Engines

1. Total Pressure = Static Pressure + Dynamic Pressure

Total Pressure = Velocity + Pressure
2. Bernoullis Theorem states that as a subsonic fluid passes through a
converging opening, its velocity increases and its pressure decreases while
the total pressure does not change
3. Subsonic Airflow in a nozzle increases in velocity and decreases in pressure.
In a diffuser, the pressure increases and the velocity decreases. The nozzle
is convergent and the diffuser is divergent at subsonic speeds
4. Supersonic Airflow in a nozzle increase velocity and decrease pressure. In a
diffuser, pressure increases and velocity decreases. With supersonic
airflow, a nozzle is divergent and a diffuser is convergent.
5. All gas generators have compressors, combustion chambers and turbines.
6. The Brayton cycle for a jet engine consist of the simultaneous firing of the
Intake, Compression, Combustion and exhaust cycles.
7. The compressor, compresses the air by decreasing the volume of the unit. +P, +V, +T
The
The
The
The

diffuser than effects the air. +P, -V

combustion chamber ignites gas which expands and further increases the airs volume. -P, +V
Turbine extracts energy to run the compressor. -P, +V
exhaust extracts the air and moves the engine. -P, +V
Inlet

Compressor

Diffuser

Burner

Turbine

Exhaust

Temperature

NC

Pressure

Velocity

8. Gross thrust does not take into account inlet airflow produced by the engine
moving through the air. Net thrust takes the initial airflow into account and
give a more realistic synonymous with thrust
9. As the temperature increase, density decrease, and the thrust decreases.
Air Temp is inverse to Thrust.
10. If pressure increases, density increase and thrust will increase.
11. As altitude increases, P and T will drop. The rate thrust decrease due to
pressure drop is greater than the increase in thrust from T dropping. The
engine produces less thrust as altitude increases. After 36,000 the T
stabilizes and the thrust will drop dramatically. 36,000 is the optimum cruise
altitude because thrust available, plus low fuel flow and diminished drag
provide optimum performance!
12. As inlet velocity approaches the exhaust velocity thrust is reduced. If mass
and air are held constant thrust will decrease as airspeed increases.

13. The ram air effect forces more and more air into the inlet as airspeeds
increase. This increases the mass and pressure of the air. This offsets the
decrease in acceleration and produces a neutral or slight gain in thrust at
subsonic speeds.
14. Thrust is measured in the following ways:
Jet: EPR (TPDI)
Fan: EPR
Prop: Torquemeter (SHP)
Shaft: Torquemeter
15. Inlet ducts act as diffuser by always decreasing velocity and increasing
pressure. Velocity is decreased to stabilize airflow before it reaches the
diffuser or compressor. This will provide the proper amount of high
pressure, turbulence free air to the compressor. It must operate efficiently
from ground idle to supersonic speeds at high altitude.
Single Entrance is the simplest and most effective. It has smooth airflow.
Divided entrance allows the pilot to sit lower and reduce friction due to
shorter duct length. Must be offset from the fuselage so as not to upset
the boundary layer. It also curves which can cause turbulence.
16. Subsonic and Supersonic Airflow inlet ducts always act as diffusers by
increasing pressure and decreasing velocity. Subsonic air has a divergent
opening while supersonic air has a convergent/divergent opening.
17. Variable Geometry inlet ducts use ramps, wedges or cones to change the
shape of the inlet as the aircraft speed varies between sub/supersonic.
18. The compressor section must supply enough air to satisfy the requirements
of the combustion section. The pressure and velocity is increased with this
air being directed to the burner section. A secondary purpose is to supply
compressor bleed air to operate various components throughout the aircraft
and engine.
19. Centrifugal Flow uses a impeller, diffuser and manifold to compress the air.
Air is ingested near the center and accelerated outward toward the diffuser
adding potential and kinetic energy. This is done by passing the air through
the divergent passages of the impeller; which increase both velocity and
pressure. The high pressure air then enters the diffuser which is stationary
and converts the velocity into more pressure. The air then goes to the
compressor manifold which directs the air into the combustion chamber.
Axial Flow uses rotor blades and stator veins. Each pair of rotor-stators
form a stage. Turbine drives the rotors which increases the pressure and
the velocity of the air. Then the air is pushed through the static stator

vanes which act as diffuser (increase pressure, and decrease velocity). This
continues through each stage of the compressor. Compressors are set up as
velocity remains about constant throughout. As pressure increases, the air
becomes more compressed. The cross sectional area of each stage decreases
so that velocity remains constant as the pressure increases.
Axial-Centrifugal uses a compressor inlet case, compressor and a diffuser.
The compressor directs air to the outside air compressor. The air is
compressed 7:1 by a three stage axial and single stage centrifugal
compressor that is run as one integral unit by the turbine. The air leaves the
compressor via diffuser pipes and enters the diffuser where P is further
increased.
20.The burner section is the combustion chamber and provides the means for
proper mixing of the fuel and air. It must deliver combustion gases to the
turbine section at the appropriate temperature. It must also add sufficient
heat energy to the gases to accelerate their mass and produce the desired
thrust for the engine and power the turbines. It must minimize the pressure
decrease to allow the pressure to turn the turbines, keep combustion
efficiency high, not blow out the flame and complete the burning before the
gases enter the turbine stage.
21. The can burner has individual cans around the circumference of burner
section. Each has its own fuel nozzle, liner and casing. Primary air is burned
with the secondary air cooling the liner and casing. Strong and durable, easy
to maintain, and individual units can be replaced. It provides a poor use of
space, pressure loss, and uneven turbine heating.
The annular burner provides continuous, circular, inner and outer shroud
around the outside of the compressor drive shaft. The liner has holes to cool
the inside. Fuel is introduced through a series of nozzles where it is mixed
with air and ignited. It provides uniform heat, better air mixing and great
use of space, but is difficult to repair, has structural problems with its large
diameter and thin wall design.
The can-annular burner is used on larger high performance engines. Cans at
the front mix and burn the air and fuel. The hot gases then pass to the
annular chamber where they are further mixed. It is easy to maintain, has
great uniform heat, is structurally sound, lower pressure loss, efficient, but
is considerably more expensive.
22.The turbine section is comprised of stators and rotors. The turbine section
drives the compressor and accessories. It is designed to increase velocity.
Converts the heat of the expanding gases to mechanical energy.

Approximately 75% of the total P is converted to mechanical energy, while

the remaining 25% is used for thrust.
23.The components of a turbine engine are effected by thermal stress. The
repeated heating and cooling results in creep. The turbine uses an EGT
Exhaust Gas Temp gauge and an ITT Interstage Turbine Temp gauge to
measure thermal changes. The turbine section is exposed to the greatest
amount of thermal stress.
24.Creep is the gradual elongation of blades as they are heated and can lead to
catastrophic failures.
The fir tree method is used to cool turbine blades and prevent them from
deforming. Blades are attached to the turbine shaft to improve ability to
withstand high heat and repeated heating and cooling.
25.Heat is a result of the combustion of the fuel air mixture. High pressure is a
result and used to turn the turbine.
26.The exhaust section is used to vent the gases rearward at a high exit
velocity with minimized turbulence. It is usually composed of an outer duct,
inner core and radial hollow struts. The struts support the inner core and
straighten out the whirling gasses. The cone converts the gases to a solid
jet. The initial divergent shape between the outer duct and the inner core
allow for smooth expansion of the gases. Toward the rear, the exhaust
section becomes progressively narrower converting pressure to velocity.
27.Subsonic uses a convergent nozzle and is usually fixed.
Supersonic turbine air is high sonic not supersonic. Convergent/Divergent
nozzles are sued to decrease pressure and increase velocity. Air speed is
very high sonic and makes air compressible.
28.The afterburner is used by turbofans and jets to increases thrust available
by 50% or more. Fuel consumption increase by 300%. Secondary air from the
burner is used in the turbojets. Secondary air and bypass air is used in
turbofans. Two methods are used to ignite the afterburner. Hot streak and
Spark/Torch. Hot streak uses an extra quantity of fuel which is injected
into one of the combustion chamber. Thus streaks of hot gases ignite the
afterburner fuel. The spark/torch method uses a pilot light or igniter plug
located near the spray bars and flameholder to ignite the afterburner
fuel/air mixture.
29.The afterburner is comprised of spray bars, flameholder, screech liners, and
variable exhaust nozzles. The spray bars spray fuel into the stream of hot
gasses. The flameholder provides a region of turbulent eddies to reduce the
gas V. The screech line is a sleeve with holes that reduces the violent

pressure fluctuations. The variable exhaust nozzle provides the convergent

shape for subsonic flows and convergent divergent for supersonic
afterburner flows. This prevents a pressure buildup which will stall the
engine.
30.The relative wind is formed by the inlet airflow and the compressor rotation
vectors
31. A compressor is designed to provide an optimum compression ratio. If the
AOA of the compressor blades is too low, the compression is inefficient. If
it is too high, then a compressor stall may result. A stall occurs when airflow
over an airfoil brakes away causing the airfoil to lose lift due to excesssive
AOA.
32.The rotors are fixed to the rotor disk, the change in AOA occurs when the
RBM changes or the inlet airflow V changes. A decrease in inlet airflow or
decrease in RPM will increase the AOA of the rotor blades.
33.A compressor stall is characterized by a surge. This surge results in a
reduction of airflow to the turbines which means the more fuel is needed to
maintain current thrust. This will increase burner and turbine temperatures.
If PCL is constant, RPM decay and ITT rise along with possible noises will be
present.
34.Compressor stalls are caused by airflow distortions and mechanical failures.
35.Mechanical problems that can lead to compressor stalls include variable inlet
guide vane and strator vane failures which result in too much or too little
airflow at low engine speeds. Fuel Control Unit failure which cause rich blow
outs (too much fuel with combustion reaching back into the compressor) or
lean die outs (airflow is too high to allow fuel to ignite in compressor). FOD
causes damage to the blades and alters their aerodynamic properties. And
Variable exhaust nozzle failure if it fails open at supersonic speeds could
cause back pressure which will result in a compressor stall.
36.To avoid compressor stalls avoid erratic or abrupt PCL changes, especially at
slow speeds or high angles of attack. Maintain a prescribed minimum
airspeed and avoid abrupt changes in altitude.
37.To minimize compressor stalls, use the following: Variable inlet guide vanes
and stator vanes so that AOA is changed at low speeds. These are controlled
by the stator vane actuator using fuel pressure via the FCU. Dual/Twin/Split
Spool Axial flow compressors allow the front rotor to turn at a lower speed
than the rear rotor so that the front rotor wont be choked by low airflow.
Bleed valves near the middle or rear of the compressor vent air and increase

airflow in the front compressor at low engine speeds. Variable exhaust

nozzle is used to unload the pressure after the afterburner.
38.If a stall occurs, reduce attitude of aircraft so AOA is less, retard the PCL
just below the stall threshold to let the engine catch up with inlet airflow,
and once engine returns to normal, slowly advance the PCL to desired setting.
39.The turbojet consist of a Inlet, Compressor, Burner, Turbine and Exhaust.
40.Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption is the amount of fuel required to produce
one pound of thrust. The propulsive force of the turbojet relies on the
amount of fuel added to the air mass. More air requires more fuel.
41. Turbojets rely on the thrust to produce 25% of the total energy for its
propulsion while the other 75% goes into mechanical force required to power
the compressor. They are not efficient
42.More air require more fuel. Since density of air decreases with altitude, less
fuel is required at higher altitudes. Turbojets are inefficient at producing
thrust at low speeds. Low-mass coupled with high velocity exhaust is
wasteful compared to high mass, low V airflow from turboprop. This changes
as speed increases. At high speeds, the difference between V of the
exhaust and the surrounding atmosphere is lessened so it is more efficient
than when a turbojet is at low speeds
43.Turbojets have higher TSFC than Turbofans because it is inefficient at
producing thrust at low speeds and requires more fuel.
44.Turbojets have low propulsive efficiency at low forward airspeeds, relatively
high TSFC at low altitudes and low airspeeds, long takeoff roll is required
and they have the lightest specific weight (wt per pound of thrust produced)
45.Turbofans have a gas generator (compressor, burner and turbine) and a duct
enclosed fan. It is like a turbojet with a fan surrounding it.