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Department of Mechanical Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Yokohama National University, Yokohama, Japan
Institute of Metal Forming, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Helsinki University of Technology, Espoo, Finland
d
Department of Mechanical Engineering, KAIST, Deajeon, Republic of Korea
e
Department of Manufacturing and Management Engineering, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
f
Timken Research, The Timken Company, Canton, OH, USA
g
Institute for Production Engineering and Forming Machines, University of Technology, Darmstadt, Germany
h
Institute of industrial Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
i
Department of Adaptive Machine Systems, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
j
Department of Design, Manufacture and Engineering Management, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom
b
c
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Keywords:
Forming
Metal
Strain
Processes of severe plastic deformation (SPD) are dened as metal forming processes in which a very
large plastic strain is imposed on a bulk process in order to make an ultra-ne grained metal. The
objective of the SPD processes for creating ultra-ne grained metal is to produce lightweight parts by
using high strength metal for the safety and reliability of micro-parts and for environmental harmony. In
this keynote paper, the fabrication process of equal channel angular pressing (ECAP), accumulative rollbonding (ARB), high pressure torsion (HPT), and others are introduced, and the properties of metals
processed by the SPD processes are shown. Moreover, the combined processes developed recently are
also explained. Finally, the applications of the ultra-ne grained (UFG) metals are discussed.
2008 CIRP.
1. Introduction
Processes with severe plastic deformation (SPD) may be dened
as metal forming processes in which an ultra-large plastic strain is
introduced into a bulk metal in order to create ultra-ne grained
metals [17]. The main objective of a SPD process is to produce
high strength and lightweight parts with environmental harmony.
In the conventional metal forming processes such as rolling,
forging and extrusion, the imposed plastic strain is generally less
than about 2.0. When multi-pass rolling, drawing and extrusion
are carried out up to a plastic strain of greater than 2.0, the
thickness and the diameter become very thin and are not suitable
to be used for structural parts. In order to impose an extremely
large strain on the bulk metal without changing the shape, many
SPD processes have been developed.
Various SPD processes such as equal channel angular pressing
(ECAP) [811], accumulative roll-bonding (ARB) [1214], high
pressure torsion (HPT) [15,16], repetitive corrugation and straightening (RCS) [17], cyclic extrusion compression (CEC) [18], torsion
extrusion [19], severe torsion straining (STS) [20], cyclic closed-die
forging (CCDF) [21], super short multi-pass rolling (SSMR) [22]
have been developed.
The major SPD processes are summarized in Table 1 with
schematic congurations and the attainable plastic strain. ECAP,
ARB and HPT processes are well-investigated for producing ultra-
* Corresponding author.
0007-8506/$ see front matter 2008 CIRP.
doi:10.1016/j.cirp.2008.09.005
s Y s 0 Ad1=2
(1)
717
Table 1
Summary of major SPD processes
Process name
Schematic representation
e n p23 cot
e gpr3 , g r n 2pt r
e n p23 ln
Fig. 1. Relationship between proof stress and grain size of pure iron [6].
t0
t
(2)
e p 2cot
2 2
2 2
3
Fig. 3. Schematic illustration of side extrusion process, which are a kind of double
axis extrusion or side extrusion [29].
718
Fig. 6. Schematic representation of repetitive side extrusion process with the back
pressure [46].
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Fig. 7. The ECAP process using a rotary-die: (a) initial state, (b) after one pass and (c)
after 908 die rotation [52].
Fig. 11. The principle of the ECAR process for use in continuous production [68].
Fig. 8. Schematic representation of 2 turn ECAP [61].
Fig. 9. Schematic of the equal channel angular drawing process (ECAD) [62].
720
2
4
75
1.60
3
8
87.5
2.40
5
32
96.9
4.00
10
1024
99.9
8.00
1
2
50
0.80
p
3
t
1
lnr; r 1 1 n
2
t0
2
(3)
721
Fig. 17. Longitudinal cross-section of initial and ARB processed IF steel strips [82].
Fig. 20. Schematic illustration of the bulk-HPT process [94].
Fig. 18. Schematic diagram of ring tension device and dimensions of ring
specimens [90].
g r
2pnr
l
(4)
where r is the distance from the axis of the disk sample, n the number
of rotation and l the thickness of the sample. The equivalent strain
according to the von Mises yield criterion is given by
g r
er p ;
3
(5)
e 4nln
e2
(6)
lnH=W
p
3
(7)
722
e 4ln
r t=r 0:5t
p
3
(8)
Fig. 26. Principle of the severe torsion straining (STS) process [20].
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Fig. 29. TEM Micrograph of ultra-low carbon steel after ECAPed 10 passes by route
A [46].
Fig. 27. Principle of the torsion extrusion process [19].
3 3H
(9)
Fig. 28. Magnied view of a longitudinal section of the etched aluminum specimen
[19].
low carbon steel an ultra-ne grain size with a major axis length of
0.5 mm and a minor axis length of 0.2 mm was developed by 10
passes of repetitive side extrusion at room temperature as shown
in Fig. 29 [46]. At the same time, they showed the relationship
between the area fraction and the mis-orientation angle by the
EBSP analysis [46]. They reported that most of the boundaries are
high-angle grains, so that the processed steel is considered to be a
kind of ultra-ne grain structured metal.
In the ARB processes, it was noted that the evolution of
microstructure and the increase in mis-orientation of boundaries
were much faster than those when using conventional rolling
[117,118]. A typical TEM micrograph of the ultra-ne structure in
the interstitial free (IF) steel ARB processed by 7 cycles at 500 8C is
shown in Fig. 30. From the crystallographic analysis by Kikuchiline analysis, they reported that most of the boundaries were at a
high angle.
From these TEM microstructures, it is expected that the
hardness and the tensile strength of metals with ultra-ne grains
become higher. A number of studies have been conducted on the
strength and ductility of various kinds of metallic materials
processed by various SPD processes. The SPD-processed materials
generally have very high strength compared with conventional
metals. Fig. 31 illustrates a general tendency of the change in
strength and ductility during SPD. The strength of the materials
continuously increases with increasing the applied strain and then
gradually saturates. On the other hand, the ductility drops greatly
with a relatively small strain, and then keeps a nearly constant
value or slightly decreases as the strain increases.
Fig. 32 shows the relationship between the tensile strength,
elongation and number of passes in ECAP for Armco steel [30]. The
tensile strength increases with increasing pass number. The tensile
strength is increased from 300 to 750 MPa after one pass. The
tensile strength is increased by a factor of 2 after one pass in
comparison with the specimen before the ECAP process, and
increases with increasing pass number up to 8 passes. The tensile
strength is higher than 800 MPa after 8 passes. On the other hand,
the elongation decreases from 20% for the specimen before the
ECAP process to several percents after 8 passes.
Fig. 30. TEM microstructure of the IF steel ARB processed by 7 cycles (e = 5.6) at
500 C [118].
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Fig. 31. Illustration showing the general tendency of the change in strength and
ductility during SPD.
Fig. 32. Relationship between tensile strength, elongation and pass number of ECAP
for Armco steel [30].
Fig. 33. Relationship between tensile strength and pass number for the carbon
steels based on ref. [121].
Fig. 34. Relationship between total elongation and pass number for carbon steels
based on ref. [121].
Fig. 35. Stressstrain curves of the CS steel after ECA pressing at 350, 480, 540 and
600 8C [128].
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Fig. 36. Tensile strength and elongation of the 1100 commercially pure aluminum
ARB processed by various cycles at RT [131].
Fig. 38. Yield strength and UTS vs. accumulated strain for AA-6061 SPD processed
by ECAP, MAC/F and ARB at room temperature [149].
Fig. 37 shows the stressstrain curves of the 1100-Al and ultralow-carbon interstitial free steel SPD processed by the ARB and
then annealed at various temperatures for 1.8 ks [132]. In the
gures, true stress and true strain are indicated by assuming
uniform elongation. Also the mean grain size of the specimens
measured from the microstructure observations are superimposed
in the gures. The strength of the materials decreases with
increasing grain size, i.e., with increasing annealing temperature.
However, large elongation can be obtained only after the strength
decreases. In particular, the curves clearly show that the ow stress
reaches its maximum at an early stage of tensile test and is then
necked down to fracture in the UFG specimens.
The limited tensile ductility of the ultra-ne grained materials is
understood in terms of early plastic instability. As is well-known, the
plastic instability condition (i.e., necking condition in tensile test) for
strain-rate insensitive materials, for example, is expressed as
s
ds
de
(10)
Fig. 37. True stressstrain curves of (a) the 1100-Al ARB processed by 6 cycles at
200 8C and then annealed at various temperatures ranging from 100 to 400 8C for
1.8 ks and (b) IF steel ARB processed by 5 cycles at 500 8C and then annealed at
various temperatures from 200 to 800 8C for 1.8 ks [132].
Fig. 39. Principle of the combined process of ECAP process and cold rolling.
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Fig. 42. Elongation to failure of the ECAP (4 passes) and ECAP (4 passes) + CR(70%)
samples as a function of initial strain rate at 450 8C [172].
Fig. 41. Principle of the combined process of ECAP process and conventional
extrusion.
Table 3
Properties of pure Ti processed by two-step [169]
Processing state
s0.2 (MPa)
su (MPa)
d (%)
380
640
940
1020
920
660
460
710
1040
1050
955
670
27
14
7
6
15
16
a
b
Table 4
Properties of pure Ti processed by warm ECAP and cold extrusion [170]
Processing state
s0.2 (MPa)
su (MPa)
d (%)
RA (%)
Coarse grain
ECAP(8) a
ECAP(8) + Cold extrusion(47%)b
ECAP(8) + Cold extrusion(75%)
Ti6Al4Vc
380
640
910
1020
920
460
710
930
1050
955
27
14
6
10
69
61
55
42
25
a
b
c
Fig. 43. Appearance of (a) ECAP sample and (b) ECAP + CR(70%) sample tested up to
failure at 450 8C [172].
727
Fig. 45. Tensile strength and elongation of ECA pressed low carbon steel annealed at
480 8C for various times [173].
Fig. 44. Relationship between tensile strength and hardness of specimens of ultralow carbon steel, 0.15%C, 0.25%C and 0.50%C steel after ECAP of 3 passes and then
heat treatments of annealing [121].
728
Table 5
Properties of pure Ti processed by warm ECAP and cold rolling with subsequent annealing [169]
Processing state
s0.2 (MPa)
su (MPa)
d (%)
Coarse grain
ECAP(8) a
ECAP(8) + Cold rolling(35%)b + Annealing 200 8C, 0.5 h
ECAP(8) + Cold rolling(73%) + Annealing 300 8C, 1 h
ECAP(12) + Cold rolling(35%) + Annealing 300 8C, 0.5 h
Cold rolling(35%)
380
640
985
942
920
660
460
710
990
1037
1000
670
27
14
8
12.5
14
16
a
b
increased from 350 to over 700 MPa with in decreasing grain size
4.51 mm, which is in good agreement with the HallPetch
relationship. It is also conrmed that the uniform elongation
deceases.
Another example of the combined process for producing the
ultra-ne grained steel is warm rolling and cooling, which uses
ferrite recrystallization during warm rolling [177183]. Torizuka
et al. [177,180183] carried out multi-pass warm caliber rolling of
two low carbon steel (SM490) specimens with a microstructure of
ferrite and Pearlite.
The specimen of the square bar with a side width of 80 mm was
used. The warm caliber rolling schedule is summarized in Fig. 49.
The caliber rolling at 500 8C was conducted in ve stages to obtain
specimens of different cumulative strains for different microstructure and mechanical properties. The cumulative reduction
and the cumulative strain at each stage of rolling are also shown in
Fig. 49.
Fig. 50 shows the relationship between nominal stress and
nominal strain of specimens subjected to different cumulative
strains. The yield and tensile strengths of the caliber rolled
specimen increase monotonically with increasing cumulative
strain. There is a reduction in the elongation to failure of the
caliber rolled specimens compared to the undeformed specimen,
but there is almost no change among the specimens with different
accumulative strains.
Fig. 49. Caliber rolling schedule with cumulative reduction and cumulative strain at
each stage [180].
729
Fig. 51. High strength thread articles out of SPD Ti alloy [184].
5. Applications
The properties of the metals processed by SPD exhibit high
strength, ductility and fatigue characteristics. UFG metals are used
as a structural material due to these properties. Bolts are also
manufactured with titanium alloys processed by ECAP as shown in
Fig. 51 [184] and are widely used in the automobile and aircraft
industries. Micro bolts using the UFG carbon steel processed by
cold ECAP have also been manufactured as shown in Fig. 52 [185].
Long carbon steel bars, of over several kilometers, with ultrane grains are manufactured by the warm continuous caliber
rolling and cooling process, from which the micro bolts are
manufactured. Recently, in a Japanese National Project, sheets of
low carbon steel of 2 mm thickness with ultra-ne grains were
manufactured by the TMCP process. The deep drawing ratio of each
sheet was 1.9 and the parts were used in sheet metal forming as
shown in Fig. 53 [186].
It is well known [187,188] that superplastic forming is a highly
efcient method of processing complex shape articles. An example
of a possible practical application for nanostructured Al alloys is
shown in Fig. 54 [2]. It presents a complex shape article of Piston
type which was fabricated from the nanostructured Al1420 alloy
by superplastic forming using the high strain rate superplasticity.
In practice, despite a range of improved mechanical and
physical properties of bulk UFG metals produced by SPD, the
uptake of these materials by industry has been very slow so far.
There are several reasons for this; one is the lack of industrial
awareness of UFG metals. This is despite a large number of
academics being engaged in research on SPD and UFG metals.
Another reason is the scarcity of appropriately sized UFG samples
for industrial trials; those produced by laboratories are usually too
small because they are intended for metallurgical observations or
basic mechanical testing. Finally, it is still not clear which of the
Fig. 52. Overview and cross-section of micro bolts manufactured UFG Carbon steel
processed by cold ECAP [185].
Fig. 54. View of article of Piston type fabricated from nanostructured Al1420 [2].
730
Fig. 57. AAV7A1 Amphibious Assault Vehicle (image courtesy of BAE Systems).
731
Fig. 61. SEM pictures of a micro-bulged sheet made of CG and UFG Al 1070 [200].
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