Amelliam, Bianson, Corpuz, Cortum, Dequilla

BS Psychology-I

8:00-9:00 am (MWF)

The digestive system, which extends from the mouth to the anus, is responsible for receiving food,
breaking it down into nutrients (a process called digestion), absorbing the nutrients into the bloodstream,
and eliminating the indigestible parts of food from the body.
Feeding is the process by which organisms obtain their food. Taking in of food is ingestion.
1. Feeding in Particulate Matter
a. Suspension-feeding
-animals use ciliated surfaces to produce currents that draw drifting food particles into
their mouths.
Example: fairy shrimps, water fleas do sweeping movements using their legs to create water
currents and trap food

Filter-feeding
-animals being selective and filter their food

Example: a hump-back whale needs a ton of herring fish to feel comfortably full as many as
5,000 individual fish.
b. Deposit-feeding
-animals feed on disintegrated organic material (**detritus)
-remove nutrients from the organic material
Example: annelids (ringed worms/segmented worms)
**Detritus dead particulate organic material and includes bodies or fragments of dead organisms as well
as fecal material.
2. Feeding on Food Masses
-animals adapt to their environment such as they must locate, capture, hold and swallow their prey.
Example: snakes, crocodiles
3. Feeding on Fluids
-mostly characterized by parasites that feeds on blood, etc.
Invertebrate digestive systems include a gastrovascular cavity with one opening or an
alimentary
canal
with
a
true
mouth
and
anus.
1. The simplest invertebrate digestive system in a gastrovascular cavity consists of only one opening that
serves as both the mouth for taking in food and the anus for excretion.
2. The gastrovascular cavity has cells lining it that secrete digestive enzymes to break down the food
particles through a process called intracellular digestion.
3. An alimentary canal is a long tube that begins with a mouth, then goes to the esophagus, then to the
crop, gizzard, intestine, and finally, to an anus; this is used in the process of extracellular digestion.
4. Most invertebrates use extracellular digestion; however, there are a few phyla that can use both
intracellular and extracellular digestion.

**The gastrovascular cavity is the primary organ of digestion and circulation.

**Intracellular
Intracellular digestion is a form of digestion which takes place within the cytoplasm of the
organism. Intracellular digestion takes place in animals without a digestive tract, in which
food items are brought into the cell for digestion.
**Extracellular digestion
Extracellular digestion is a process in which animals feed by secreting enzymes through the
cell membrane onto the food. The enzymes break the food into molecules small enough to be
taken pass through the cell membrane into the cell. These nutrients are transferred into the
blood or other body fluids and distributed to the rest of the body.
**Extracellular
occurring or found outside of a cell
**Alimentary canal
the organs of a human or an animal through which food passes; the digestive tract.

**Intracellular digestion
Intracellular digestion is a form of digestion which takes place within the cytoplasm of the
organism. Intracellular digestion takes place in animals without a digestive tract, in which
food items are brought into the cell for digestion.
Source: Boundless. Invertebrate Digestive Systems. Boundless Biology. Boundless, 21 Jul. 2015.
Retrieved
26
Aug.
2015
from https://www.boundless.com/biology/textbooks/boundless-biologytextbook/animal-nutrition-and-the-digestive-system-34/digestive-systems-195/invertebrate-digestivesystems-747-11980/

Vertebrates may have a single stomach, several stomach chambers, or accessory organs that
help
to
break
down
ingested
food.
Terms:
1. Cellulose
-a complex carbohydrate that forms the main constituent of the cell wall in most plants
2. Peristalsis
-the rhythmic, wave-like contraction and relaxation of muscles which propagates in a wave
down a muscular tube
3. Proventriculus
-the part of the avian stomach, between the crop and the gizzard, that secretes digestive
enzymes
Vertebrate Digestive Systems

Monogastric animals have a single stomach that secretes enzymes to break down food into smaller
particles; additional gastric juices are produced by the liver, salivary glands, and pancreas to assist
with the digestion of food.
The avian digestive system has a mouth (beak), crop (for food storage), and gizzard (for
breakdown), as well as a two-chambered stomach consisting of the proventriculus, which releases
enzymes, and the true stomach, which finishes the breakdown.
Ruminants, such as cows and sheep, are those animals that have four stomachs; they eat plant
matter and have symbiotic bacteria living within their stomachs to help digest cellulose.
Pseudo-ruminants (such as camels and alpacas) are similar to ruminants, but have a threechambered stomach; the symbiotic bacteria that help them to break down cellulose is found in the
cecum, a chamber close to the large intestine.

Monogastric: Single-chambered Stomach

As the word monogastric suggests, this type of digestive system consists of one ("mono") stomach
chamber ("gastric"). Humans and many animals have a monogastric digestive system . The process of
digestion begins with the mouth and the intake of food. The teeth play an important role in masticating
(chewing) or physically breaking down food into smaller particles. The enzymes present in saliva also begin
to chemically break down food. The esophagus is a long tube that connects the mouth to the stomach.
Using peristalsis, the muscles of the esophagus push the food towards the stomach. In order to speed up
the actions of enzymes in the stomach, the stomach has an extremely acidic environment, with a pH
between 1.5 and 2.5. The gastric juices, which include enzymes in the stomach, act on the food particles
and continue the process of digestion. In the small intestine, enzymes produced by the liver, the small
intestine, and the pancreas continue the process of digestion. The nutrients are absorbed into the blood
stream across the epithelial cells lining the walls of the small intestines. The waste material travels to the
large intestine where water is absorbed and the drier waste material is compacted into feces that are
stored until excreted through the rectum.

Mammalian digestive system (non-ruminant)

(a) Humans and herbivores, such as the (b) rabbit, have a monogastric digestive system. However, in the
rabbit, the small intestine and cecum are enlarged to allow more time to digest plant material. The
enlarged organ provides more surface area for absorption of nutrients.

Avian
Birds face special challenges when it comes to obtaining nutrition from food. They do not have teeth, so
their digestive system must be able to process un-masticated food. Birds have evolved a variety of beak
types that reflect the vast variety in their diet, ranging from seeds and insects to fruits and nuts. Because
most birds fly, their metabolic rates are high in order to efficiently process food while keeping their body
weight low. The stomach of birds has two chambers: the proventriculus, where gastric juices are produced
to digest the food before it enters the stomach, and the gizzard, where the food is stored, soaked, and
mechanically ground. The undigested material forms food pellets that are sometimes regurgitated. Most of

the chemical digestion and absorption happens in the intestine, while the waste is excreted through
the cloaca.

The avian esophagus has a pouch, called a crop, which stores food. Food passes from the crop to the first
of two stomachs, called the proventriculus, which contains digestive juices that break down food. From the
proventriculus, the food enters the second stomach, called the gizzard, which grinds food. Some birds
swallow stones or grit, which are stored in the gizzard, to aid the grinding process. Birds do not have
separate openings to excrete urine and feces. Instead, uric acid from the kidneys is secreted into the large
intestine and combined with waste from the digestive process. This waste is excreted through an opening
called the cloaca.

Ruminants
Ruminants are mainly herbivores, such as cows, sheep, and goats, whose entire diet consists of
eating large amounts of roughage or fiber. They have evolved digestive systems that help them
process vast amounts of cellulose. An interesting feature of the ruminants' mouth is that they do
not have upper incisor teeth. They use their lower teeth, tongue, and lips to tear and chew their
food. From the mouth, the food travels through the esophagus and into the stomach.
To help digest the large amount of plant material, the stomach of the ruminants is a multichambered organ . The four compartments of the stomach are called the rumen, reticulum,
omasum, and abomasum. These chambers contain many microbes that break down cellulose
and ferment ingested food. The abomasum, the "true" stomach, is the equivalent of the
monogastric stomach chamber. This is where gastric juices are secreted. The four-compartment

gastric chamber provides larger space and the microbial support necessary to digest plant
material in ruminants. The fermentation process produces large amounts of gas in the stomach
chamber, which must be eliminated. As in other animals, the small intestine plays an important
role in nutrient absorption, while the large intestine aids in the elimination of waste.

Ruminant mammal digestive system

Ruminant animals, such as goats and cows, have four stomachs. The first two stomachs, the
rumen and the reticulum, contain prokaryotes and protists that are able to digest cellulose
fiber. The ruminant regurgitates cud from the reticulum, chews it, and swallows it into a third
stomach, the omasum, which removes water. The cud then passes onto the fourth stomach,
the abomasum, where it is digested by enzymes produced by the ruminant.

Source: Boundless. Vertebrate Digestive Systems. Boundless Biology. Boundless, 21 Jul. 2015. Retrieved
26 Aug. 2015 from https://www.boundless.com/biology/textbooks/boundless-biology-textbook/animalnutrition-and-the-digestive-system-34/digestive-systems-195/vertebrate-digestive-systems-748-11981/

The human digestive system is a complex series of organs and glands that processes food. In
order to use the food we eat, our body has to break the food down into smaller molecules that
it can process; it also has to excrete waste.
The Digestive Process:
The start of the process - the mouth: The digestive process begins in the mouth. Food is partly broken
down by the process of chewing and by the chemical action of salivary enzymes (these enzymes are
produced by the salivary glands and break down starches into smaller molecules).
On the way to the stomach: the esophagus - After being chewed and swallowed, the food enters the
esophagus. The esophagus is a long tube that runs from the mouth to the stomach. It uses rhythmic,
wave-like muscle movements (called peristalsis) to force food from the throat into the stomach. This
muscle movement gives us the ability to eat or drink even when we're upside-down.

In the stomach - The stomach is a large, sack-like organ that churns the food and bathes it in a very
strong acid (gastric acid). Food in the stomach that is partly digested and mixed with stomach acids is
called chyme.
In the small intestine - After being in the stomach, food enters the duodenum, the first part of the small
intestine. It then enters the jejunum and then the ileum (the final part of the small intestine). In the small
intestine, bile (produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder), pancreatic enzymes, and other
digestive enzymes produced by the inner wall of the small intestine help in the breakdown of food.
In the large intestine - After passing through the small intestine, food passes into the large intestine. In
the large intestine, some of the water and electrolytes (chemicals like sodium) are removed from the food.
Many microbes (bacteria like Bacteroides, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Escherichia coli, and Klebsiella) in the
large intestine help in the digestion process. The first part of the large intestine is called the cecum (the
appendix is connected to the cecum). Food then travels upward in the ascending colon. The food travels
across the abdomen in the transverse colon, goes back down the other side of the body in the descending
colon, and then through the sigmoid colon.
The end of the process - Solid waste is then stored in the rectum until it is excreted via the anus.
Digestive System Glossary:
abdomen - the part of the body that contains the digestive organs. In human beings, this is between the
diaphragm and the pelvis
alimentary canal - the passage through which food passes, including the mouth, esophagus, stomach,
intestines, and anus.
anus - the opening at the end of the digestive system from which feces (waste) exits the body.
appendix - a small sac located on the cecum.
ascending colon - the part of the large intestine that run upwards; it is located after the cecum.
bile - a digestive chemical that is produced in the liver, stored in the gall bladder, and secreted into the
small intestine.
cecum - the first part of the large intestine; the appendix is connected to the cecum.
chyme - food in the stomach that is partly digested and mixed with stomach acids. Chyme goes on to the
small intestine for further digestion.
descending colon - the part of the large intestine that run downwards after the transverse colon and
before the sigmoid colon.
digestive system - (also called the gastrointestinal tract or GI tract) the system of the body that
processes food and gets rid of waste.
duodenum - the first part of the small intestine; it is C-shaped and runs from the stomach to the jejunum.
epiglottis - the flap at the back of the tongue that keeps chewed food from going down the windpipe to
the lungs. When you swallow, the epiglottis automatically closes. When you breathe, the epiglottis opens
so that air can go in and out of the windpipe.
esophagus - the long tube between the mouth and the stomach. It uses rhythmic muscle movements
(called peristalsis) to force food from the throat into the stomach.
gall bladder - a small, sac-like organ located by the duodenum. It stores and releases bile (a digestive
chemical which is produced in the liver) into the small intestine.
gastrointestinal tract - (also called the GI tract or digestive system) the system of the body that
processes food and gets rid of waste.
ileum - the last part of the small intestine before the large intestine begins.
intestines - the part of the alimentary canal located between the stomach and the anus.
jejunum - the long, coiled mid-section of the small intestine; it is between the duodenum and the ileum.
liver - a large organ located above and in front of the stomach. It filters toxins from the blood, and makes
bile (which breaks down fats) and some blood proteins.
mouth - the first part of the digestive system, where food enters the body. Chewing and salivary enzymes
in the mouth are the beginning of the digestive process (breaking down the food).
pancreas - an enzyme-producing gland located below the stomach and above the intestines. Enzymes
from the pancreas help in the digestion of carbohydrates, fats and proteins in the small intestine.
peristalsis - rhythmic muscle movements that force food in the esophagus from the throat into the

stomach. Peristalsis is involuntary - you cannot control it. It is also what allows you to eat and drink while
upside-down.
rectum - the lower part of the large intestine, where feces are stored before they are excreted.
salivary glands - glands located in the mouth that produce saliva. Saliva contains enzymes that break
down carbohydrates (starch) into smaller molecules.
sigmoid colon - the part of the large intestine between the descending colon and the rectum.
stomach - a sack-like, muscular organ that is attached to the esophagus. Both chemical and mechanical
digestion takes place in the stomach. When food enters the stomach, it is churned in a bath of acids and
enzymes.
transverse colon - the part of the large intestine that runs horizontally across the abdomen.