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Received 21 July 2004; received in revised form 31 August 2004; accepted 18 November 2004
Abstract
The reliability of mechanical systems depends in part on the fatigue strength of the material, whose properties need to be determined
by experiments. In a standard fatigue test a Wohler curve is established, i.e. the relation between the life in the number of cycles and the
load amplitude. Based on a damage accumulation rule, the life can be predicted for service loads. However, most service loads are far
from constant amplitude loads, often resulting in large systematic errors in life predictions. The method in this paper is based on an
estimation of the Wohler curve directly from variable amplitude tests. Consequently, both the life prediction and estimation are
performed at similar load situations. In the Wohler curve the constant amplitude is replaced by an equivalent amplitude given by the load
spectrum. An important part of this paper is the analysis of the statistical uncertainties in life estimation and prediction. The features and
usefulness of our method are demonstrated by data from Agerskov. Our method can be seen as an extension of the Gassner line and the
relative Miner rule.
q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Life prediction; Load spectrum; Service loads; Wohler curve; Palmgren-Miner hypothesis
1. Introduction
Traditionally fatigue life at variable amplitude is
predicted by using material properties from constant
amplitude laboratory tests together with the PalmgrenMiner [13,9] damage accumulation hypothesis. The tests are
carried out for a number of different load amplitudes,
keeping a fixed load ratio RZSmin/Smax, and a few replicates
are made at each amplitude. The resulting number of cycles
to failure N is plotted versus the load amplitude S, the
so-called Wohler diagram, and the material parameters a
and b are estimated from the Basquin relation [3],
N Z aSKb :
(1)
0142-1123/$ - see front matter q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2004.11.009
X ni
X ni
X ni
1 X
Z
z
Z
nS^
^
Kb
Ni
a^ i i ib
^ Kb
i
i aSi
i aS
(2)
955
(3)
nk Sbk :
Seq Z b
k
Fig. 1. SN-curve estimated from constant amplitude tests, with scatter bands
of two standard deviations. The lives for the Broad, Narrow, and PM mod
spectra tests are plotted versus the equivalent loads that are calculated using
the estimated b.
(4)
i Z 1; .; n
(6)
956
(8)
n
1X
y
n iZ1 i
(9)
gb Z
Kb
N^ Z a^ S^ eq :
(17)
^ b2 :
yi K mi a;
(10)
iZ1
The estimate of s2 is
(19)
n
1 X
^ 2:
^ b
s2 Z
y K mi a;
n K 2 iZ1 i
(11)
with
c^ Z
^
^b ^
k n^k Sk ln Sk
^
P
^b
k n^k Sk
(20)
P
ci Z
iZ1
b
k ni;k Si;k
ln Si;k
b
k ni;k Si;k
c Z
n
1X
c:
n iZ1 i
(13)
The 1Kp confidence intervals for the parameters a, b,
and s are then
p
p
Ia Z a^ K t1Kp=2 n K 2$s= n; a^ C t1Kp=2 n K 2$s= n;
(14)
p
Ib Z b^ K t1Kp=2 n K 2$s= q;
p
b^ C t1Kp=2 n K 2$s= q;
(15)
s
n K2
;
Is Z s
2
c1Kp=2 n K 2
s!
n K2
s
2
cp=2 n K 2
(16)
957
958
Fig. 4. SN-curve estimated from Broad spectrum tests, with prediction and
confidence bands for constant amplitude.
Fig. 6. SN-curve estimated from all variable amplitude tests, with prediction
and confidence bands for constant amplitude.
Fig. 5. SN-curve estimated from Broad spectrum tests, with prediction and
confidence bands for Narrow spectrum.
CA
Broad
Narrow
PM mod
All VA
Parameters
N200
3.07 (2.64,3.51)
2.96 (2.32,3.60)
2.87 (2.60,3.15)
2.56 (2.11,3.01)
2.87 (2.60,3.14)
0.25 (0.15,0.35)
0.40 (0.24,0.57)
0.21 (0.11,0.30)
0.28 (0.15,0.41)
0.34 (0.26,0.42)
Compared parameters
N200/N200,CA
bbCA
s/sCA
0.38 (0.28,0.50)
0.54 (0.44,0.66)
0.46 (0.36,0.58)
0.45 (0.37,0.55)
K0.11 (K0.83,0.60)
K0.20 (K0.67,0.27)
K0.52 (K1.09,0.05)
K0.21 (K0.69,0.28)
1.60 (0.90,2.88)
0.82 (0.46,1.55)
1.11 (0.61,2.10)
1.36 (0.81,2.06)
Nf X b^
Nf
n i Si Z
Npred
a^ i
(22)
a^
^
^b
k n^k Sk
D a^
ZP
:
^
^b
k n^k Sk
(23)
959
(21)
Kb
Ni Z D Ni Z D aSKb
i Z a Si
(25)
960
(26)
X
X
(27)
nj hsa;j ; sm;j b Z b
nj sa;j C Msm;j b
Seq Z b
j
961
Acknowledgements
The financial support from Atlas Copco RockDrills,
Bombardier Transportation, Sandvik Steel, Volvo Cars, and
the Swedish Foundation for Applied Mathematics is gratefully acknowledged. The authors would also like to thank
the Smogen Workshop for an inspiring environment.
Further, the authors are in debt to Professor Sture Holm
for discussions concerning the maximum likelihood
estimation.
7. Conclusions
It is well known that fatigue life predictions, based on a
Wohler curve from tests at constant amplitude, often give
large systematic prediction errors for service loads at
variable amplitude. Berger et al. [4] found that the Miner
sum at failure was in the range of 0.0110. Many
refinements of the fatigue damage calculations have been
suggested, especially mean stress corrections, and also
crack closure models. Another solution is to modify the load
of the experiment, e.g. test at an optimal R-value, test with a
specific service load (Gassner line), or calibrate the
predictions with a few variable amplitude tests (relative
Miner rule). Our proposal lies in the second category, and
the method is to test at different variable amplitude loads
that are representative for the service. These tests are then
the base for the predictions. The main contribution of this
paper is the method for estimating the SN-curve from
different variable amplitude load spectra, where also the
statistical uncertainties of the estimated parameters and in
the predicted lives are treated in detail. The statistical
analysis makes it possible to distinguish a systematic model
error from a possible random error.
In the example of welded specimens of Agerskov [1],
it was found that when using constant amplitude tests for
predicting variable amplitude loads, it gives non-conservative predictions with about a factor of two for the
three different load spectra investigated. When comparing
the test results, no difference could be found in the
Wohler exponent, while the position of the Wohler curve
was found to be different for constant and variable
amplitude loads. When prediction life for a spectrum
load based on test from other types of spectra, no
systematic prediction errors could be detected. This
indicates that the Palmgren-Miner hypothesis in fact
works well. The discrepancy often observed is that the
damage caused by a cycle with a given amplitude is
different for the cases of constant and variable amplitude
loads.
It is our belief that the proposed method will lead to more
accurate predictions, compared to constant amplitude tests,
for a wide range of materials and applications, mainly by
reducing or eliminating the systematic error in the life
predictions for variable amplitude loads.
i Z 1; .; n
(A.1)
(A.2)
(A3)
A reparametrisation
a Z ln a K bln Seq ;
b Zb
(A.4)
(A.5)
which we recognise as a regression model, however nonlinear since ln Seq,i and ln Seq depend on b.
The equivalent load Seq,i is defined in Eq. (3), however it
should be noted that Sbeq;i is the mean of the amplitudes to the
power of b, i.e.
X
Sbeq;i Z
ni;k Sbi;k Z ESbi :
(A.6)
k
n
1X
ln ESbj C ei Z mi a; b C ei :
n jZ1
(A.7)
962
gb Z
n
1X
Z a K ln ESbi C
ln ESbj
n jZ1
n
1X
ln ESbj
n jZ1
b Z b:
(A.8)
(A.9)
(A.10)
0Z
n
X
vm
yi K mi a; b i a; b;
vb
iZ1
s2 Z
n
1X
y K mi a; b2
n iZ1 i
(A.12)
s2ML Z
(A.18)
n
1X
^ 2:
^ b
y K mi a;
n iZ1 i
(A.19)
n
1 X
^ 2:
^ b
y K mi a;
n K 2 iZ1 i
(A.20)
(A.13)
K
v2 l
n
Z
va2 s2
n
v2 l
1 X
Z 2
2
vb
s iZ1
(A.14)
(A.21)
vmi
a;b
vb
2
K
v2 m i
a;by
Km
a;
b
i
i
vb2
(A.22)
(A.15)
v2 l 3
K 2Z
vs
(A.17)
Pn
2
2
iZ1 yi Kmi a; b Kns
s4
(A.23)
v2 l
Z0
vavb
(A.24)
n
v2 l
2 X
Z 3
y Kmi a; b
vavs s iZ1 i
(A.25)
n
v2 l
2 X
vm
Z 3
yi Kmi a; b i a; b
vbvs s iZ1
vb
(A.26)
(A.16)
where
n
ESbj ln Sj
vmi
ESbi ln Si 1 X
a; b Z K
C
:
n jZ1 ESbj
vb
ESbi
^ b2
yi K mi a;
n
X
iZ1
n 0 0
1B
C
Iq Z 2 @ 0 q 0 A
s
0 0 2n
(A.27)
n
X
vmi
vb
iZ1
2
a; b
n
X
ci K c2 ;
1
b
y^ Z a^ K ln ES^ C
n
^
iZ1
n
ESbi ln Si
1X
ci Z
c:
; c Z
b
n iZ1 i
ESi
(A.28)
b
ln N^ Z ln a^ K ln ES^
(A.36)
where
qZ
963
s2
2c2 n K2:
s2
(A.30)
n
X
^
^
ln ESbi Z a^ K hb:
(A.38)
with
cb^ Z
b^
^
n
^
dh ^
ES^ ln S
1X
ESbi ln Si
b Z
Z c^ K c:
K
b^
db
n iZ1 ESbi^
ES^
(A.39)
Inserting the variances of a^ and b^ gives
^ zs
Vy
2
1 c^ K c
C
:
n
q
(A.40)
~ ln N~ is attached with an
A new observation yZ
~ which means that for the
independent random error e,
prediction bands, this error should also be added. The
prediction error is
D Z y~ K y^ Z ma; b C e~ K y^
(A.41)
2
1 c^ K c
C
C1 :
n
q
(A.42)
s11
2 AA
^ 1Kp=2 n K 2$s 1 C c^ K c
IN^ Z @exp@ln NGt
n
q
(A.43)
(A.37)
iZ1
(A.35)
s11
2
^ 1Kp=2 n K 2$s 1 C c^ K c
C 1A A :
IN~ Z @exp@ln NGt
n
q
(A.44)
In order to detect a systematic model error, we are also
interested in examining the mean of several prediction
964
errors
dZ
1
r
r
X
is
Dk ;
(A.45)
kZ1
1
b^
ES^k C
n
n
X
with
^
ln ESbi Z a^ K hk b:
(A.47)
iZ1
r X
r
1 X
CDk ; Dl
2
r kZ1 lZ1
(A.48)
(A.49)
^ C Ve~k ;
2 Vb
^ C c^k K c
zVa
(A.50)
Z s2
2
1 c^k K c
C
C1
n
q
(A.51)
(A.52)
^ hl b
^
^ C Chk b;
Z Va
(A.53)
^ c^l K c
^
b;
b
^ C Cc^k K c
zVa
(A.54)
^
c^l K cV
b
^ C c^k K c
Z Va
(A.55)
Z s2
c^l K c
1 c^k K c
C
n
q
(A.57)
c^k Z
b
ES^k ln S^k
(A.58)
b^
ES^k
(A.59)
Vd Z s
(A.62)
For the special case where all predictions are made for
^ c^k Z c^l , giving
the same spectrum, we have cZ
2
1 c^ K c
1
C
C
(A.63)
Vd Z s2
n
r
q
where we clearly can see, by comparing Eq. (A.42), that the
uncertainty due to the estimation remains unchanged while
the uncertainty due to the inherent errors e~k decreases with
the number of predictions, from s2 to s2/r.
The systematic model error is best studied using the
relative prediction error
!1=r
!
r ~
r
X
Y
N
1
k
N^ rel Z
Z exp
ln N~ k K ln N^ k Z ed
^
r kZ1
kZ1 N k
based on the geometric mean of r relative prediction errors,
N~ k being the observed life and N^ k the prediction. Its 1Kp
confidence interval is
s!
1 c~ 1
C C :
INrel Z exp ln N^ rel Gt1Kp=2 n K 2$s
n q r
(A.65)
(A.56)
r X
r
1 X
c^l K c:
c^k K c
r 2 kZ1 lZ1
^
where we used the Taylor expansion of hk b
^ zhk Eb
^ C dhk
^
b^ K Eb
hk b
^
^
^
db bZE
b
dhk
Z c^k K c with
db^
c~ Z
(A.64)
ksl
^ C e~k ; a^ C hl b
^ C e~l
CDk ; Dl Z Ca^ C hk b
(A.61)
(A.46)
s!
1 c~ 1
C C
Id Z dGt1Kp=2 n K 2$s
n q r
!
r X
r
c^l K c
1
1 X
c^k K c
1
C
C :
n r 2 kZ1 lZ1
q
r
(A.60)
References
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J Construct Steel Res 2000;53:283305.
[2] Agerskov H, Ibs JB. Fatigue life of plate elements with welded
transverse attatchments subjected to stochastic loading. In: Blom AK,
editor. Fatigue under spectrum loading and in corrosive environments.
West Midlands, UK: EMAS Publishers; 1993. p. 4160.
[3] Basquin OH. The exponential law of endurance tests. Am Soc Testing
Mater 1910;10:62530.
[4] Berger C, Eulitz K-G, Hauler P, Kotte K-L, Naundorf H, Schuetz W,
et al. Betriebsfestigkeit in Germanyan overview. Int J Fatigue 2002;
24:60325.
[5] Buch A. Prediction of the comparative fatigue performance for
realistic loading distributions. Prog Aerospace Sci 1997;33:391430.
[6] Gassner E. Betriebsfestigkeit, eine Bemessungsgrundlage fur Konstruktionsteile mit statistisch wechselnden Betriebsbeanspruchungen.
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