Contents

Chapter 1..........................................................................................................................................
Refrigerator......................................................................................................................................
1.1 Compressor............................................................................................................................
1.2 Condenser..............................................................................................................................
1.3 Capillary tube.........................................................................................................................
1.4 Evaporator..............................................................................................................................
1.5 Drier.......................................................................................................................................
Chapter 2..........................................................................................................................................
Air Conditioning..............................................................................................................................
2.1 Difference between AC and Refrigerator..............................................................................
2.2

Two types of AC is listed here..........................................................................................

2.2.1 Window AC....................................................................................................................

Chapter 3........................................................................................................................................
Pumps............................................................................................................................................
3.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................
3.2 Centrifugal Pumps...............................................................................................................
3.2.1 Impeller.........................................................................................................................
3.2.2

Casing......................................................................................................................

3.2.3 Suction pipe..................................................................................................................

3.2.4 Delivery pipe................................................................................................................
3.3. Reciprocating pumps..........................................................................................................
3.3

Comparison of centrifugal pump and reciprocating pump.............................................

Chapter 4........................................................................................................................................
Screw jack......................................................................................................................................
4.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................
4.2 Principle of a screw jack......................................................................................................
4.3 Types of screw jacks............................................................................................................
4.3.1 Mechanical jacks..........................................................................................................
4.3.2 Hydraulic jacks.............................................................................................................

4.3.4 Simple screw jack.........................................................................................................

4.3.3 Merits and Demerits of a screw jack................................................................................
Chapter 5........................................................................................................................................
Internal combustion engines..........................................................................................................
5.1 Heat engine..........................................................................................................................
5.2 Combustion engine..............................................................................................................
5.2.1 External combustion engine.........................................................................................
5.2.2 Internal combustion engine...........................................................................................
5.3 Components of an Internal Combustion Engine..................................................................
a. Cylinder block.................................................................................................................
b. Cylinder head..................................................................................................................
c. Piston...............................................................................................................................
d. Connecting rod................................................................................................................
e. Crank shaft......................................................................................................................
f.

Cam shaft........................................................................................................................

g. Flywheel..........................................................................................................................
h. Valves..............................................................................................................................
i.

Carburetor.......................................................................................................................

j.

Spark plug.......................................................................................................................

k. Fuel injector....................................................................................................................
l.

Fuel pump.......................................................................................................................

5.4 Different terms used in ICE.................................................................................................

5.5 Classification of Internal Combustion Engines...................................................................
5.6 Working principles of engines.............................................................................................
5.6.1 Otto four stroke cycle engine........................................................................................
5.6.2 Diesel four stroke cycle engine.....................................................................................
5.6.3 Two stroke petrol engine...............................................................................................
5.6.4 Two stroke diesel engine...............................................................................................
5.7 Comparison of 2S and 4S....................................................................................................

List of Figures
Fig 1.1

Compressor- Hermetically sealed....................................................................................

Fig 1.2 Schematic diagram of refrigeration circuit......................................................................

Fig 1.3 Condenser coils (Heat exchanger)...................................................................................
Fig 1.5 Drier.................................................................................................................................
Fig 2.1 Window AC...................................................................................................................
Fig 2.2 Top, Front and Side view of Window AC.....................................................................
Fig 2.3 Split AC with Outdoor and Indoor unit.........................................................................
Fig 3.1
Types of Pumps...........................................................................................................
Fig. 4.1 Illustration of Pascal law..............................................................................................
Fig. 4.2 Schematic of a simple screw jack.................................................................................
Fig. 5.1 Block diagram of internal combustion engine..............................................................
Fig. 5.2 Cylinder block with cylinder head and gasket..............................................................
Fig. 5.3 Piston assembly.............................................................................................................
Fig. 5.4 Working of four stroke petrol engine............................................................................
Fig. 5.5 Working of four stroke diesel engine............................................................................

Chapter 1
Refrigerator
Refrigerator has four components

1.1 Compressor
a. Called as heart of the refrigerator.
b. Its function is to pressurize the refrigerant gas and make it flow through the refrigeration
circuit.
c. It is the main power consuming device in the refrigerator. It sucks the heated refrigerant gas
from the evaporator and pressurizes it and then sends it to condenser.
d. The compressor is called hermetically sealed compressor as it is sealed completely so that
refrigerant gas cannot leak out.
e. It is reciprocating in type.

1.2 Condenser
Condenser is a type of heat exchanger.
a.Heat exchanger is a device in which two fluids exchange heat.

b.

In condenser the refrigerant gas flows inside the tube is hot and the air which flows over

the tube is colder. In the exchange of heat refrigerant becomes cooler and air becomes hotter.
c.The refrigerant enters the condenser as a gas after being compressed by the compressor and
gets condensed inside the condenser i.e. its state changes to liquid. So at the exit of the
condenser the refrigerant is in liquid state.
d.
Condensation of refrigerant takes place inside the condenser tubes as the pressure inside
the condenser is high, hence the condensing temperature, that is , opposite of boiling
temperature is more than the room temperature . Hence the refrigerant gas condenses and the
air gets heated up.
e.Condenser is at the back of the refrigerator.

1.3 Capillary tube

Capillary tube is an expansion device
a.It is a copper tube of very small diameter.
b.
It is located after the condenser i.e. the exit of the condenser is the inlet of the capillary
tube.
c.Capillary tube is of very small diameter hence it acts as a restriction to the condensed liquid
from the condenser.
d.
The high pressure liquid refrigerant from the condenser expands in the capillary tube just
like the high pressure liquid expands from the nozzle of the deodorant bottle.

1.4 Evaporator
Evaporator is also a heat exchanger
a.It is made of aluminum.
b.
It is located after capillary tube i.e. the refrigerant from the outlet of capillary tube enters
the inlet of evaporator.
c.Evaporator is located at the top of the refrigerator in the deep freezer.
d.
The expanded liquid + vapor from the capillary tube enters the evaporator.
e.Its pressure is very less so the boiling point of the refrigerant is also very less inside the
evaporator.
f. The boiling point of refrigerant is lesser than the room temperature and is
-25C. Which is very less than room temperature.
g.
Hence the air from the refrigerator comes in contact with the evaporator metal surface
and gets cooled immediately. The refrigerant gets heated up or boils in the evaporator and the
air gets cooled.

h.

The refrigerant in the evaporator boils and becomes gas inside the evaporator. This
refrigerant is sucked by the compressor. i.e the exit of the evaporator is connected to the entry
or suction of the compressor.

Refrigerant Used in the refrigerator is ISOBUTANE. C3H8 also called as R600a.

Boiling temperature increases as the pressure increases.
For Water
Boiling temperature at 0.5 bar = 83 C
Boling temperature at 1 bar( normal room pressure) = 100C
Boiling temperature at 2 bar = 121 C

Condensation is the opposite of boiling i.e gas gets cooled and becomes liquid. So condensation
temperature is same as boiling temperature. Only reverse of boiling happens
Condensation temperature at 0.5 bar = 83 C
Condensation temperature at 1 bar( normal room pressure) = 100C
Condensation temperature at 2 bar = 121 C

1.5 Drier
Water is not used as refrigerant as it freezes at 0C and the temperature needed to cool the air in
refrigerator is less than -10C. When it freezes it will block the tubes Hence water cannot be used
as refrigerant but some moisture may enter into refrigerant pipes during filling of the refrigerant
gas in the pipes. So drier is kept to absorb the moisture and to prevent it from freezing and

Fig 1.1 Compressor- Hermetically sealed.

Heat
exchanger

Heat
exchanger

Fig 1.2 Schematic diagram of refrigeration circuit

Fig 1.3 Condenser coils (Heat exchanger)

Fig 1.4 Capillary tube(expansion

device)

Fig 1.5 Drier

Fig 1.6 Evaporator.

Chapter 2
Air Conditioning.
Working principle of AC is same as Domestic refrigerator. It also has the same components such
as compressor, condenser, expansion valve and evaporator.

2.1 Difference between AC and Refrigerator

Only difference between Refrigerator and AC is the Quality of air and Velocity of air
Quality of air and Velocity of air is controlled in AC.
1. Humidity of air- Amount of water vapor content in air. Humidity of air is more during
summer season and humidity of air is less in winter season and that is why hands and lips
dry during winter season as all moisture from the body is absorbed in air.
2. Freshness The air should be fresh, that is, fresh air from outside the room has to be
taken. For example in Hospital wards if the same air within the room is circulated the air
will have lot of germs and bad smell. Hence every time fresh has air is taken by AC and
cooled.
3. Wind velocity - The wind velocity should be such that air reaches all parts of the room
.But at the same time if wind velocity is too high it creates noise in the ducts which is not
pleasant.

2.2Two types of AC is listed here.

2.2.1 Window AC
2.2.2 Split AC
2.2.1 Window AC has to be placed on the window. In Window AC all the components of a
cooling system that is Compressor, Condenser, Expansion valve or Throttling device, Evaporator
all are in one unit.

Fig 2.1 Window AC

Fig 2.2 Top, Front and Side view of Window AC

The condenser and evaporator are fitted at two ends and the hermetically sealed compressor is in
the middle. There is an insulated cabinet around the cooling coil with two compartments. A
blower is fitted in this cabinet behind evaporator coil which pumps air into upper compartment.
The blower pulls room air through cooling coil and through the filter fitted on the face of the
coil. This air is then discharged back to the room through the upper compartment. In some model
the discharge is done from the side of the coil.
The condenser cooling is done by a fan which pulls air from sides and throws over the condenser
coil. The fan and the blower are both run by the same motor. The motor has two speeds,
controlled by a knob on the control panel.
The control panel has 3 knobs. One controls speed of blower motor to give high cool or low cool.
The second know controls the temperature setting. The third know operates the flap in the
insulated cabinet to allow ventilation air supply.

10

2.2.2 Split AC
As the name suggest in this type of AC there are two units in which one unit which comprises
of evaporator ,expansion valve and blower, is kept separated from another unit which
consists of condenser and compressor.
The two units are connected by suction line and liquid line.
The noise generation in a window AC is mainly due to the compressor unit so the split air
conditioner ensures low noise level in the room. It prevents blockage of the window , as fan
coil unit can be installed on the wall of the room
It is suitable for a room which has no outside wall, which is necessary for window air
condtioner.
Following diagram shows the split AC

Fig 2.3 Split AC with Outdoor and Indoor unit.

11

Chapter 3
Pumps
3.1 Introduction
Pump is a mechanical device that moves fluid from one place to the other. The basic
difference between a turbine and a pump being turbine converts pressure energy to mechanical
energy while a pump converts mechanical energy to pressure energy. For example, take a PVC
pipe and insert few table spoons on its periphery. Pour water on it from a height. It will now
rotate. Thus, pressure energy is converted to mechanical energy and this is how a turbine works.
Now, take that arrangement and immerse it into a bucket full of water. Start rotating the pipe and
then we can experience water in the bucket being thrown away to a height. This is what a pump
does, converting mechanical energy to potential energy.
Based on the way they lift water, pumps are classified as

Rotary
Positive
displacement
Reciprocating

Pumps
Roto dynamic

Centrifugal

Fig 3.1 Types of Pumps

3.2 Centrifugal Pumps

Centrifugal pumps are the most preferred pumping devices in the world. As the name
suggests, centrifugal force is used to lift the liquid to a height. The various components of
a centrifugal pump are
3.2.1 Impeller
It is a rotor on whose periphery a series of curved vanes are fitted. It is in general keyed to a shaft
that is rotated by a motor or a diesel engine. The impeller is always immersed in water. When it
is rotated, the water is thrown away radially from the center. The mechanical energy of the rotor

12

is in fact given to the water as kinetic energy and pressure energy. So, as the liquid moves away
from the center, low pressure is created thus allowing water to enter into the pump from the
sump and the center is named as eye of the impeller. Therefore, it is actually the low pressure
created at the eye that is sucking in the water. There are three types of impellers which are
a. Closed impeller: The vanes are shrouded on both the sides viz., it has plates on both the
sides of the vanes. If the liquid is not pure, then this is the least preferred. This is the most
efficient type.
b. Semi open impeller: The vanes are shrouded on one side.
c. Open impeller: The vanes are not shrouded at all. They are free. If the liquid is impure,
then this is the best type that avoids any clogging of the impeller but it is the least
3.2.2

efficient type of impeller.

Casing
The water that leaves the impeller has to be obviously collected and that purpose is
served by casing. There are three types of casings which are volute, vortex and
diffuser casing according to which centrifugal pumps are also classified as volute,
vortex and diffuser pumps.
a. Volute type centrifugal pump: In this pump the impeller is surrounded by spiral
chamber whose area increases gradually as the water moves towards the discharge pipe.
This design helps in reducing the velocity of the water leaving the impeller thus
increasing the static pressure energy.
b. Vortex type centrifugal pump: In this pump, a vortex/whirlpool is introduced by
placing a circular ring between the volute casing and the impeller. This results in
gradual conversion of velocity to pressure energy thus improving the volute chamber
performance.
c. Diffuser type centrifugal pump: In this pump, the fixed vanes that guide the water
leaving the impeller act like diffuser that converts velocity into pressure most efficiently
and thus this pump is the most efficient of all while the volute type being least efficient.

3.2.3 Suction pipe

It serves as an inlet pipe for the water, carrying it from the sump to the pump. It is
immersed into the water in sump with a foot valve that acts as a non-return valve and a strainer
that filters all the impurities of the water, preventing them to enter the suction pipe. As
mentioned earlier, low pressure created at the eye of the impeller is responsible for the movement
of the water from sump to the eye of the impeller. But, if the pressure at the eye of the impeller is

13

less than the vapor pressure of water, then as the water enters the pump, bubbles filled with
vacuum form. These bubbles as they travel to certain regions, explode leading to pitting of the
walls of casing, impeller and other components. This is known as cavitation. If the suction pipe is
lengthier, then obviously the pressure at the suction side viz., at the eye of the impeller should be
even more less to lift the water. This may lead to cavitation and thus length of the suction pipe is
limited.
3.2.4 Delivery pipe
It serves as an outlet for the water. There is a pressure gauge before the delivery valve to
determine the pressure of the water at the delivery.
Centrifugal pumps are also classified as single stage and multi stage pumps based on the
number of impellers. If there exists only one impeller on the shaft it is called as single stage
while many impellers on a single shaft in a single casing is known as multi stage pump.

3.3. Reciprocating pumps

Reciprocating pumps are positive displacement pumps. Positive displacements pumps are
called so as they actually displace a fluid/volume. It works similar to the example of filling a
balloon. One has to suck in air, trap it and force the trapped air into the balloon to fill it.
It has a crank that rotates, making a piston reciprocate inside a cylinder. During the suction
stroke, the air in cylinder expands creating a low pressure. Thus, water starts flowing from
the sump through the suction valve. In the next stroke, the trapped volume of water is
compressed with both the valves, suction and discharge, being closed. When compressed the
delivery valve opens and discharge of water takes place. Then the cycle is repeated.
Reciprocating pump can push out the air by itself as it has suction and delivery valves to
displace the fluid. But, in a Centrifugal pump the impeller cannot impart enough energy to
push the air out. Say, CFl is the centrifugal force required to push liquid out and CFa be that of
air. Then, CF=m*r*w2=*Vol*r*w2. For the same speed (angular velocity) of the impeller
and at the same radius, CFa <<< CFl (the Centrifugal force required is much less in case of air
than liquid as mass inturn the density of air is lesser). Thus, sufficient amount of force is not

14

imparted on the air to leave and create vacuum which makes priming necessary for a
centrifugal pump and unnecessary for a reciprocating pump.
As in the balloon example, if it is filled irrespective of the pressure build, then it would blast
at some moment. Similarly, if the delivery valve of a reciprocating pump is closed, then the
delivery that happens irrespective of the pressure built leads to increase in pressure
enormously which may also damage the pump. Hence, a relief valve is provided in case of a
reciprocating pump. In case of a centrifugal pump, water churns inside the casing if delivery
valve is closed and hence there is no any danger of damage/blasting of the pipe.

3.3 Comparison of centrifugal pump and reciprocating pump

S.No
1.

Centrifugal pump (CFP)

It is a roto dynamic pump

Reciprocating pump (RP)

It is a positive displacement
pump

2.

Discharge is smooth

Discharge is fluctuating

3.

Discharge is not constant

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Low pressure head

Large discharge
Occupies less space
Less heavier
Lesser noise

Discharge is constant/same at
same speed
High pressure head
Low discharge
Occupies more space
Heavier
More noise

9.
10.

Low cost
Lesser vibrations

Costlier
More vibrations

11.
12.
13.

Insensitive to impurities
Less maintenance cost
Liquid is not affected by
lubrication
Need to be primed

Sensitive to impurities
More maintenance cost
Liquid gets impure by lubricants

14.

No need of priming the pump

15

Reason (if needed)

In a CFP, volume of fluid is
not displaced but in a RP the
fluid is actually displaced with
the piston and with positive
pressure
Unavoidable time lapse to
pump it in a RP

More moving parts in case of

RP
More moving parts in case of
RP

RP can push out the air by

itself as it has suction and
delivery valves to displace the
fluid. But, in a CFP the

15.

No need of a pressure relief

valve at the delivery

Pressure relief valve at the

delivery pipe is needed.

16

impeller cannot impart enough

energy to push the air out.
If the delivery valve of a RP is
closed, then the delivery that
happens irrespective of the
pressure built leads to increase
in pressure enormously which
may also damage the pump.

Chapter 4
Screw jack
4.1 Introduction
One of the objectives of engineering being improving the performance of already existing
engineering products, power screw is in no way an exception to it. Many efforts were made to
design them in such a way that the effort required to achieve the desired output can be effectively
reduced.
The purpose of raising automobiles, say car, from ground surface, that too against
gravitational force is met by a screw jack. Apart from being a promising device to lift cars from a
surface, it is also now used in lifting certain structures. Now, screw jack is undoubtedly
considered as a standard equipment of a car.

4.2 Principle of a screw jack

It basically works on the principle of a screw and a nut. Rotary motion of one of them,
with the other being fixed, leads to linear motion and this is the main principle of a screw jack.

4.3 Types of screw jacks

Depending on how they are constructed and used, screw jacks are classified as follows
4.3.1 Mechanical jacks
As the name suggests, mechanical jacks are actuated mechanically. Human efforts are
indeed used to lift a car that has to be serviced. Car jack/garage jack fall into this category.
There are two types of mechanical jacks and they are
a. Scissor jack: It has four main arms with two base ends. The four arms are connected at
corners to swivel. Across the joints runs a screw thread, which when turned using a
crank, results in movement of the four arms. Crank when rotated in a direction, makes
the arms closer leading to upward movement of the bearing joint, thus lifting the car.
When the crank is rotated in opposite direction, the arms move away from each other,
lowering the load. Thus, this simple mechanism can be used to lift heavy loads for short

17

distances. Note that the screw lock helps in holding the raised load though the applied
force is removed.
b. Bottle jack: It consists of a screw, nut, bearing plate and a body. Generally, nut is fixed
to the body and screw is rotated by the means of a handle that is inserted into the head
of the screw. It can lift heavier loads than a scissor jack.
4.3.2 Hydraulic jacks
They are actuated by a fluid, generally oil, which is incompressible. The fluid is forced
into a cylinder by a pump. Basically, it works on Pascals law which states that the Pressure in a
confined a fluid is transmitted undiminished in every direction and acts with equal force on equal
areas and at right angles to a containers walls. According to this law, in a closed fluid the
pressure applied at any part is equally transmitted in all directions in same amount.
If a U-tube is filled with water and pistons are placed at each end, pressure exerted on the
left piston will be transmitted throughout the liquid and then against the bottom of the right
piston. Suppose the area of the piston on left is 1cm2 on which 1N load is placed. Then the
pressure exerted by on fluid will be 1N/cm2. This pressure travels all along the fluid and will be
exerted on the right piston in same amount. Suppose the area of the right piston is 50cm2.

Fig. 4.1 Illustration of Pascal law

As stated by Pascal, same amount of pressure will be exerted on the right piston
viz., 1N/cm2 and this pressure is exerted against every square centimeter of the larger
piston. Since there is 50 times the area, 50 times as much force is exerted on the larger

18

piston. Thus, the larger piston will support a 50N load - fifty times the load on the smaller
piston.
As mentioned earlier, it uses oil that is forced into the cylinder by a piston. It
generally has a cylinder and piston arrangement that lifts the load and a smaller cylinder
and piston arrangement which forces the oil into the larger cylinder. Upward movement
of the piston sucks in the oil form the reservoir and downward movement of the piston
leads to discharge of the forced oil into the larger cylinder through a discharge valve. The
suction valve is shut from inside the smaller cylinder while the discharge valve is shut
outside it so that during suction stroke only suction valve gets actuated and during
discharge only discharge valve gets actuated.
Then the forced oil in the larger cylinder actually lifts up the larger piston on which a
bearing plate (which is loaded) is mounted.
4.3.4 Simple screw jack
Following are the components of a simple screw jack
I) Frame
Shape -> conical -> to ensure safety and complete resting on the floor.
Material -> grey cast iron.
Force transmission -> cup to screw to nut to frame.
Manufacturing process -> casting.
II) Screw
Profile of thread -> square cut -> uniform motion.
Material -> steel.
Manufacturing process -> lathe cut.
III) Nut
Material -> phosphor bronze.
IV) Handle
Material -> plain carbon steel.

19

Fig. 4.2 Schematic of a simple screw jack

V) Set screw
Used to resist motion of nut.
Material -> commercial steel.
VI) Washer
Material -> steel.
Avoids screw from moving out of the nut.
VII) Cup
Material -> grey cast iron.
Manufacturing process -> casting.

4.3.3 Merits and Demerits of a screw jack

a. Merits:
It can lift heavy loads against gravity.
The effort is actually amplified.
The raised load can be left in its position, even after the removal of applied force.
b. Demerits
Chances of dropping the load may lead to serious accidents.

20

Chapter 5
Internal combustion engines
5.1 Heat engine
It is a device that converts the heat into mechanical work.

21

5.2 Combustion engine

It is a heat engine which converts chemical energy into heat and then converts the heat to
mechanical work.
Combustion engines are classified into two categories
5.2.1 External combustion engine: where the combustion of fuel takes place outside the
engine. Example: Steam engine.
5.2.2 Internal combustion engine: where the combustion of fuel takes place inside the
engine. Example: Petrol engine, Diesel engine etc.

Fig. 5.1 Block diagram of internal combustion engine

5.3 Components of an Internal Combustion Engine

a. Cylinder block: Cylinder of an engine is made into a cylinder block. It is open at both
the ends. It is typically made of cast iron. In case of water cooling it is provided with

22

water jackets. In case of air cooling it has fins. Bottom portion of the cylinder has the
crankcase while a cylinder head is fitted over it.

Fig. 5.2 Cylinder block with cylinder head and gasket

b. Cylinder head: It is mounted over the cylinder block. Generally gaskets are provided
between cylinder block and head. It has all the provisions for inlet and exhaust valves.
Fig. 1.17 represents cylinder block with cylinder head and gasket.
c. Piston: It is a movable part of which reciprocates under the action of hot gases. Thus,
heat energy is converted to mechanical work. Piston rings are provided around the piston
to prevent leakage of hot and high pressure gases. Piston is generally made of aluminum
alloys. Each piston is connected to the crank shaft through a connecting rod. The
connecting rod is fixed to the piston through a gudgeon pin. Oil rings wipe the lubricating
oil from the cylinder surface and then return to the crankcase through the oil holes on the
piston. In general, two compression rings and one oil ring are used. Fig. 1.18 illustrates
the piston assembly.

23

Fig. 5.3 Piston assembly

d. Connecting rod: It connects piston and crank. Small end of the connecting rod is fitted
with piston using gudgeon pin. The big end of connecting rod is connected to crank by
crank pin. Reciprocating motion of piston is converted to rotary motion of crank by
connecting rod. It is made of forged steel.
e. Crank shaft: It is the main rotating part of the engine. Mechanical work is available at
the crank shaft. One end of the crank is connected to crank shaft. Flywheel is mounted on
an end. It is made of forged steel. The distance between the crankshaft and the center of
the journals/crank pin (which is the bearing shaft on it to which connecting rod is fitted)
is termed as offset. Twice the offset is the distance travelled by the piston in one stroke.
f. Cam shaft: It is driven by crankshaft through gear. It rotates at half of the crank shaft
speed. It operates valve gear mechanism and each valve is operated by one cam
individually. It is made of forged steel.
g. Flywheel: It minimizes fluctuations of cyclic variation in speed by storing the energy
during power stroke and using it during other strokes. It is mounted on one end of
crankshaft.
h. Valves: Operated by means of camshaft, cam, cam follower, push rod, rocker arm and
spring mechanism. Intake valve is used to introduce fuel-air mixture in case of SI or air in

24

case of CI engine into the cylinder. Exhaust valve is the provision for exhaust gases to
leave the cylinder.
i. Carburetor: It is provided in SI engine to mix petrol and air properly.
j. Spark plug: It is provided in petrol engine, fitted to cylinder head. It ignites the fuel-air
mixture.
k. Fuel injector: It is provided in diesel engine, fitted in cylinder head. It injects diesel into
the cylinder under high pressure.
l. Fuel pump: It pumps the diesel from storage tank to the injectors.

5.4 Different terms used in ICE

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

Top dead center (TDC) is the top most position of the piston in vertical engine.
Bottom dead center (BDC) is the bottom most position of the piston in vertical engine.
Inner dead center (IDC) is the inner most position of the piston in horizontal engine.
Outer dead center (ODC) is the outer most position of the piston in horizontal engine.
Bore (D) is the diameter of the cylinder.
Piston area (A) is the area of the piston on which products of combustion act.
2
A= 4 D

g. Stroke length (L) is the distance travelled by piston from one dead center to other dead
center. It is twice the crank radius.

L = 2 * crank radius (r)

h. Swept volume (Vs) is the volume swept by the piston in one stroke.
2
Vs = 4 D L
i. Clearance volume (Vc) is the volume entrapped between piston and cylinder head when
piston is at TDC or IDC.
j. Compression ratio is the ratio of total volume to clearance volume, denoted by r. Petrol
engine has r ranging from 6 to 10 while diesel engine from 16 to 20.
Vs+ Vc
r= Vc

5.5 Classification of Internal Combustion Engines

I)
II)

Based on operating cycle:

Otto cycle/spark ignition engine - heat addition at constant volume.
Diesel cycle/compression ignition engine - heat addition at constant pressure.
Based on type of ignition:

25

III)
IV)
V)
VI)

Spark ignition engine a high voltage spark is used to ignite the fuel-air mixture.
Compression ignition engine fuel is self-ignited.
Based on method of cooling:
Air cooled and water cooled engines.
Based on number of strokes:
2 strokes and 4 strokes engine.
Based on arrangement of cylinders:
Horizontal, vertical, V-type, inline engines.
Based on the purpose:
Automobile, locomotive, heavy vehicles, two wheeler etc.

5.6 Working principles of engines

5.6.1 Otto four stroke cycle engine
Petrol engines work on Otto cycle. Petrol fuel is mixed with air in carburetor and this
mixture is fed to the cylinder as charge. Spark plug ignites the mixture by producing a
spark. The cycle is completed in the following four strokes of the piston
a. Suction stroke: As shown in Fig. 5.4, inlet valve remains open and exhaust valve remains
closed. During this stroke Piston moves from TDC to BDC. Charge viz., fuel-air mixture from
the carburetor is sucked into the cylinder at nearly atmospheric pressure as piston moves down.
Crank shaft makes half the revolution during this stroke. Inlet valve is closed when piston
reaches BDC.
b. Compression stroke: As shown in Fig. 5.4, both the valves remain closed during this stroke.
The piston moves up from BDC to TDC. The fuel-air mixture is compressed during this
stroke. Its pressure and temperature are increased and volume is decreased. Crank shaft
makes other half revolution during this stroke thus completing one full revolution.
c. Expansion/Power stroke: As the piston reaches the TDC at the end of the compression
stroke, the fuel- air mixture is ignited by the spark provided by the spark plug. This results in
an increase in the pressure and temperature inside, pushing the piston down towards BDC.
Both the inlet and exhaust valves remain closed during this stroke. Crank shaft makes one
more half revolution during this stroke. Thus, work is done during this stroke.
d. Exhaust stroke: At the end of the expansion/power stroke, the exhaust valve is opened with the
inlet remaining closed. The piston moves up from BDC to TDC, pushing away all the burnt
gases from the cylinder. The exhaust valve is closed once the piston reaches the TDC and the
inlet valve is opened. Thus one cycle is completed in two revolutions of the crank.

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Fig. 5.4 Working of four stroke petrol engine

5.6.2 Diesel four stroke cycle engine
Diesel engine works on diesel cycle. Fuel is ignited in presence of high temperature air,
so spark plug is not required. Instead of spark plug, injector is provided to inject the fuel
with high pressure. Fuel pump is provided to increase the pressure of fuel. The cycle is
completed in four strokes of the piston and two revolutions of crank. The four stroke are
a. Suction stroke: As shown in Fig. 5.5, inlet valve remains open and exhaust valve
remains closed during this stroke. Piston moves from TDC to BDC. Due to downward
motion of piston, pressure inside the cylinder decreases slightly below atmospheric, so air
is sucked into the cylinder from the atmosphere through inlet valve. Thus, air alone is
charged in CI engine unlike fuel-air mixture in SI engine. Inlet valve is closed when
piston reaches BDC.
b. Compression stroke: As shown in Fig. 5.5, both the inlet and exhaust valves remain
closed during this stroke. Piston moves from BDC to TDC. The air sucked in is
compressed during this stroke. Its pressure and temperature are increased and volume is
decreased. Crank shaft makes other half revolution during this stroke thus completing one
full revolution.
c. Expansion/Power stroke: As the piston reaches the TDC at the end of the compression
stroke, fuel is injected at high pressure into the hot air. The fuel gets vaporized (like how
sugar crystal melt in hot tea) and then combustion takes place immediately. This results

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in an increase in the pressure and temperature inside, pushing the piston down towards
BDC. Both the inlet and exhaust valves remain closed during this stroke. Crank shaft
makes one more half revolution during this stroke. Thus, work is done during this stroke.
d. Exhaust stroke: At the end of the expansion/power stroke, the exhaust valve is opened
with the inlet remaining closed. The piston moves up from BDC to TDC, pushing away
all the burnt gases from the cylinder. The exhaust valve is closed once the piston reaches
the TDC and the inlet valve is opened.
Thus the cycle is completed and will get repeated.

Fig. 5.5 Working of four stroke diesel engine

5.6.3 Two stroke petrol engine
In a two stroke engine, the cycle is completed in two strokes of the piston or in one
revolution of the crank shaft. Both petrol and diesel engines work on two stroke cycle. In
two stroke engine, ports are used instead of valves. Crank case at the bottom of the
cylinder includes crank and crank shaft. Inlet port opens into crank and exhaust port
opens into atmosphere. Transfer port connects both the crankcase and the cylinder. The
exhaust gases are expelled out from the cylinder by fresh charge entering the cylinder and
this is known as scavenging.

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a. First stroke: During the upward movement of the piston from BDC to TDC initially the
transfer port gets closed and then the exhaust port. After this, the fuel-air mixture that has
already entered into the chamber gets compressed. And this completes the compression
stroke. Meanwhile, the inlet port gets uncovered and fresh charge viz., fuel-air mixture
enters the crankcase, completing the intake stroke. The crank shaft makes half a
revolution.
b. Second stroke: At the end of the compression stroke, a spark ignites the charge leading
to combustion. The pressure and temperature of the gases increase rapidly, pushing the
piston down. During the downward motion of the piston from TDC to BDC initially the
exhaust port opens up, allowing the burnt gases to escape. Then the transfer port gets
uncovered, fresh charge entry from the crankcase into the cylinder takes place, which not
only occupies the cylinder but also pushes out the burnt gases. The crank shaft makes one
more half revolution.
Thus, the cycle is completed which repeats itself again.
5.6.4 Two stroke diesel engine
1) First stroke: During the upward movement of the piston from BDC to TDC initially the
transfer port gets closed and then the exhaust port. After this, the charge viz., air that has
already entered into the chamber gets compressed. And this completes the compression
stroke. Meanwhile, the inlet port gets uncovered and fresh charge viz., air at nearly
atmospheric pressure, for next cycle, enters the crankcase, completing the intake stroke.
The crank shaft makes half a revolution.
2) Second stroke: At the end of the compression stroke, fuel at high pressure is injected into
the hot compressed air of the chamber. The fuel vaporizes leading to combustion. The
pressure and temperature of the gases increase rapidly, pushing the piston down. During
the downward motion of the piston from TDC to BDC initially the exhaust port opens up,
allowing the burnt gases to escape. Then the transfer port gets uncovered, fresh charge
entry from the crankcase into the cylinder takes place, which not only occupies the
cylinder but also pushes out the burnt gases. The crank shaft makes one more half
revolution.
The same cycle is repeated again.

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5.7 Comparison of 2S and 4S

1.

Two stroke cycle engine

Cycle is completed in 2 strokes and one

Four stroke cycle engine

Cycle is completed in 4 strokes and two

2.

crank revolution.
One power stroke for one revolution of

2.

crank revolutions.
One power stroke for two revolutions of

3.

crank.
Ports are provided.

3.

crank.
Valves and valve mechanism.

4.

Fuel wastage due to scavenging.

4.

No fuel wastage.

5.

Thermal efficiency is low due to fuel

5.

Thermal efficiency is higher.

6.

requirement.
Mechanical efficiency is higher due to

6.

Mechanical efficiency is lower.

construction.
7.For same power, occupies less space and

7.

Occupies more space and heavier.

8.

Requires

light weight
8.Less variation in torque, requiring
lighter and smaller flywheel.
9.One power stroke for one revolution of

heavier

and

bigger

flywheel.
9.

Lesser lubrication is required.

10.

Used in bikes, cars, heavy vehicles

the crank and hence more is the

lubrication required.
10.
Used in scooters, lawn movers etc.

etc.

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