BULLETIN OF THE SOCIETY OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGISTS

Vol. 111

JuneJuly

No. 4

A Special Issue on Volcanogenic Massive Sulfide Deposits of

the Trans-Hudson Orogen
Preface
Sally Pehrsson,1, Harold L. Gibson,2 and Kelly Gilmore3
1Geological
2Mineral

Survey of Canada, 601 Booth Street, Ottawa, Ontario K1S 5B6, Canada

Exploration Research Centre, Department of Earth Sciences, Laurentian University,

935 Ramsey Lake Road, Sudbury, Ontario P3E 2C6, Canada

3Hudson

Bay Exploration and Development (retired), P.O. Box 1550, Flin Flon, Manitoba R8A 1N9, Canada

Abstract
Paleoproterozoic volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits are hosted in greenstone belts that formed during assembly of Earths first supercontinent, Nuna, at 2.1 to 1.7 Ga. These deposits account for a significant
component of the worlds VMS tonnage and, thus, are an important global exploration target. Among these
Paleoproterozoic belts, the 1.92 to 1.80 Ga Trans-Hudson orogen of Canada is the largest and best endowed in
Laurentia, with over 29 deposits totaling 320 Mt of Cu-Zn (Au, Ag, Pb) ore. Study of its deposits, districts, and
tectonostratigraphic evolution enables greater understanding of metallogenic and geodynamic processes during
the Paleoproterozoic. We briefly overview the Trans-Hudson orogen, its VMS deposits, and their exploration
history, and illustrate that various distinct types of volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits form in predictive
tectonostratigraphic sequences associated with both pre- and postaccretion volcanism. We present results from
a four-year program to investigate the deposits and evolution of the Trans-Hudson orogen, highlighting various
approaches at district and belt scales to improve exploration models for other structurally complex and covered
Precambrian terranes.

Introduction
Proterozoic volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits account for 20% of the global VMS tonnage (Mercier-
Langevin et al., 2014) and are important targets globally, as
many Proterozoic terranes are highly endowed relative to
their small area as compared to the preserved Archean cratons (Lydon, 1988; Franklin et al., 2005). This tonnage is
largely derived from Paleoproterozoic greenstone-hosted
districts (Allen et al., 2002; Galley et al., 2007), which mark
former sites of accretion during 2.1 to 1.7 Ga assembly of the
Earths first supercontinent, Nuna (Hoffman, 1988; Rogers
and Santosh, 2002). The assembly of Nuna took place against
the backdrop of major changes in the Earths atmosphere,
hydrosphere, and biosphere (Konhauser et al., 2002; Reddy
and Evans, 2009; Pehrsson et al., 2015) and a transition to
a more recognizably modern style of plate tectonics (Stern,
2008). This secular change is mirrored in the episodic preservation record of VMS deposits (Meyer, 1981; Goldfarb et
al., 2010; Huston et al., 2010) and the rise of mafic and siliciclastic-felsic VMS subtypes at this time (Franklin et al., 2005;
Corresponding

author: e-mail, sally.pehrsson@canada.ca

2016 by Economic Geology, Vol. 111, pp. 803816

Huston et al., 2010), and is concurrent with the first preservation of ophiolites (Moores, 2002) and accepted arc volcanic
sequences (Stern et al., 1999). The study of Paleoproterozoic
VMS deposits thus affords an opportunity to understand the
interrelationships between metal endowment and the Earths
changing, geodynamically linked, accretionary, preservational,
and depositional systems.
Paleoproterozoic orogeny, as expressed in the three most
productive VMS districts of Nunathe Trans-Hudson orogen
district in Canada (1850 Ma) and the Skellefte (~18701850
Ma) and Bergslagen (~1870 Ma) districts of Sweden (Svecokarelian orogeny, e.g., Weihed et al., 1992)has both hindered
and enhanced the ability to study Proterozoic mineralizing
processes. In particular, overprinting tectonometamorphism
obscures some primary features of mineral deposits, but associated structural relief provides the opportunity to view the
roots of VMS hydrothermal ore systems. The Trans-Hudson
orogen of Canada (Fig. 1a) is unique in that it has preserved a
relatively complete and remarkably well exposed Wilson cycle
(Corrigan et al., 2009) with a tectonostratigraphic record spanning over 600 m.y. The early ca. 2.45 to 1.95 Ga rift to drift
stage of preceding supercratons was followed by formation

0361-0128/16/4400/803-14 803

804

Paleoproterozoic
Orogens

NAIN

RAE

NE
AR Hudson
HE
Bay
O
TH

50 N

50 N
130 W

60 W

SUPERIOR

Atlantic
Ocean Paleozoic
Sedimentary Rocks
58 45 N
Paleo-Mesoproterozoic

WYOM

Archean Cratons

(A)

ING

<1.8 Ga Orogens

SL
AV
E

PEHRSSON ET AL.

(B)

Saskatchewan

Manitoba

Sedimentary rocks

Athabasca Basin

Paleoproterozoic
Reindeer
Zone

WB

LL
RL

WD

He
Cr arne
ato
n

WB

KD

106 W

SL

FF
FFGC

km

100

Superior
Craton

54 N

9530 W

TB

Trans-Hudson Orogen
Continental Arc
Plutonic Rocks
Marginal/Collisional
Basin: Sedimentary
and Plutonic Rocks
Arc Plutons/
Mixed Gneisses
Arc Volcanic and
Plutonic Rocks
Continental Margin
Deposits/Reworked
Basement
Archean
Archean Cratons/
Pikwitonei Granulite
Faults

Fig. 1. (A) Generalized geology and tectonic subdivisions of the Canadian Shield. The Reindeer zone of the Trans-Hudson
orogen (THO) is situated between the Archean Superior and Hearne cratons, with the latter variably reworked by the TransHudson orogen. Area of (B) denoted by black box. (B) Schematic diagram showing the principal domainal subdivisions of
the southwestern Trans-Hudson orogen and Reindeer zone. The Flin Flon-Glennie accretionary complex (FFGC) and Snow
Lake arc domain, host to the majority of VMS deposits in the western Trans-Hudson orogen, comprise intraoceanic accreted
juvenile terranes caught between arcs previously accreted to the Hearne craton margin and the Superior craton margin. The
Flin Flon-Glennie Complex extends under Paleozoic rocks of the Western Canada sedimentary basin to the south. Abbreviations: FF = Flin Flon domain, G = Glennie domain, H = Hanson Lake belt, KD = Kisseynew domain, LL = Lynn Lake belt,
RL = Rusty Lake belt, SL = Snow Lake belt, TB = Thompson belt, WB = Wathaman batholith, WD = Wollaston domain.

and accretion of ca. 2.0 to 1.88 Ga juvenile intraoceanic arcs

during closure of the Manikewan Ocean. Final assembly and
deposition of 1.88 to 1.83 Ga postaccretion foredeeps and
collisional basins were responsible for much of the orogens
preserved architecture (Lucas et al., 1996; Ansdell, 2005;
Corrigan et al., 2009). The resulting wide variety of preserved
tectonic and magmatic settings (marginal rift, arc, back arc)
host many mineral deposit types, including VMS, Ni-Cu-platinum group element (PGE), and orogenic lode Au. Within
the internides of the orogen, a combination of moderate overthickening, microcontinent accretion, and promontory-reentrant geometry along the Superior craton (e.g., Bleeker, 1990)
has preserved large areas of low metamorphic grade, submarine volcanic arc rocks favorable to VMS exploration. The
Trans-Hudson orogen district, as a consequence, is the largest
Paleoproterozoic orogenic belt of Laurentia (Hoffman, 1988)
and its best endowedhost to over 29 VMS deposits, containing over 320 Mt of Cu-Zn-Au-Ag-Pb ore (Table 1).
Despite decades of research and exploration on land and
on the ocean floor and a sophisticated genetic model for VMS
deposits (Franklin et al., 2005; Hannington et al., 2005), successful discovery, particularly in Precambrian Shield terrains,
remains a challenge. In mature camps the trend to increasing

depth of discovery exacerbates the need of accurately extrapolating surface geology and structure to depth and, thus,
remote methods, mainly geophysical, are used to directly target deposits or deeper favorable intervals. The same applies
to greenfields exploration, except here there is the added
challenge of predicting the metal endowment of greenstone
belts. The Flin Flon Targeted Geoscience Initiative (TGI), a
joint initiative of the Geology Surveys of Canada, Manitoba,
and Saskatchewan, was aimed at developing or testing methods to aid exploration for VMS deposits at depth and in more
poorly exposed areas of the Trans-Hudson orogen. Study of
its tectonostratigraphic evolution and VMS deposits can also
contribute more broadly to greater understanding of Paleoproterozoic metallogenic and post-ore processes.
This issue presents the preliminary results of the Flin Flon
TGI project. In the first part of this contribution we provide a
brief overview of the Trans-Hudson orogen, its VMS deposits,
and their exploration history. In the second part we provide an
overview of the special issue and how results from this fouryear research project will impact exploration models for VMS
deposits in the Trans-Hudson orogen district and in other
Proterozoic terranes.

A SPECIAL ISSUE ON VOLCANOGENIC MASSIVE SULFIDE DEPOSITS OF THE TRANS-HUDSON OROGENPREFACE

805

Table 1. Selected Mines and Deposits of the Reindeer Zone, Trans-Hudson Orogeny, Canada
Mine

Tonnes

Cu (%)

Zn (%)

Pb (%)

Ag (g/t) Au (g/t)

Status

Discovered

Hanson-Glennie tract
Anglo Rouyn
1,717,118 1.64 0 0
5.61 1.23 Past-producing mine
Elizabeth L
4,985,938 0.73 0 n.r. 6.22 3.73 Advanced exploration
May L
n.r. 7.11 2.13 0.25 38.4 1.37 Deposit
Will (Borys Lake)
1,212,451
0
1.7
0.17
9.33
n.r.
Advanced exploration
Western Nuclear
293,000
0.61
11.42
8.08
4.47
0.03
Past-producing mine
Mokoman
20,300,000
0.6
0.11
n.r.
3
0.16
Advanced exploration
Fox
11,958,182 1.82 1.78 0.01 5.23 0.18 Past-producing mine
Laurie Lake
1,361,000
0.8
2.15
0.01
n.r.
n.r.
Advanced exploration

1909
1967
1966
1958
1957
1930
1968
1961

Method
Prospecting
Prospecting/geophysics
Geophysics
Prospecting
Geophysics
Geology
Geophysics
Geophysics

Flin Flon tract

Mandy
Flin Flon
Cuprus
Schist Lake
Birch Lake
Don Jon
North Star
Flexar
Coronation
Centennial
White Lake
Ruttan
Westarm
Trout Lake
Callinan
777
Konuto

125,000 8.22 11.38 0.02 60.15 3.02 Past-producing mine 1915 Prospecting
62,485,362 2.21 4.11 0.01 41.28 2.72 Past-producing mine 1915 Prospecting
462,094 3.25 6.4 0.25
28.8 1.3 Past-producing mine 1941 Prospecting
1,846,656
4.3
7.27
0.7
37.03
1.3
Past-producing mine
1947
Prospecting
272,898 6.21 0.01 0.00 4.11 0.10 Past-producing mine 1950 Geology
79,329 3.09 0.01 0.001
15.09 0.96 Past-producing mine 1950 Geophysics
241,691
6.11
0
0
0.57
0.34
Past-producing mine
1950
Geophysics
305,937 3.76 0.5 0.001 6.51 1.3 Past-producing mine 1952 Geophysics
1,281,719 4.25 0.24 0.002 5.14 2.06 Past-producing mine 1953 Geophysics
2,366,000 1.56 2.2 0.25 26.4 1.51 Past-producing mine 1960 Geophysics
849,784
1.98
4.64
0.25
27.1
0.72
Past-producing mine
1963
Geophysics
81,100,000 1.34 3 0.08 11.89 0.45 Past-producing mine 1969 Geophysics
1,394,149 3.21 1.48 0.05 17.49 1.56 Past-producing mine 1973 Geophysics
21,612,296 1.74 4.97 0.06 16.02 1.56 Past-producing mine 1976 Geophysics
7,773,725 1.36 4 0.05 24.63 2.06 Past-producing mine 1984 Geology
21,903,539 2.59 4.39 0.01 26.94 2.12 Producing mine
1993 Geology
1,645,691 4.2 1.63 0.001 8.91 1.99 Past-producing mine 1994 Geophysics

Snow Lake tract

Dickstone
Osborne
Chisel1
Stall
Anderson
Ghost & Lost
Rod
Spruce Point
Hudvam
Photo Lake
Lalor
Reed

1,077,462 3.91 21.5 0.003 9.49 1.56 Past-producing mine

2,807,471 3.14 1.5 0.007 4.11 0.27 Past-producing mine
9,759,744 0.44 9.8 0.33 36.06 1.31 Producing mine
6,381,129 4.41 0.5 0.01 12.34 1.41 Past-producing mine
2,510,000 3.4 0.1 0.004 7.54 0.62 Past-producing mine
581,438
1.34
8.6
0.4
39.09
1.2
Past-producing mine
822,000 3.04 0.9 n.r. 9.25 0.66 Past-producing mine
1,865,095 2.06 2.4 0.01 19.54 1.68 Past-producing mine
1,356,977 1.06 1.61 0.1 11.29 3.61 Advanced exploration
689,895 4.58 6.34 0.6 29.49 4.87 Past-producing mine
14,432,000 0.6 6.96 0.22
23.55 1.8 Producing mine
2,157,000 3.83 0.59 0.004 6.02 0.48 Producing mine

Successor Arc deposits

Brabant
4,450,000 0.63 6.75 0.16 20.1 0.12 Advanced exploration
McIlvenna
14,500,000 0.91 6.08 0.4 23.7 0.45 Advanced exploration
Sherridon
7,739,471 2.37 2.28 0.03 18.96 0.63 Past-producing mine
Brownell
1,251,914 0.56 1.75 0.6 8.57 0.57 Deposit
Harmin
n.r. 0.31 4.62 0.01 10.09 0.09 Advanced exploration
Fenton
2,718,576 0.55 7.19 0.08 21.21 0.09 Advanced exploration

1935 Prospecting
1953 Prospecting
1956 Geophysics
1956 Geophysics
1963 Geophysics
1956
Geoligical
1970 Geology
1973 Geophysics
1929 Prospecting
1994 Geophysics
2007 Geology/geophysics
2007 Geophysics
1956
1983
1922
1958
1999
1998

Prospecting
Geophysics
Prospecting
Geophysics
Geophysics
Geophysics

Sources of data: Saskatchewan Mineral Deposit Index (http://economy.gov.sk.ca/SMDI), Mantioba Innovation Energy and Mines Mineral Inventory Database (http://www2.gov.mb.ca/Itm-cat/web/minsearch.html), Hudson Bay Exploration and Development Ltd. (Unpub. data, 2015)
Abbreviations: n.r. = not reported (see text for discussion)
1 Includes Chisel North, found subsequently

The Trans-Hudson Orogen

The Trans-Hudson orogen extends nearly 1,500 km from the
Paleozoic western Canada sedimentary basin of southern Manitoba and Saskatchewan to southern Baffin Island (Fig. 1a, Corrigan et al., 2009). It is characterized by three broad lithotectonic
divisions: (1) the Churchill margin (or peri-Churchill realm),
(2) the juvenile Reindeer zone, and (3) the Superior margin (or
peri-Superior realm, Fig. 1). The peri-Churchill realm records
progressive outward accretion of Archean to Paleoproterozoic

microcontinents (Hearne, Meta Incognita/Core zone, Sugluk)

and arc terranes (La Ronge-Lynn Lake) to the Rae craton to
form the Churchill Province. The Reindeer zone (Fig. 1b) is
underlain by oceanic arcs, back-arc basins, oceanic crust, and
ocean plateaus that formed during opening and closure of the
2.07 to 1.89 Ga Manikewan Ocean and accretion of the older
Sask craton microcontinent and related crustal fragments (Corrigan et al., 2009). The terminal phase of the 1.83 to 1.80Ga
Trans-Hudson orogeny involved collision of the Archean

806

PEHRSSON ET AL.

tectonostratigraphic assemblages, which structurally overlie

the Archean to earliest Paleoproterozoic Sask craton (Ashton
et al., 2005). The VMS deposits occur predominantly within
intraoceanic assemblages (Syme et al., 1999), but also locally
within ca. 1.88 to 1.83 Ga successor arc and back-arc basin
assemblages, which formed after amalgamation on and within
Chipewyan
the
olderBatholith
arc crust (Fumerton et al., 1984; Lucas et al., 1996;
Whalen et al., 1999; Morelli et al., 2010).
The Flin-Flon Glennie Complex consists of the Glennie Domain,
Hanson Indian
Lake block,
Amisk collage, and Snow
Southern
Domain
Lake arc assemblage (Figs. 1b, 3), all amalgamated at ca. 1.87

Manitoba
Saskatchewan

Superior craton with the Reindeer zone and the composite

western Churchill Province during the interval (ibid).
VMS deposits of the Trans-Hudson orogen district are
largely preserved in Manitoba and Saskatchewan in that part
of the orogen termed the Flin-Flon Glennie Complex (Figs.
1b, 2). The Flin Flon-Glennie Complex is a collage of ca. 1.91
to 1.88 Ga primitive to evolved island arc, ocean floor, ocean
n rocks (e.g.,
plateau, and associated sedimentary and plutonic
ai
Lucas et al., 1996; Ashton, 1999; Ansdell,om2005). The comD
plex is
VMS deposCree host to 29 present- and past-producing
ke
a
Lake
L
its (Table 1) preserved in fold-repeated
and
thrust-stacked
r
e
t
Pe

57N
107W
Ba
th
ol
ith
W
at
ha
m
an

el
t

Ruttan

an

Le

ke

Be

Kisseynew Domain
Mokoman

Lac
La Ronge

Gle

Sheriddon

Sh

nnie

P
H

FF TL

Flin Flon
McIlvenna

50 km

Am
i
L. sk

KBF

Western
Nuclear

CW

Complex

DN
C

SM
W

Reed

Coronation

POST- TRANS-HUDSON BASINS

Phanerozoic cover
Late- Paleoproterozoic Athabasca Basin

PROTEROZOIC PLUTONIC SUITES

Glennie and Kisseynew domains

Ca. 1.84 Ga felsic plutonic rocks

Ca. 1.835 Ga enderbite
Predominantly diatexite derived from turbidites
La Ronge - Lynn Lake Domain
1.86-1.85 Ga Satellite intrusions to Wathaman Batholith
1.86-1.85 Ga Wathaman-Chipewyan continental arc
Ca. 1.87 Ga Pool Lake intrusive suite; tonalite, gabbro
1.90-1.88 Ga juvenile and evolved arc pluton
Glennie - Flin Flon Complex
Ca. 1.84 Ga gabbro
1.84-1.83 Ga late successor arc plutons
1.90-1.86 Ga early juvenile arc + early successor
arc plutons of the Glennie-Flin Flon Complex

L
AS
CGL
Harmin
Spruce Point

Fenton

54N
97W

Saskatchewan Manitoba

LEGEND

Tho
mp
son

Anglo-Rouyn

Nic
k

el B

elt

La

Leaf Rapids Belt

57N
107W

Br

Fox

lt

on
ge
R
M

Lynn Lake Belt

Laurie Lake

ac

La

Hearne
Craton

RL

Superior
Craton

INTER-ARC, BACK-ARC, FORELAND BASINS

1.85-1.835 Ga meta-turbidite; arkose, conglomerate
1.88-1.86 Ga arkose, conglomerate, psammite
>1.88 Ga pelites and psammites

JUVENILE VOLCANIC SEQUENCES

1.88-1.84 Ga mostly intermediate to felsic
rocks of the Lynn Lake Belt
1.92-1.88 Ga undivided arc, back-arc, ocean floor
and ocean plateau volcanic and related rocks

PROTEROZOIC COVER SEQUENCES

Wollaston Group (lower/upper sequences)

ARCHEAN
La Ronge - Lynn Lake Domain
Ca. 2.56 Ga Swan River Complex
2.68-2.58 Ga Peter Lake Domain orthogneiss
Hearne, Superior and Sask Cratons
Mixed Archean-Paleoproterozoic tectonite
Reactivated Superior Craton margin and cover
Archean felsic orthogneiss and plutonic rocks

Fig. 2. Major tectonostratigraphic units of the Reindeer zone (modified after Corrigan et al., 2008) and associated VMS
deposits (black boxes). Deposit abbreviations: AS = Anderson-Stall, BR = Brabant, C = Centennial, CGL = Chisel, Ghost,
and Lost, CW = Cuprus and White Lake, D = Dickstone, DN = Don Jon and North Star, FF = Flin Flon camp, H = Hudvam,
KBF = Konuto, Birch, and Flexar, L = Lalor, O = Osbourne, P = Photo Lake, SH = Sherridon, SM = Schist and Mandy, TL
= Trout Lake, W = Westarm. Other abbreviations: RL = Reindeer Lake. See text for discussion.

3.0

1.95
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9

1.91

Age 1.90
(Ga)

1.89

1.88

1.87

1.86

1.85

1.84

1.83

1.82

Cu-Au porphyry
deposits

Sask Craton
pericratonic substrate

submarine arc

shallow to emergent

D1

accr.
SL to FF

Magmatic gap 1
Birch-Meridian
nascent arc

Early successor arc

emergent
to submarine

Missi molasse
sed. & mafic
magmatism

Late
syncollisional
magmatism

Magmatic gap 2

D2 fold
thrust belt

D3

Flin Flon

FF basement
slivers

accr.
HG to FF

D1 accretion to Sask
Craton margin

Pb-rich VMS

Magmatic gap

bif

D2 fold thrust belt

Hanson-Glennie

locally
emergent

Superior affinity substrate

Magmatic gap?

Puella
Morton

emergent
rhyolite & sed?

Magmatic gap

D1

Snow Lake

Cu-Au porphyry or epithermal deposit

VMS deposit

Inherited zircons

Basement

Tholeiitic volcanism (immature nascent and rifted arcs)

Transitional calc-alkaline tholeiitic volcanism (submarine)

Synarc magmatism

Arc sedimentation (turbidites-shales)

Calc-alkaline arc volcanism

Molasse sedimentation

Mantle derived mafic magmatism

Late syncollisional magmatism

Legend

Fig. 3. Schematic tectonostratigraphic columns for the three main accretionary tracts of the Trans-Hudson orogen, illustrating their respective crustal evolution and
contamination, timing of deposit formation, and subsequent structural history. Note the distinct ages of crustal contamination for the Hanson-Glennie and Flin Flon tracts
as compared to the Snow Lake tract, the former overlapping with ages of subjacent Sask craton and the latter with adjacent Superior craton.

Arc

A SPECIAL ISSUE ON VOLCANOGENIC MASSIVE SULFIDE DEPOSITS OF THE TRANS-HUDSON OROGENPREFACE

807

808

PEHRSSON ET AL.

to 1.85 Ga as a result of intraoceanic accretion (Lewry and

Collerson, 1990; Lucas et al., 1996). An outgrowth of recent
research has been a refined subdivision of the orogens juvenile arc assemblages into distinct accretionary tracts separated
by sutures delimited by slivers of ocean floor or ocean-island
crust within long-lived, ductile fault zones (Lucas et al., 1996;
Corrigan et al., 2009; Pehrsson et al., 2009; Fig. 3). A distinct
tectonostratigraphic evolution, including amount of crustal
contamination and contrasting metal endowment, characterizes each of these accretionary tracts (Fig. 4; Table 1). From
west to east, these tracts comprise (1) the Glennie-Hanson
tract, (2) the Flin Flon tract, (3) the Elbow-Athapapascow
suture zone, and (4) the Snow Lake tract. The preaccretionary
period for all tracts records an overall evolution from primitive to evolved calc-alkaline arc rocks (Stern et al., 1995a;
Maxeiner et al., 1999). Variations in Cu and Zn proportions of
the preaccretion VMS deposits have been noted with specific

preaccretion arc systems (Corrigan et al., 2008). Arcs of the

western Glennie-Hanson tract and eastern Snow Lake tract
have Nd isotope crustal contamination and zircon inheritance
data suggesting they were built on older crustal substrates,
but substrates of two distinct affinitiesthe Sask craton for
the former and the Superior Province for the latter (Figs. 2, 4;
Rayner et al., 2005; Zwanzig et al., 2006; Percival et al., 2007;
Bailes and Bhm, 2008). These arcs systems contain relatively
Zn rich VMS deposits and show evidence of rapid shallowing
of the arc system (Figs. 3, 5).
The intervening Flin Flon belt of the Amisk collage shows
lesser interaction with old crust and lacks evidence of pre1.88 Ga shallower water volcanism. Its nascent to rifted arc
system (Stern et al., 1995b) is interpreted to have nucleated
on thin, pericratonic pieces of Sask craton. Repeated phases
of arc construction and rifting over 15 m.y. are responsible
for five distinct periods of VMS deposition (Fig. 6), with

Successor arc 1.85-1.87 Ga volcanic rocks

Arcs with 2.7-3.1 Ga

inheritance

Lynn Lake Belt

Ocean floor accretionary

tracts
Arcs of unknown
affinity

Sandy
Bay
suture

Juvenile 1.86 Ga
metaturbidites

ral
Structu

SH
SL

Ha

F Fl
FM

Su

Zone

East Kisseynew
Domain

ElbowAthapap
suture

Gle
nnie
Sask Craton
windows

Lake

N ic
kel

La

R
on
ge

B
el
t

Granv
ille

Leaf Rapids Belt

Bel
t

Arcs with minor 2.5-2.3 Ga

inheritance

Archean
cratons
or blocks

Sask Craton
fragment

Reindeer
Lake

SP

We

Tho
mp
so n

Arcs with 2.5-2.3 Ga inheritance

Superior
Craton

HF

Birch

Fig. 4. Major greenstone-hosting >1.85 Ga accretionary tracts of the Reindeer zone and proposed sutures separating them.
Belts associated with known occurrences of Sask craton (La Ronge, Lynn Lake-Partridge Breast, Hanson) are characterized
by local crustal inheritance of Sask age in pre-1.86 Ga rocks, more contaminated Nd isotope signatures (Whalen et al., 1999),
and significant Zn, Pb, and Au contents in their orebodies (Table 1), suggesting they were built on fragments of the craton. In
contrast, greenstones of the Snow Lake area display exclusively older (>2.7 Ga) inheritance, older Sm-Nddepleted mantle
model ages, and also significant Zn and moderate Pb contents in orebodies, consistent with interaction with Archean crust
similar to that of the East Kisseynew domain and Superior craton. Tracts or sutures (delimited by the Sandy Bay ocean island
plateau and Elbow-Athapap ocean floor sequences, Lucas et al., 1996) are interpreted to separate proximal Sask craton belts
of the Hanson-Glennie tract (Hanson, La Ronge-Lynn-Partridge Breast) from (1) the more distal pericratonic Flin Flon arc
and (2) the Snow Lake peri-Superior arc system. Given that a fundamental suture is required to separate Sask craton from
East Kisseynew subdomain across the western Kisseynew belt, the Sandy Bay and Elbow-Athapap sutures are projected
northward, consistent with known early structural trends. The Granville Lake structural zone is proposed to be the folded
continuation of the main suture on the north flank. Abbreviations: FFl = Flin Flon belt, FM = Fourmile belt, Ha = Hanson
Lake belt, HF = Harmin-Fenton belt, Sh = Sherridon structure, SL = Snow Lake belt (including Anderson-Stall and Chisel
sequences), SP = Spruce Point-Reed Lake belt, Su = Suggi Lake belt, We = Wekusko belt.

Au (g/t)

809

A SPECIAL ISSUE ON VOLCANOGENIC MASSIVE SULFIDE DEPOSITS OF THE TRANS-HUDSON OROGENPREFACE

0
0

20

40

60

80

100

100 (Cu %/(Cu %+Zn %))

Pre- 1.87 Ga Oceanic arc VMS deposits
Hanson-Glennie tract

Flin Flon tract

Snow Lake tract

Post- 1.87 Ga Successor Arc VMS deposits

Fig. 5. Gold (g/t) versus copper number (100 (Cu/(Cu + Zn))) for Reindeer zone VMS deposits plotted by accretionary tract. Note that the goldrich deposits (following Mercier-Langevin et al., 2011) are restricted to the
Hanson-Glennie and Snow Lake tracts, which formed on thicker pericratonic
substrates. Flin Flon tract deposits are relatively copper rich, whereas the
Hanson-Glennie and Snow Lake tracts include Zn-rich deposits. The large,
low-tonnage deposits of the early successor arc are gold poor and zinc rich,
consistent with their formation in more felsic volcaniclastic sequences with
localized rifting. Source of data is Table 1.

the largest Cu-Zn deposits associated with arc rifting at ca.

1.88Ga. Smaller, more Cu rich deposits are associated with
earliest stages of nascent arc construction (Figs. 3, 6; Table 1).
Bounding the Flin Flon belt to the east is the Elbow-
Athapapascow suture, a broad zone of older, ca. 1.91 Ga ocean
floor and back-arc basin volcanic and plutonic rocks interlaced
with major ductile shear zones. This zone, which lacks economic VMS deposits, is interpreted to represent thin oceanic
crust and marks the broad boundaries between accretionary tracts with differing arcs (Stern et al., 1995b; Syme et al.,
1999), pericratonic substrates, and temporal evolution (Figs.
3, 4).
The Hanson-Glennie tract comprises multiple evolved arc
and arc-rift tectonostratigraphic assemblages (Maxeiner et al.,
1999). Both the Hanson-Glennie and Snow Lake tracts are
characterized by thicker initial volcanic piles (quickly shoaling to subaerial volcanism), possibly due to their construction
on larger pericratonic substrates. The Hanson-Glennie tract
is separated from the Flin Flon belt by slivers of ocean plateau basalts and major shear zones, collectively known as the
Sandy Bay suture (Stern et al., 1995b; Lucas et al., 1996). The
rocks of the tract are separated from the subjacent Archean
Sask craton by a major detachment known as the Pelican slide
(Ashton et al., 2005); however, the volcanic rocks are contaminated by crust of Sask-like affinity, implying they were
built either on its margin or a rifted piece. The evolved arc
sequence is host to Cu-Zn and Zn-Pb VMS deposits, including the past-producing Western Nuclear mine.
The Snow Lake accretionary tract comprises two major
stratigraphic assemblages: (1) ca. 1.892 Ga Anderson-Stall
sequence, host to Cu-rich deposits, and (2) ca. 1.889 Ga Chisel

Nascent arc root

Birch, Flexor, Konuto mines

Intraoceanic accretion
D1 and D2 folding-thrusting
D4 north vergentfold-thrust belt

D3 west-vergent
fold-thrust belt

Arc rifting
W. Hook showing

Transition to more
mature arc

Missi molasse
basin
deposition
Period of successor arc
magmatism and basin
development

Phantom
felsic
suite
dykes

Flin Flon, 777, Callinan mines

Cuprus, White Lake deposits

Renewed
Arc rifting
E. Hook showing
Trout Lake mine

Boundary Intrusions
mafic magmatism

1840

Early successor
arc dikes

1850

1860

1870

VMS deposit/prospect

1880

1890

1900

Age Ma
Fig. 6. Temporal evolution of the Flin Flin accretionary tract, illustrating the timing of VMS formation, volcanic evolution,
and subsequent structural history. Copper-goldrich VMS deposits (Birch, Flexar) are associated with early formation of the
1.92 to 1.89 Ga nascent arc. Note the abundance of volcanism during the short-lived ca. 1.89 to 1.87 Ga phase of arc rifting,
which is also host to the largest VMS deposits (Flin Flon, 777). Following 1.88 Ga, the transition to a more mature calcalkaline arc, smaller-scale VMS deposits form. A renewed phase of arc rifting at 1.88 Ga hosts the Trout Lake mine.

1910

810

PEHRSSON ET AL.

sequence, which hosts Zn-rich deposits (Franklin et al., 2005;

Galley et al., 2007). The Snow Lake tract, which borders the
Superior-derived East Kisseynew Domain, is interpreted to
have been built pericratonically on either the East Kisseynew
Domain or a piece rifted from it (Whalen et al., 1999; Percival
et al., 2007; Bailes and Bhm, 2008; Fig. 4) and is notably
host to the most Au rich VMS deposits of the Trans-Hudson
orogen district (Fig. 5). The Snow Lake tract likely evolved
independently from the remainder of the Flin-Flon Glennie
Complex prior to terminal collision (Lucas et al., 1996).
Following early intraoceanic accretion, new successor arcs
were built on all three thickened accretionary tracts (Fig. 3).
In Hanson-Glennie, this occurred after 1.86 Ga, whereas in
Flon Flon and Snow Lake it was slightly earlier at ca. 1.87 and
1.88 Ga, respectively. This change was marked by a switch to
more transitional tholeiitic to dominantly calc-alkaline magmatism and exhumation with deposition of arc-derived detritus in thick turbidite sequences. In both the Hanson-Glennie
and Snow Lake tracts the successor arcs appear to have rifted
and a suite of younger (ca. 18651855 Ma), bimodal mafic
to felsic-siliciclastic VMS deposits and occurrences locally
formed (Morelli et al., 2010; Simard et al., 2010; Fig. 6). The
latter deposit type is relatively underexplored in the TransHudson orogen district as a whole.

Between 1.86 and 1.84 Ga, later stages of successor arc

magmatism were associated with development of alluvialfluvial molasse and marine turbiditic rocks of the Missi and
Burntwood groups, respectively (Bailes, 1980; Ansdell, 1993).
Shortly thereafter, the terminal accretion stage involved collision with the Sask craton at ca. 1.84 to 1.83 Ga and later with
the Superior craton at 1.83 to 1.80 Ga (Bleeker, 1990; Ashton
et al., 2005). The complex structural history of both intraoceanic and terminal collisional orogenies resulted in the preservation of relatively low grade, diverse tectonostratigraphic
sequences, but severely complicated their topology.
Exploration history
Prospecting in the Flin Flon district (Fig. 7) started at the
beginning of the 20th century, following initial geological
surveys by the Geological Survey of Canada (Tyrrell, 1892;
Bruce, 1918). The first base metal deposits in the belt were
discovered in 1915 by the Creighton-Mosher-Dion prospecting team, who were guided to the surface occurrence of what
became the Flin Flon mine by local trapper David Collins.
Discovered in 1915, the Mandy mine (Fig. 8) became the first
producing base metal mine in Manitoba in 1917. Although the
world-class Flin Flon mine (Fig. 8) was discovered in 1915,
it was not put into production until 1930, after metallurgical

Reed
Lalor
Konuto
Photo
777

Reindeer Zone Greenstone Belts

Mines
Discovery Methods

Chisel North
Callinan
Namew
Trout
Spruce Point
Westarm
Rod
Centennial
Ruttan
White

Method Used

Anderson
Ghost & Lost

Geophysical

Stall
Chisel
Osborne

Geological
Prospecting

Coronation
Flexar
Birch
North Star
Don Jon
Schist
Cuprus

Closure

Discovery

Dickstone
Sherridon
Flin Flon
Mandy

1910

1930

1950

1970

1990

2010

Fig. 7. Summary of method of discovery for VMS deposits of the Flin Flon greenstone belt. Bars for each mine represent
the lifespan of the mine between discovery and closure, with the exception of the 777, Reed, and Lalor deposits, which are
currently in production.

A SPECIAL ISSUE ON VOLCANOGENIC MASSIVE SULFIDE DEPOSITS OF THE TRANS-HUDSON OROGENPREFACE

problems related to the fine-grained nature of the ore were

solved by flotation methods. With total production exceeding
62 Mt at a grade of 2.64% Cu, 4.13% Zn, 2.64 g/t Au, and
41.49 g/t Ag, the Flin Flon deposit is the largest in the Reindeer zone.
Three deposits, 777, Reed Lake, and Lalor, are currently
being mined (Fig. 3; Table 1). Prospectors found seven deposits prior to the advent of electromagnetic geophysical technology in the 1950s (Fig. 8). Since 1950, geophysical methods
have been the dominant exploration method and 17 deposits,
including Trout Lake, were found by drill testing geophysical targets (Fig. 8). More recent discoveries, including 777,
Chisel North, and Lalor, are attributed to drill testing of geologic/geophysical or structural targets in the vicinity of known
mines.
The average deposit in the Trans-Hudson orogen district has
a tonnage of 5.8 Mt, and, with the exception of Flin Flon mine
(the largest and one of the earliest discovered), the recent
trend has been to discovery of deposits larger than average.
Trout Lake (21.6 Mt), Callinan (7.8 Mt), 777 (21.9Mt) and,
most recently, the Lalor deposit (25.3) were all found in the
modern era and are of significant size (Table 1). There has also
been a trend to finding the deposits at greater depths, as demonstrated by 777 and Lalor, which lie at depths of 500 and 800
m, respectively. Much of the recent exploration activity has
also shifted southward to explore under the cover of flat-lying
Paleozoic carbonate rocks (Fig. 2).
Overview of the Special Issue
The papers within this special issue address aspects of exploration targeting at two main scales: district and belt scale. In the
following section, an overview of papers relevant to districtscale targeting is presented, with particular emphasis on the
Flin Flon, Snow Lake, and Trout Lake VMS districts. In the
succeeding section, papers targeting exploration at the belt
scale through geochemistry of tills and synvolcanic magmatic
rocks are presented.
District-scale targeting and VMS assessment
District-scale targeting in accretionary orogens often requires
a combination stratigraphic, structural, and alteration discrimination at both the district and local scale due to the
combined issues of heterogeneous primary tectonostratigraphy and superimposed structural complexity. Two papers in
the volume address this via stratigraphic/chemostratigraphic
and structural/stratigraphic reconstructions. Research on the
past-producing Trout Lake mine by Ordez-Caldern et al.
(2016) has led to new information that younger, more evolved
arc sequences less than 1.88 Ga (previously considered less
prospective) have the potential to host economic VMS deposits in the Flin Flon tract. Utilizing detailed geochemistry,
stratigraphic mapping, and geochronology, they interpret that
the Trout Lake deposit formed within a younger, 1.878 Ga
intraarc rift environment that evolved into an incipient, backarc basin. This younger basin is marked by a thick accumulation of siliciclastic sediments and emplacement of basalt sills
with back-arc basin basalt (BABB) signatures, atypical of the
main Flin Flon camp. Indications of high-temperature felsic
volcanism, coupled with the occurrence of low-Ti (LOTI)
basalts and high-Mg andesite, suggest that the VMS deposit

811

formed in a hot, extensional environment where subduction

of young oceanic crust and asthenospheric upwelling during intraarc rifting caused high-temperature magmatism and
associated VMS-forming hydrothermal activity. Their work
demonstrates that conditions favorable for VMS formation
can be repeated in time due to the complex subduction geometry in pericratonic arc systems.
Lafrance et al. (2016) employ a combination of detailed
structural and stratigraphic mapping to place the VMS deposits at Flin Flon (Fig. 8) into a district-scale deformation
history, including newly identified structures related to interoceanic accretion. They show the Flin Flon, Callinan, and 777
deposits were repeatedly thrust imbricated and lineated along
subtly different trends related to distinct orogenic phases.
This complex evolution and multiply imbricated architecture
highlight the potential for discovery of translated orebodies
at both higher and lower structural levels and the difficulty
of following ore down-plunge, where such geometry is controlled by differing structural overprinting events.
Three papers in the volume provide approaches to extending two-dimensional surface geometry and geology to depths
below conventional geophysical penetration, a crucial element for successful exploration in structurally complex terranes. Schetselaar et al. (2016) provide a uniquely robust
methodology and reconstruction to resolve and refine structures, extending the surface structural history to depth, and in
so doing defining newly identified and interpreted deep structural repetitions of the 777 deposit and other new exploration
targets. Their modeling approach utilized a unique, hierarchically structured drill hole unit classification and member
facies pattern recognition system which can have broad applicability to other camps.
Two papers by White et al. (2016a, b) address the challenge
of deeper exploration in mature mining districts, where structural complexity and the challenge of existing infrastructure
translate to substantial exploration costs. These papers provide
a case study of how 2-D and 3-D seismic surveys at Flin Flon
help to verify stratigraphy and structure at depth in order to
target new discoveries. White et al. (2016a) demonstrate that
characterization of the seismic impedances for the host rocks
and ores, using in situ laboratory measurements on core as
well as direct drill hole surveying, is a critical first step. With
impedances for the Flin Flon host rocks and ore established
and sufficient difference therein noted to generate reflectivity, White et al. (2016b) apply these to a interpret the 3-D
geology and structure of a 17-km2 area that was successfully
covered by a 3-D seismic survey conducted within and around
the town and mill with its high ambient acoustic noise. They
clearly demonstrate that the ore-hosting stratigraphic interval has strong reflectivity and that the orebodies are defined
by prominent reflections within this interval. Unlike classical geophysical signatures for prolate-shaped orebodies, the
thrusted, highly planar lenses yielded distinguishable reflection anomalies. They successfully demonstrated that the ore
interval was repeated at least three times by thrust faults, and
subsequent drilling resulted in the discovery of a small massive sulfide lens.
Identification of semiconformable or discordant alteration zones related to ore-forming processes is a key factor for
detecting and delimiting prospective deposit areas, and two

812

PEHRSSON ET AL.
10156'W

10154'W

10152'W

10150'W

10148'W

5448'N

Cliff
Lake

plutonic
complex

5447'N

t
l
ake fau

kL
Hoo

gs p
ond
fault

Fl

Cliff Lake fault

l
fau

n Lake
in Flo

5447'N

Tailin

Manistikwan Lake

5446'N

aul t

ult

line
Sync

Ross
Lake
10A

Mud

ault
ke f
s La
Ros

291

Lake

S
5445'N

BRA

168

5444'N

Schist
Lake

Burley

las

ug

Do

Mandy R
oad fault

5445'N

MRA

167

5444'N

f
tikwan

e
evi

lake

fau
lt

ning fa
Chan

Lak

106

Tailings
pond

den
H id

Annabel
pluton

is
Man

lt
Lak e fau

Club

Cliff
Lake

5446'N

5448'N

Saskatchewan Manitoba

e
Lak

5443'N

ke

lt
fau

La

Phantom
Lake

5443'N

ake
g L

otle

Bo

Phantom
pluton

5442'N

0 0.25 0.5

1.5

Gr

Kaminis
pluton

ee
n

Kilometers
10154'W

10152'W

La

ke

faul

10150'W

10148'W

Fig. 8. Geology of the Flin Flon mine district, Saskatchewan and Manitoba (after Simard et al., 2010).

SUCCESSOR ARC ROCKS

Late intrusions
Boundary intrusions
Phantom Lake intrusion

Missi Group
Missi Group

FLIN FLON ARC ASSEMBLAGE (>1.88 Ga)

Flin Flon Block

Unassigned mafic volcanic rocks

Synvolcanic intrusions
Cliff Lake pluton
Mikanagan Lake Sill related intrusions
Mafic dykes and sills

Douglas formation
undivided mafic volcanic and felsic volcaniclastic rocks

Louis formation
undivided mafic volcanic rocks
Icehouse member

5442'N

0 0.25 0.5

1.5

Gr

Kaminis
pluton

ee
n

Kilometers

La

ke

faul

A SPECIAL ISSUE ON VOLCANOGENIC MASSIVE SULFIDE DEPOSITS OF THE TRANS-HUDSON OROGENPREFACE

10154'W

10152'W

SUCCESSOR ARC ROCKS

813

Flin Flon Block

Douglas formation

Synvolcanic intrusions

Boundary intrusions
Phantom Lake intrusion

Missi Group
Missi Group

undivided mafic volcanic and felsic volcaniclastic rocks

Cliff Lake pluton

Mikanagan Lake Sill related intrusions

Pre-Missi intrusions (Annabel, Channing)

Mafic dykes and sills

Felsic dykes and sills

defined

Mine Shaft
T - Triple 7
N - North Main
S - South Main

undivided mafic volcanic rocks

Tower member

Hook Lake Block

Western felsic volcanic rocks

approximate

Louis formation
Icehouse member

Cope Lake Block

Symbols

VMS deposit
C - Callinan
T - Triple 7
F - Flin Flon
M - Mandy
S - Schist Lake

10148'W

FLIN FLON ARC ASSEMBLAGE (>1.88 Ga)

Unassigned mafic volcanic rocks

Late intrusions

faults

10150'W

Hidden formation

Flin Flon formation

1920 unit

Massive sulfide: Cu-Zn

Western mafic volcanic rocks

Carlisle Lake member

Millrock member

Western volcaniclastic rocks

Reservoir Member

Blue Lagoon member

Eastern mafic volcanic rocks

Stockwell member

Eastern Felsic volcanic rocks

Club member
Hamell Lake volcanic rocks

Eastern Volcaniclastics

Fig. 8. (Cont.)

papers in this issue demonstrate approaches to recognizing

alteration corridors at different scales. Bailes et al. (2016)
use combined mineralogical, geochemical, and isotopic data
to illustrate regional targeting using regional synvolcanic
alteration patterns in the Snow Lake district. This district
is at amphibolite facies, is host to two producing and seven
past-producing mines, and contains distinctive, laterally
continuous to discordant zones of anomalous metamorphic
assemblages. These zones contain garnet, staurolite, amphibole, biotite, gahnite, and kyanite-sillmanite that represent
metamorphosed equivalents of high- and low-temperature
alteration assemblages. Notably, the distribution of the assemblages is much broader than the VMS deposits themselves
and provides a large, readily mappable exploration footprint
(Bailes et al., 2016).
Discordant alteration zone below VMS deposits has been
extensively studied, but hanging-wall, discordant alteration
(Boldy, 1968; Gemmell and Fulton, 2001) has received less
attention, despite the common occurrence of thick hanging-wall successions above target VMS deposits. Ames et
al. (2016) used mapping of hydrothermal alteration assemblages coupled with mineralogical, geochemical, and oxygen
isotope studies of interpillow volcaniclastic rocks to define
transgressive alteration zones within pillowed basaltic strata
in the hanging wall to the Flin Flon-Callinan and 777 VMS
deposits. They attribute the development of hanging-wall
alteration zones to rapid burial of the VMS deposits and the
continuation of VMS hydrothermal activity, which was localized to interpillow areas containing fine volcaniclastic rocks
within synvolcanic structural corridors. Within the structural
corridors, the interpillow volcaniclastic rocks are commonly
epidote altered and are enriched in Hg, Sb, Ag, Se, Pb, Te,
Tl, As, Au, and Bi relative to regional greenschist sedimentary rocks. Their detailed geochemical fingerprint also serves
to distinguish higher-temperature upflow zones from lowertemperature, less focused, hanging-wall epidosite alteration,
which they relate spatially to the emplacement of synvolcanic
Fe- and Ti-rich intrusions. This approach of sampling interpillow sediments may be applicable to other polygenetic volcanic successions, where VMS intervals are rapidly buried by
postdeposit mafic volcanism.

Belt-scale targeting and assessment of VMS endowment

The initial and fundamental challenge of exploration outside
of established brownfields districts is assessing the potential
metal endowment of individual volcanic belts or portions of
orogenic tracts. This assessment may be indirect or direct.
Indirect assessment involves using surficial media to assess
VMS potential. The extensive glacial deposits that typify and
cover more than 90% of the Canadian Shield also conceal its
base and precious metal resources and add yet another layer
of complexity and uncertainty for explorationists. McMartin
et al. (2016) use multivariate data analysis techniques and GIS
spatial analysis of geochemical datasets for glacial till derived
to map multigenerational ice flow directions using calcareous tills as key provenance/transport indicators. Based on this
novel approach, they define regional- to local-scale geochemical dispersal trains that may indicate potential VMS bedrock
source areas.
Direct assessment of endowment at the belt or regional
scale requires recognition of the largest-scale features (or processes) of the VMS model, which are often the most important
but, because of their scale, the most difficult to directly relate
with certainty to VMS formation. Two features of the VMS
model that are commonly used in endowment assessment or
area selection are rhyolite geochemistry and the occurrence
of synvolcanic plutons (Franklin et al., 2005; Gibson et al.,
2007). The spatial and temporal association of rhyolites with
VMS deposits has been well documented for decades (e.g.,
Wilson, 1941) and various approaches to geochemical targeting of favorable units have been documented (Lesher et al.,
1986; Barrie et al., 1993; Lentz, 1998; Hart et al., 2004). Large
synvolcanic plutons are associated with some well-known
VMS districts (e.g., Matagami, Sturgeon Lake, Snow Lake,
Noranda; Galley, 2003; Bailes et al., 2016), and, although
their exact role in the genesis of VMS deposits is uncertain
(direct or indirect heat source, metal source; higher heat flow;
Galley, 2003; Hart et al., 2004; Franklin et al., 2005), they do
represent a large-scale feature that can be recognized at the
greenstone belt scale.
Whalen et al. (2016) employ the geochemistry of granitoid
rocks in the Flin-Flon Glennie Complex to assess the VMS

814

PEHRSSON ET AL.

endowment of their associated volcanic successions. They

show that juvenile, ferroan, and low Sr (low Sr/Y) early successor arc granitoids are associated with regions of highest
potential. They are interpreted to have formed in thinner arc
crust, and were associated with higher heat flow and rifting
conditions favorable for VMS deposit formation. Other granitoids with Sr/Y signatures are interpreted to have formed in
sequences with thicker substrates, which are less favorable
for VMS formation and preservation, although they may have
potential to host porphyry or mesothermal Au deposits. This
granitoid classification scheme also has the potential to help
target prospective VMS successions where data or exposure
are limited or lie below cover.
Conclusions
Although VMS deposits arguably are among the best understood deposit types and their ore-forming processes are well
documented (e.g., Allen et al., 2002, 2011; Franklin et al.,
2005; Hannington et al., 2005; Galley et al., 2007), the difficulty of exploration targeting in complex accretionary orogens
remains. This problem is exacerbated in Paleoproterozoic
Shield terrains, where outcrop density can be low, glacial or
younger sedimentary rock cover is often thick, and tectonometamorphism is intense (Mercier-Langevin et al., 2014).
Collectively, the papers in this special issue provide new data,
ideas, and techniques relevant to exploration for VMS deposits in ancient shield terrains at a variety of scales. The papers
demonstrate that advances in targeting at depth in mature
camps can only come through careful integration of geophysical, geochemical, stratigraphic, and structural knowledge,
not just of the host sequences, but also in hanging-wall and
footwall sequences and intrusions. Importantly, at the camp
scale, this research has shown the strong control on ore repetition and plunges by early phases of deformation that are
often difficult to elucidate. The new studies have shown how
integrated seismic and three-dimensional stratigraphic/structural modeling can resolve complex polyphase orogenic architecture, identify targets outside conventional mine horizons,
and be successful even in settings with dense infrastructure.
Geochemically based approaches to targeting alteration above
VMS deposits (after deposit volcanism) show significant
promise, as do lithogeochemical signatures for the identification of high heat flow regimes in often overlooked but areally
significant plutonic suites.
At the district and regional scale, the Trans-Hudson orogen
is as geometrically and stratigraphically complex as younger
Phanerozoic orogens, with large overturned and overthrust
panels, cryptic premetamorphic peak thrusts, and superficially similar stratigraphic sequences of differing age and
prospectivity. As is the case for well-known Archean districts,
only a few highly condensed periods of extension and/or high
heat flow within a protracted period of crust formation host
the majority of the Trans-Hudson orogen districts deposits.
In Paleoproterozoic orogens without fossil control and uncertain facing directions, the problem of prospective sequence
correlation is heightened. The research presented herein
emphasizes the need for robust models with realistic levels of
complexity and good geochronological control.
The major outstanding questions for exploration in
the Trans-Hudson orogen are similar to those for other

Paleoproterozoic and Archean terranes: (1) What controls the

fundamental endowment or lack thereof of specific accretionary tracts or belts? (2) How can sequences characterized by
long-lived and/or intense high heat flow be better targeted
at the belt scale? (3) Given the mature state of exploration
in many Precambrian camps, how can complex geometry be
made more predictive and thus reduce exploration risk? (4)
How can the challenge of discovery beneath thick glacial sedimentary or younger rock cover best be addressed? Resolving
these questions is essential to the discovery of the next generation of mines required to sustain the growing global need
for metals.
Acknowledgments
The contributions that compose this special issue result from
the collaborative Targeted Geoscientific Initiative Program of
the Geological Survey of Canada, the Manitoba and Saskatchewan Geological Surveys, HudBay Minerals Inc., and the
Mineral Exploration Research Centre (MERC) at Laurentian
University. Funding from the National Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada through CRD grants to
MERC researchers is acknowledged. We thank Kelly Gilmore, Ric Syme, Gary Delaney, and Simon Hanmer for their
support. We thank the authors of the individual papers for
their contributions and for their patience in preparing this
special issue. The following individuals kindly agreed to
review papers for this special issue and their contributions are
gratefully acknowledged: James Barrett, Georges Beaudoin,
Graham Closs, Eric de Kemp, Alan Galley, Tobias Hermansson, David Huston, Christopher Juhlin, Yvette Kuiper, Ulmo
Kukkonen, David Lentz, Kate MacLachlan, Patrick MercierLangevin, Bernt Milkereit, Stephen Piercey, Doug Schmitt,
Natasha Wodicka, and Derek Wyman. Patrick Mercier-Langevin and Stephen Piercey are gratefully acknowledged for
their helpful reviews of this contribution. Maggie Currie and
Angela Ford are thanked for their technical assistance.
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V., McCutcheon, S., Peter, J., and Tornos, F., 2002, Global comparisons of
volcanic-hosted massive sulphide districts: Geological Society of London,
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Hanging-wall vectoring for buried volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits,
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Ansdell, K.M., 1993, U-Pb zircon constraints on the timing and provenance
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the Paleoproterozoic Trans-Hudson orogen, Canada: Canadian Journal of
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