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8, AUGUST 1971
483
Abslracf-The effects of shadows on the current-voltage characteristics of solar cell circuits are studied and used for the development of several mathematical models. These models describe
circuits
of any geometry with or without shunt or blocking diodes. For efficient analyses of larger arrays the concept of the shadowing factor
is developed. All models are useful in analyses performed by hand
or digital computer, using theoretical or empirical input data.
DEFINITIONS
AND NOMENCLATURE
Shadows
A single pointlightsourceilluminatinganobject
placed before a surface will produce two different types
of shadows: an eigenshadow(orself-shadow)on
that
part of the object which is naturally not illuminated,
INTRODUCTION
and a cast shadow on the surface
which is caused by the
object.
Only
the
latter
type
of
shadowing
is considered
REQUENTLY, portions of solar energy converin
this
paper.
All
shadows
are
considered
to
have zero
ters(solararrays)areshadedbystructural
eleillumination
intensity,
and
transitions
between
illumiments suchas antennas, booms, or portions of the
nated
and
shadowed
areas
are
assumed
to
be abrupt.
satellite body. Such shadows are usually time-varying
T
h
e
models
presented
in
the
following,
however,
can be
and of complicated geometry. Accurate knowledge of
used
directly
to
treat
all
cases
of
penumbra-type
the output losses caused by these shadows is required
shadows.
for a precise determination
of the actual array power
The determination of the actual shadow patterns on
output as well as for assessment of bus voltage variathe
array is beyond the scope of this paper, and various
tions, ripple, andnoise.
methods
suchasthose
of descriptivegeometry
[l],
Because of the nature of the electrical characteristics
photography,
or
computer
techniques
[
2
]
may
be
used
of solar cells, the power losses are not proportional to
todeterminethem.Instantaneouslyvaryingshadow
the shaded, or projected shaded areas, but are greater.
be time-averaged,just as theinstanTwo mechanisms induce these power losses: shadowed patternsmay
taneously illuminated array areas (i.e., power output)
cells in series with illuminated
cellsblock the current
may be averaged, provided the instantaneous values are
flow in an entire series string, and shadowed cellsin
not needed for calculating noise, ripple, or charge/disparallel with illuminated
cells shunt part of the genperformance
of an
energy
storage
battery
erated current. Currentflow blocking may be minimized charge
connected to the array.
byinstalling so-called shuntdiodesacrossshadowed
cells or cell groups, while shunting may be minimized by
Solar Cells
dividinglargeparallelgroupsintosmalleronesand
T h e basis for all solar array models presented herein
connectingeachgroupthrough
a so-calledblocking,
is a solar cell current-voltage, or I ( v ) , relationship obdiode to the bus. This diode isolates shadowed groups
tained by physical measurement at some standard test
fromilluminatedonesandtherebypreventsshunt
conditions. The solarcell is considered a two-port black
current losses.
Previous work on shadowed solar arrays published in box with light energy entering one port, and current,
voltage, and impedance being offered at the other. The
the literature reported on more or
lessspecificcases,
mostly on flat, semioriented arrays. The purpose
of this equivalent circuit of this black box is of no interest to
paper is to present general array and subarray models this study. The exit ports I ( v ) characteristics are deuseful for almost any array geometry, circuit topology, fined by the externally measurable quantities of terminal current 1, as function of terminal voltage v , at a
or array size andcomplexity.Several
models are degiven
light intensity Q, cell temperature, and state of
rived from actual cell characteristics, and are given for
charged-particle
irradiation.Implicitintheseoutput
analyses requiring varying degrees of accuracy. For the
characteristics
is
the internal cell seriesresistance R,
analysis of larger, nonoriented arrays, oneof the models
which
causes
the
familiar
voltagetranslationas
Q is
is simplified resulting in the shadowing factor concept.
varied
[
3
1.
This concept, providing speedy and precise results, has
I t is assumed that the cell temperature and chargedbeenusedsuccessfullyby
theauthorandotherson
particle
irradiation is held constant for the following.
several occasions (not reported here).
T h e black box output at some standard conditions(Le.,
Manuscript received August 25,1969. This paper was presented
at
the Seventh IEEE Photovoltaic SpecialistsConference, Pasadena, at light level Q) may be given functionally by
Ic(v>
= IL
- Idvo),
20
484
lEEE TRANSACTIONS ON E L ~ C I K U I Yu n y I u w ,
= I L - vG(v),
<0
(1)
where I, is the terminal current, v is the terminal voltage, and I& is a constant current equal to the terminal
short-circuit current. Io(v0) is a function responsible for
the typical solar cell curve shape and corresponds conceptually to the diode conduction current in the simple
lumped-constants solar cell model frequently given in
the literature.
G(v) is a nonlinear conductive element in parallel with
the output port terminals which affects the cell characteristics only whenZI is negative. This element represents
the cell reversecharacteristics,whichareimportant
when solar cells are connected into arrays where they
are subjected to external bias.
I t has been determined experimentally that, at light
intensities corresponding to between zero and two solar
constants, the solar cell I ( v ) curve shape is invariant
with intensity and translates only along the current and
voltage axes. Using this finding, (1) may be written for
any light intensity different from Q (i.e.?a t k Q ) :
I ~ ( v ) k I L - I O ( VOA v ) ,
=
klr,
-~G(v),
v 20
v<o
(24
where
AV
(1 - k ) l ~ R .
(2b)
V, =
20
= P[KIL- v G ( v ) ] ,
7~
<0
(sa)
where
AV = (1 - k ) p I L R .
(3b)
S?I
and
AV
= (1
- K)ILSR.
(5 b)
Array
.The array consistsof all the stringsfeeding a particular bus system. Its equation is obtained by forming the
sum of all string currentsat constant voltage values and
accountingfortheisolationdiodedrop.
If the array
voltage is forced by an energy storage battery aornumber of other power-producing strings, the string voltage
V , is also forced so t h a t
RAUSCHENBACH
: ELECTRICAL OUTPUT
485
j= 1
m
[kjIL - IO(VS $. V D
- A v ) j ] V ~ s (7)
I,(v) = I M ( v )= I L - Io(~0).
(10)
Curve A in Fig. 1 shows that this approximation calculates the power output as too high from this partially
shadowed submodule.
Next, assume that the above submodule of two cells
inparallel is represented by twoequallyilluminated
cells at one-half of the original intensity. The submodule
equation is the sum at constant voltages of two cells of
(2) with k = 0.5 :
j-1
EFFECTS
OF SHADOWS
ON CELLS
AND SUBMODULES
A shadow falling on a portion
of a single cell or a
I M ( v )= I L - 2I0(~0- 0.51~R).
(11)
submodule will reduce the total output by two mechanisms: 1) by reducing the energy input to the cell, and
2) by increasing interhal energy losses in the nonilluminated cell portions. If the energy conversion capability
is uniform over the entire active
cell area, the shortIM(z')= I i l l u m Idark
circuit current will be proportional to the nonshadowed
(illuminated) area, regardlessof the shape orposition of where
the shadow (at leastfor up to two solar constants intenI i l l u m = rpRIL - rpIO(v0 - A V I )
sity and contemporary solar cells). If the total active
cell area is A and the illuminated, active portion
thereof where
is Ad, the short-circuit current output of the partially
Av, = (1 - r)pILR.
shadowed cell becomesr 1 where
~
The dark component, I d a r k = - (1-r)pIo(vo-Avz) with
Avz= (1- - r ) f i I ~ R , is, of course, independent of k.
Equations (10) and (11) may be similarly generalized.
All three models, shown in Fig. 1, are then expressed as
Hence, a partial shadow on a
cell will have the same
effect on I L as reduced light intensity on
a nonshadowed follows.
Accurate Model: From (9),
cell. T h e remainder of the cell I ( v ) curve will, however,
not follow thisrelationshipas
will be shownbythe
1-r
examples below.
I,(v) = rp AIL - IO(VO
- A z J~ )-- IO(VO
- AVZ)
r
For illustration, let a submodule at normal incidence
consisting of p = 2 identical cells in parallel be partially
Av, = (1 - k)rpILR
shadowed with r = 0.5, and such that one cell is illumiAvZ = (1 - r)pILR
nated and the other is dark. From ( 2 ) the illuminated
V 2 0.
(12)
cell equation with k = 1 is I c ( v ) = I . ~ , - l o ( v ~ )and
, that
of theshadowedordark
cell with k = O is I,(v)
Optimistic Approximation : From (10) ,
= -1o(vo - ILR). The partially shadowed submodule
I,(v) = rp[kIL - Io(v0- A v ) ]
characteristics are the current sum of these two equations at constant voltage values:
AV = (1 - ~ ) P I L R
IM(V>= Ia(v) J k b )
= I L - IO(vo) - Io(v0 - I L R ) .
v 2 0.
(9)
Av = (1 - rk)ILR
v 2 0.
(14)
< 0.
486
\
Fig. 2.
IM(V)
I(0)
\ \
I .
HIGH OUTPUT
CELL NUMBER 2
1*(v)
J(v),
v20
I ( 0 ) - ZJG(V), v
<0
STRING
MODELS WITHOUT
SHUNT
DIODES
(15)
T h e generalcurrent-voltagecharacteristics
of an
entire unshadowed solar cell string ( 5 ) are nearly idenwhere I ( 0 ) = rpkIL, and J(v) provides the same function
tical to the average individual
cell characteristics, exfor the submodule that Io(vo)serves in the cell ( l ) , except for thecoordinatescales,someadditionalseries
cept that J(v) may represent any of the corresponding
resistance due to cell interconnections, and some minor
terms in (12)-(14)~.
alterations of the cell I( V ) curves due to the string
I n 1961, Luft [4] measured the variation in cell outassemblytechniques.Forsimplicity,theseeffectsare
putwiththeamount
of shadowing on someearlier
understood to be included in the basic
cell model and,
1-by-2-cm solar cells with 1.5 grid lines/cm. He found
hence,areomittedinthisdiscussion.Theblocking
that the cell open-circuit voltages and the currents near
diodes are considered later in the array analysis.
theoptimumpowerpointdidnotcorrespondtothe
In this section it is assumed that the solar cells have
values,whichwouldbeexpectedfromlightintensity
infinite breakdown voltages and zero reverse currents.
variations,butweremostlylower,dependingonthe
This assumption is an excellent one as long as the cell
shadowlocation on the cells. Whilethesevariations
reversecurrentsremainnegligible(comparedtothe
were relatively significant for single-cell measurements,
cell output currents) up to voltages in the order of the
the deviation becameless significant whenthe shadowed
magnitude of thebusvoltage.Themodel
for aparcell was part of a larger group of cells (string). In 1966,
tially shadowed submodule with p cells in parallel was
Treble [5] reported experimental results which showed
shown in (15) to be I M ( =I(O)
~ ) -J(v) and the string
thatthe cell I,, is indeedproportionaltothenonI ( V ) curvewasobtainedbysumming
all the s subshadowed cell area and is not affected by shape or posimodule characteristicsof that string at constant current
tion of the shadow. However, he did not report on the
values as shown for (4) and (5) for the nonshadowed
variations of other cell parametersasafunction
of
case. By substitution,
shadowing.
I e ( V S )= I ( 0 ) - J ( V B AV).
(16)
CURRENT-LIMITING
BY CELLSOR SUBMODULES
Threesolutionsto
(16) areoutlinedforapartially
CONNECTED
IN SERIES
of s = 48 series-connected
shadowed string consisting
=
I n Fig. 2, two cells of unequal output are shown connected in series. The terminal behavior of this cell pair,
requiring 11=I,, is obtained by summing the cell voltages at constantcurrentvaluesasillustrated.
I t is
clearly seen that the lower output cell number one, i.e.,
a shadowed cell, limits the output from the higher outp u t cell number two. The amount of the limiting depends, of course, on the reverse characteristics of cell
number one. In order to analyze
cells connected in series.
thereversebreakdowncharacteristicsmustbeconsidered as expressed by the term G ( v ) in ( 2 ) .
487
Fig. 3.
STRING
MODELSWITH SHUNT
DIODES
From Figs. 2 and 3 i t becomes readily apparent that,
if a cell in a series string is shadowed, the amount of
current limitingcan be reduced, Le., theoutputincreased, if cells with low breakdown voltages are used.
This thinking has led to the use of shunt, or bypass,
diodes connected across shadowed cells or submodules.
The addition of theseshuntdiodesacrossshadowed
submodules artificially produces a very low breakdown
voltage. The diodes are connected across the submodules
such that the shunt diodegoes into forward conduction
when thesubmoduleissubjectedtoreversebias.
A
submodule becomes reversed biased when the remainder
of the series string containing this submodule tries
to
force a greater current through this submodule than its
short-circuit current permits.
Early work on shunt diode application was done in
1963 byBaronandVirobik[6],
[SI,whosuccessfully
incorporatedshuntdiodesinthePioneerSpacecraft
solar array. In 1964, Virobik developed an approximate
modelfor solararrayanalysisutilizingshuntdiodes
[lo]. Barton refined this model in 1965 and used i t in
graphical form for practical array analyses
[ l l ] . Conn
[12] adoptedBartons modelin1966for
thedigital
computer
analyses
described
by
Luft,
Barton,
and
Conn [13].
In the following, a precise string model with shunt
diodes is developed as a logical extension of the discussionsinthe
foregoing sections. An approximation is
then made which leads to Bartons model. This is accomplished by first substituting the shunt diode characteristics Id(v) for G(v) in(15), so that the submodule
equationwith p cells and d shunt diodesinparallel
becomes
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON E L O L I K U ~U L I . ~ - ,
488
40C
35c
30C
25C
-*
s
OT
2M:
cd
I-
VI
15C
1 oc
5c
STRINGVOLTAGE[VOLTS)
489
"THEORETICAL CURVE" OF
FIGURE 5 . DOTTED LINE
IS THE APPROXIMATE
MODEL OUTPUT.
\
\
5 Y < 0.5
490
indicatesthefraction
of actuallyavailablecurrent.
Since for a given zonethe total aswell as this fractionof
available current is uniquely determined by the shortcircuit currents, (23) may be restated as
m
i= 1
~)
22
Pij
cos ydj
pij
cos y;i
REFERENCES