Oxford University
Press, 1887-1902), W. L. Newman
clause is added to explicate
"through chance," since defect of xopriyia "is due
the awkwardness
of (jy?oic and its
to a defect of fortune"; thus he notices
place in the sentence.

VIRTUE 753
fleet Aristotle's
of his
state's
piness
a majority
at excluding
and unhappiness
from the life of civic virtue and hap
free male
inhabitants
on the basis of chance
(even though he has no good ar
ambivalence
merely
to ascribe
it to nature).
gument
It is worth
that even
stressing
were
if Aristotle
clear in
perfectly
it is mere
chance which
own mind,
to accept
that
and prepared
in his ideal state, this is still an embarrass
the majority
disfranchises
ment
for him.
For in contexts
other
than this issue, books
7 and 8
even
more
the
do
ethical
the
than
dominance
of
virtue
stress,
works,
his
for happiness.
External
goods
have
a limit set to their
to
contribution
use of them, while

there is no
happiness,
by virtuous
to ascribe
to
made
such limit to the contribution
by virtue;
happiness
use
to
external
rather
than
virtuous
is
like
the
their
goods
ascribing
to the instrument
excellence
of a performance
rather
than the per
we find, more markedly
In these books
of the Politics
former.53
than
a limit
in the
goods,
virtue
ethical
with
to use,
later ethical
formed
works,
external
a way
theories.
the
language
as
of virtue
the role
goods
playing
of speaking
which
Thus Aristotle's
the use
of tools
was
to become
exclusion
nature,
about
books,
ness.
This
injustice
but
the
supports,
here which
also
scope
sits
and
I think,
Aristotle
ill with
power
his
or nature"
for
in
dominant
from
in his ideas about
in these two
especially
to happi
with
regard
a
that there is problem
of
ideas,
of chance
the suggestion
never
squarely
of the best state does not achieve

justification
that
fail to achieve
the happiness
many
does;
a lack of external
and
opportunities,
goods
faces.
His
as much
perfectionist
as he thinks
that all seek,

is ascribed
sees that
by a theorist who
a
whom
but
for
neither
offers
other,
satisfactory
on a fundamental
the best state from depending
chance
external
of the ?avocuooi
political rights in his ideal state finds no justification

human
of
and material
it must
to
be one
answer
that will
it
of
because
"some
or the
save
injustice.54
University
of Arizona
53See Politics
1332a7-27.
1323a38-b29,
541 am grateful for comments made by participants
at the Liberty Fund
on Fred Miller's book.
I am also grateful to Fred Miller for letting
conference
me see his forthcoming
for The Cambridge
naturalism
chapter on Aristotle's
Political
edited by Malcolm
and
Schofield
History
of Ancient
Thought,
Rowe.
Christopher


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Aristotle's "Politics": A Symposium: Aristotle on Human Nature and Political Virtue

Author(s): Julia Annas

This content downloaded from 181.47.9.12 on Fri, 1 Nov 2013 11:39:35 AM

ISTOTLE GIVES us an account

dication of his broad deployment

in the ethical and political works of

*With the exception

Fred Miller's response,

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and his discussion

are due to its in

are the author's,

like the Persian

Empire, based on force. Thus the Greek polis might well

being able to think of

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HUMAN NATURE AND POLITICAL VIRTUE

that only cer

is that of the natural

is surely his failure

are nearly always

This content downloaded from 181.47.9.12 on Fri, 1 Nov 2013 11:39:35 AM

that for people

he says, are not an ad

they develop morally

but through habit

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of the polis, slavery,

Aristotle himself does not explicitly distinguish these two uses of

him to draw the distinction as to draw the distinctions

that he does for

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in the full sense:

the use Aristotle

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are by nature politika

rule, not mere

of an ideal form of polis in books 7 and 8 makes

17See Miller, NJR,

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of political virtue not only is difficult but re

that the development

o%oXy] or "leisure,"18 and that this in turn requires

sufficient for life, much

does not put it this way,

less for the good life (1252b27-30).

sue the good life ismade possible by the willingness

of the city's benefits

leisure from nec

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to form part of the political

to fit is the one

ture can be seen

own status and self-conception

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that of being a necessary

to the city will

living things, surely

are people who

his ideal city here rests on an injustice which

for natural slavery, see Annas, The Morality

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HUMAN NATURE AND POLITICAL VIRTUE