Manual Stress Analysis lab

M.Tech (Structure)-1st
semester -1 year

Dr Sanjay Gupta
Ph.D. (Structural Engineering), M.Tech( Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering ), B.Tech(Civil Engineering ),Diploma
,MIE,MNSC,MISTE,MSITTE,MIGS,MISSE,MNBC
Associate Professor, Manav Rachna International University,
Faridabad

Experiment

1. Core test of concrete

2. Modulus of elasticity and poisons ratio of concrete using datataker
and strain gauge
3. Non destructive test of concrete
4. Proof of Maxwells theorem
5. Flexural tensile strength of concrete
6. Reinforced cement composite of steel fibre reinforced concrete
7. Reinforced cement composite of polymer concrete
8. High performance concrete

Experiment number -01

AIM: Core Sampling and testing of concrete
Apparatus :While Rebound Hammer, CAPO/Pullout, Windsor probe and
ultrasonic pulse velocity tests give indirect evidence of concrete quality, a
more direct assessment on strength can be made by core sampling and
testing. Cores are usually cut by means of a rotary cutting tool with diamond
bits. In this manner, a cylindrical specimen is obtained usually with its ends
being uneven, parallel and square and sometimes with embedded pieces of
reinforcement. The cores are visually described and photographed, giving
specific attention to compaction, distribution of aggregates, presence of steel
etc. the core should then be soaked in water, capped with molten sulpher to
make its ends plane, parallel, at right angle and then tested in compression in
a moist condition as per BS 1881: Part 4: 1970 or ASTM C 42-77.
Use : The core samples can also be used for the following:

Strength and density determination

Depth of carbonation of concrete
Chemical analysis
Water/gas permeability
Petrographic analysis
ASHTO Chloride permeability test

Instrument showing core cutting

Fig: Concrete Core

Specimen: The strength of a test specimen depends on its shape, proportions
and size. The influence of height/diameter (H/D) ratio on the recorded strength
of cylinder is an established fact. Strength of core have to be related to the
standard cylinder strengths, i.e. for H/D ratio of 2. Thus core should be
preferably have this ration near to 2. For values of H/D less than 1, between 1
and 2, a correction factor has to be applied. Cores with H/D ratio less than 1
yield unreliable results and BS 1881: Part-4:1970 prescribes a minimum value
as 0.95. The same standard specifies the use of 150mm or 100mm cores.
However cores as small as 50mm are also permitted in the standards. Very
small diameter cores exhibit more variability in results than larger dia cores,
hence their use is generally not recommended. The general rule adopted for
fixing the core size, besides the H/D ratio, is the nominal size of stone
aggregate and the dia should be not less than 3 times the maximum size of
stone aggregate. For diameter of core less than 3 times the size of the stone
aggregate, an increased number of cores have to be tested.
Factor : Following are the factors which affect the compressive
strength of extracted concrete cores:
Size of stone aggregate: If the ratio of diameter of core to maximum
size of stone aggregate is less than 3, a reduction in strength is
reported. For concrete with 20mm size aggregate, 50mm dia core has
been tested to give 10% lower results than with 10mm dia cores.
ii) Presence of transverse reinforcement steel: It is reported that the
presence of transverse steel causes a 5 to 15% reduction in
compressive strength of core. The effect of embedded steel is higher on
i)

iii)

iv)

v)

vi)

vii)

stronger concrete and as its location moves away from ends, i.e.
towards the middle. However presence of steel parallel to the axis of the
core is not desirable.
H/D ratio: This has been already discussed above. However its value
should be minimum 0.95 and maximum 2. Higher ratio would cause a
reduction in strength.
Age of concrete: No age allowance is recommended by the Concrete
Society as some evidence is reported to suggest that in-situ concrete
gains little strength after 28 days. Whereas others suggest that under
average conditions, the increase over 28 days strength is 10% after 3
months, 15% after 6 months. Hence it is not easy to deal the effect of
age on core strength.
Strength of concrete: The effect in reducing the core strength
appears to be higher in stronger concretes and reduction has been
reported as 15% for 40 MPa concrete. However a reduction of 5 50 7% is
considered reasonable.
Drilling operations: The strength of cores is generally less than that of
standard cylinders, partly as a consequence of disturbance due to
vibrations during drilling operations. Whatever best precautions are
taken during drilling, there is always a risk of slight damage.
Site conditions vis-a-vis standard specimens: Because site curing
is invariably inferior to curing prescribed for standard specimens, the insitu core strength is invariably lower than the standard specimens taken
and tested during concreting operations.

Experiment Number -02

Aim: Modulus of elasticity and poisons ratio of concrete using data
taker and strain gauge.
Theory of Strain Gauges: Strain: Consider a bar of "rigid" material L cm
long. Under longitudinal stress the bar will change length L. L can be
negative or positive, depending on whether the bar is in tension or
compression. Strain is
, a dimensionless ratio; a measure of deformation
due to length change dL.
Knowing strain, stress can be calculated (Hooke's Law):
where E is
Young's modulus, a material property, with dimensions of Force/Area, same as
stress (pressure). Length and force are normalized in the stress-strain
expression.
Example: Bone has a E of about 100,000 psi. 10 psi of stress will stretch a 20
inch femur

, not much!

Strain gauges measure small length changes.

Elastic vs plastic deformation. Elastic deformation returns to zero-stress
shape after stress is removed. Plastic deformation: "permanent" change in
shape due to stress.
Other sensors for length change:
Piezoelectric material: vibration sensor. (rate of change of length)
Optical measure of strain, by interference. Prof Clifton helped pioneer this
technology.

Brittle lacquer applied to a surface: then monitor where the lacquer cracks.
Is a tape measure a length sensor?! Consider Laser-based tape measures.
Potentiometers for measuring angle change.
Reading: "Practical Strain Gage Measurements", HP Appl. Note 290-1.
S. H. Derenzo, Interfacing: A Laboratory Approach..., Prentice-Hall (1990) pp
169-170
Poisson's ratio: When longitudinal tension stretches a shape, the transverse
dimension shrinks.

from screensaver.com
Transverse strain:
captures the shrinking (or expanding, in the case of
compression) of the transverse dimension, which we signify by the letter D
(diameter). Poisson's ratio is

note the minus sign! Poisson's ratio is a material property.

Finding Poisson's ratio: If a material maintains constant volume during
stretching, what should be? Say we're dealing with a rectanguloid of material
of length l and side s. take differentials and set dV = 0: no change in volume.

Now what? remember that strain is dl/l :

Therefore a 0.5 Poisson ratio is for completely incompressible material. An

example: rubber! An example of nearly zero Poisson ratio: Cork! Plexiglas, it
turns out, has a Poisson ratio of 0.45. No material has a ratio greater than 0.5.
Most metals are in the range of 0.3.
http://silver.neep.wisc.edu/~lakes/PoissonIntro.html
Work out what the Poisson ratio is for a 1x1x1 cube stretched-without necking
down-to a length of 2...
V=l x s2=1, so when l=2, s drops to 1/sqrt(2) = .707, resulting in a ratio of
about 0.3...
What would happen to volume if transverse strain were zero but longitudinal
strain were positive? The material being stretched would have increased in
volume...
Resistance related to strain: development adapted from Don De Voe, Univ
Maryland, ENME 489F Intro to MEMS
Consider a material with resistivity of rectanguloid shape of length L and
sides S. Then its resistance in Ohms R is

Resistivity has units Ohm-cm, and may be variable, such that the last term
above is not zero.
Consider the common sense of the formula above: if the length increases a
little, then resistance increases a little. If the transverse dimension increases a
little, then resistance decreases a little.

What about the piezoresistivity term,

? It is normally not zero. In fact for
some semiconductors it dominates the expression on the right of the equation.
For metals, with a Poisson ratio around 0.3, nonzero piezoresistivity basically
results in approx:

The ratio of resistance change to strain is

and is 2 in the example above.

When you purchase a particular strain gage the vendor will list the exact Gage
Factor. We use BLH and Vishay strain gauges in the lab. See p. 17 of
Transducer Gage catalog for our 90 deg pattern SGs.
The bonded foil strain gauge is one of the most important transducers in
the realm of engineering. The strain gauge metal is attached firmly to a strong
flexible insulating transparent sheet. That sheet in turn is bonded by epoxy to
the material whose strain should be measured.
A strain gauge is often formed in the serpentine shape shown below. [In the
BLH strain gauges for the EN123 Lab, sometimes the thin foil is nickel
chromium alloy.] Along the vertical axis a change in each segment L by length
DL results in a 14* L change in total length of the strain gauge!

from www.sensorland.com

another graphic:
from www.natmus.dk
Look closely at one of the strain gauges in the lab and see if the serpentine
pattern shown above is evident. You might see two strain gauges together, in a
"rosette" pattern.

As the bar is stretched the transverse dimension decreases.

Practical note: Each individual SG has an unloaded resistance of either 120
or 350, notice with your Ohm-meter how close to the R0 value an unloaded
strain gauge is!
The change in transverse-oriented strain gauge resistance is

Another important reason for using rosette pairs of strain gauges is

compensation for temperature effects. The amplifier is really using the ratio of
resistance changes; to the extent that self heating or other common

temperature effects change both resistances, a ratio of the changes will

remain constant. This technique is particularly valuable on materials, like
fiberglas, with low thermal conductivity.
Calculation for microstrain amplifier

and if the gauge factor is properly used with the strain gauge amplifier, it
basically tells you you can find what strain e is directly
(in microstrain, x 10-6). (See additional sheets.) For R=350 and Vp = 15 volts, I
find a gain of 7000 or so for reading out directly in microstrain...I used the
approx that

where, as shown below, R+DR is the resistance of a strain gauge in the lower
leg of one side of a bridge and the voltage divider output of that leg is
Why is the beta approximation true? We show below, using Taylor series
expansion:

try it: if R = 120 and delR = 1, then (120+1)/(240+1) = .5021, and .0021 is 1/4
of 1/120...
see Thomas, Calculus and Analytic Geometry, page 785 ff
see matlab file sg123.m for calculations based on formula.
2004: Next: a different derivation of R/4R, avoiding Taylor series, thx to Univ
Maryland website referenced above:

which is the term we found to finish the expression for Vout = G*Vex*R/4R for
one strain gauge in a "positive" location in the bridge.
Analyzing more than one active strain gauge in the bridge:
An active strain gauge is on the material and can be deformed by stress. There
may be other strain gauges in the bridge, as precision resistors for
temperature compensation.

If there is one longitudinal strain gauge at position R1 then VOUT =

VEX*G*&DeltaR/4R;
Placement of 2 gauges for compression or bending: Examples:
Now consider compression-tension vs bending. Imagine gauges can be on front
or back of material:
Longitudinal strain gauges on front at R1 & R2: will respond to bending: gain
will be VEX*G*R/2R
Longitudinal strain gauges on front at R1 & R4 will respond to compressiontension: with gain VEX*G*R/2R
Suppose R1 is longitudinal front and R2 is longitudinal back side: Now best
response for bending.
Remember that longitudinal and transverse strain are related by Poisson's
ratio. If there are longitudinal and transverse gauges on the same side (front,
say), then they should be at R1, R4 to sense compression.
4 gauge example: See the crude diagram below: With reference to the
Wheatstone bridge above, the notation is as follows: TL means Top
Longitudinal, BT means Bottom Transverse, etc.

Say the longitudinal strain on top and bottom is .001. On top it will be positive,
on the bottom it will be negative. Say Poisson's ratio for the Rod is 0.25. Say

the excitation voltage is 6v and the gain of the differential amplifier is 100.
What is Vout?
On the left side of the bridge R1 increases and R3 decreases, both contributing
to the left input to the amp increasing. On the right side R2 decreases and R4
increases, both contributing to a decrease of the right side input. All 4 gauges
are working in the same direction.

(2008) A table to list all possible influences of single strain gauge placement on
a multiplying factor of deltaR/4R:
For the table, here is the assignment of Resistors numbers to the bridge:

TABLE OF INFLUENCE OF STRAIN GAUGE ON VOUT,

R1
R2
R3
R4

AS A MULTIPLE OF
deltaR/4*R

Assume Vout is gauche (left) minus right side of

bridge.
TG = transverse
LG = longitudinal gauche
gauche
R1 upper gauche, R2 lower
R3 upper right, R4 lower right
gauche,
Assume eta = Poisson's ratio is 0.25
LG
TG
LG
TG
LG
TG
LG

LR =

LR
TG

tension
down
CW bend

-1

-1

0.25

-0.25

-0.25

0.25

-1

-1

-1

-0.25

0.25

0.25

-0.25

-1

Experiment number -03

Aim : Ultrasonic non-destructive testing for concrete
Facilities for the non-destructive testing of concrete include a PUNDIT (Portable
Ultrasonic Non-destructive Digital Indicating Tester), a Ultro Son! Scope (Marul
Model MIN-1 1 05-03) and a Concrete Test Hammer (PROCEO Type N-34).
While both the PUNDIT and the Ultra Son! Scope can be used to investigate
cracks and voids in concrete, and to estimate dynamic modulus and strength
of concrete, the Ultra Soni Scope has the additional feature of a built-in
oscilloscope to display the received wave form. A concrete test hammer
measures the 'rebound number' which is an approximate guide to the strength
of new concrete which is not carbonated. Other non-destructive testing
facilities include thermo graphic inspection equipment, cover meter, pull-off
tester, paint and coating gauges (adhesion, thickness, gloss, etc.), and
instrument for measuring thermal properties such as thermal conductivity etc.

Introduction : The standard method of determining strength of hardened

concrete consists of testing concrete cubes in compression. The quality of
entire concrete of a structure cannot be fully assessed by testing a few
concrete cubes. The results obtained in testing cubes do not always reflect the
actual strength of concrete in construction. In a whole day, concreting work
cubes are cast in a few batches, the differences (unintentional and intentional)
in the composition are not uncommon, their compaction and their hardening
conditions always differ more or less from those of the structure. In addition,
the number of test cubes is generally so small that they can only be
considered as random tests. Some times, in case of failure of cubes, doubtful
concrete, cracks, deterioration of concrete, etc. it becomes necessary to assess
the quality and strength of concrete of the structure. As far back as early
thirties, the necessity was felt to develop instruments by which in-situ strength
of concrete may be obtained. Various non-destructive methods of testing
concrete have been developed, which include, Firing method, Skramtayevs
method, Polakovs method, Magnitostroy method, Fizdel ball hammer, Einbeck
pendulum hammer, Ball indentation hammer, Rebound hammer, Pull out
techniques, Windsor probe, Ultrasonic pulse velocity methods, Radioactive and
nuclear methods, Magnetic and electrical methods. In all these methods of
tests, due to simplicity, rebound hammer test based on surface hardness
becomes most popular in the world for non-destructive testing of in-situ
concrete.
Rebound Hammer :A handy non-destructive testing instrument should be
cheap, easy to operate and should have reproducibility for, fairly accurate
results. In 1948, a Swiss Engineer, Ernst Schmidt developed a test hammer for
measuring the hardness of concrete by the rebound principle.
Inspite of its popularity, this testing has not been standardized in any country
till 1970 except in Bulgaria. In 1971 the British Standards Institution
Standardized this test in recommendation for Non-Destructive Methods of
Test for Concrete part 4 surface hardness methods (BS 4408 : part 4 : 1971).
ASTM issued a tentative standard in 1975 Tentative Method of Test for
Rebound Number of Hardened Concrete (ASTM C 805 : 75 T), and in 1979
ASTM standard of this test was issued Test for Rebound Number of Hardened
Concrete (ASTM : C805-1979).
Bureau of Indian Standard did not published any standard for this test upto
1991. In 1992 they published IS: 13311 (Part 2) for this test. IS: 456-2000
specified the Non-destructive tests are used to obtain estimation of the
properties of concrete in the structure, the methods adopted include Rebound
Hammer. CPWD specifications 77 vo. 1 specified that in case the concrete
cubes fails, concrete test hammer may be used to arrive at strength of the

concrete Laid. Revised CPWD specifications 2002 page 104 specified that for
the purpose of payment (Rebound Hammer) hammering test results only shall
be the criteria.
According to A.M. Neville, in the book Properties of Concrete (Fourth Edition) on
page 626, the rebound hammer is useful in the assessment of uniformity of
concrete with in a structure. The test can also be used to establish whether the
rebound number has reached a value known to correspond to the desired
strength. This is of the help in deciding when to remove false work or to put
the structure into service.
IS: 13311 (part 2): 1992 specified, the rebound hammer method could be used
for assessing the likely compressive strength of concrete with the help of
suitable co-relations between rebound index and compressive strength.
IRC Special Report 17 on page 5 specified that rebound hammer test when
properly calibrated on site with cubes, can be useful for measuring in structure
magnitude and variability of strength. It is most commonly used due to its
simplicity and low cost.
Object :The rebound hammer method could be used for (IS: 13311 Part 21992):
a) assessing the likely compressive strength of concrete with the help of
suitable co-relations between rebound index and compressive strength.
b)
assessing
the
uniformity
of
concrete.
c) assessing the quality of the concrete in relation to standard requirements,
and
d) assessing the quality of one element of concrete in relation to another.
Note: The rebound hammer method can be used with greater confidence for
differentiating between the questionable and acceptable parts of a structure or
for relative comparison between two different structures.
Description : The hammer consists of a spring controlled mass that slides on
a plunger within a tubular housing. When the plunger is pressed against, the
surface of concrete, it retracts against the force of the spring. When
completely retracted the spring is automatically released. On the spring
controlled mass rebound, it takes the rider with it along the guide scale. By
pushing a button, the rider can be held in position to allow readings to be
taken.
Calibration: Each hammer is furnished with a calibration chart supplied by the
manufacturer. This calibration chart can be used only when material and
testing conditions are similar to those in effect when the calibration of the
instrument was carried out. Each hammer varies considerably in performance
and needs calibration for use on concrete made with aggregates produced

from a specific source. A practical procedure for calibration of the hammer for
use on a job in progress is outlined below:
Prepare a number of cubes covering the strength to be encountered on the
job. Use the same cement and aggregates as are to be used on the job. The
cubes should be preferably as large a mass as possible in order to minimize
the size effect on the test results of a full scale structure. 150 mm cube
specimens are preferred. The cube size must be increased with the increase of
hammer impact energy. For hammer impact energy of 0.225 kgm, 150 mm
cubes size will be quite sufficient, but for hammer of 3 kgm impact energy the
cube size shall not be less than 300 mm.
The cubes shall be cast and cured as laid down in IS: 516:1959.
After the curing period the cubes should be removed from wet storage to the
laboratory atmosphere for about 24 hours before testing. It may be noted that
the strength of wet-tested cubes will be normally 10% lower than that of dry
tested cubes.
After cleaning the faces of the cubes they should be gripped in the
compression testing machine under a load of 7 N/mm2 (15.75 Tonnes for 150
mm cubes), when the impact energy of the hammer is about 2.2 Nm. The load
should be increased for calibration rebound hammer of greater impact energy
and decreased for caliberating rebound hammer of lesser impact energy.
Atleast nine hammer readings should be taken on each of the two vertical
faces accessible in the compression testing machine. The points of impact on
the specimen should not be nearer on edge than 20 mm and should be not less
than 20 mm from each other. The same points must not be impacted more
than once.
Immediately after taking the hammer readings, the cube should be tested to
its ultimate load.
Repeat this procedure for all cubes.
After discarding the extreme values, average the reading of all the individual
cubes and call this the rebound number.
The values of rebound numbers and cube compressive strength should be
plotted by fitting a curve or line by method of least squares.
The accuracy of the hammer reproducibility should be ascertained from time to
time using a standard anvil, particularly before the testing of structure.
Calibration is an important stage in the use of every apparatus. The errors of
the apparatus and the accuracy in determining the strength of concrete by

non-destructive methods depend on proper calibration. Calibration should,

therefore, be carried out with great care and on a larger number of specimens.
It is interesting to note that 700 to 1000 tests are needed to plot calibration
curves for rebound hammer.
Fig. 1 gives calibration curve of Test Hammer. The cubes were cast with OPC
43 grade river sand of Zone II and 20 mm graded crushed aggregate. The
cubes were wet cured for 28 days, and then tested in SSD and room dry
condition (dried for 24 hours prior to testing at room temperature).
Testing of a structure: A concrete test hammer of impact energy of 2.207
N.m (0.225 kgm) is quite suitable for testing concrete in ordinary building and
bridge construction. The procedure for testing a concrete structure is given
below:
All members and points of a concrete structure selected for testing should be
marked for identification, they should also be in dry condition.
Testing should be conducted on surfaces that are smooth and uniform,
preferably surfaces created by casting against a form. Avoid rough spots,
hony-comb or porous areas. Free or trowel led surface may also be satisfactory
if appropriate corrections are applied or a special calibration is prepared. If
loosely adhering scale, plaster work or coating is present, this should be
rubbed off with a grinding wheel or stone.
For concrete section less than 100 mm thick, the rebound of the hammer will
be affected by the elastic deformation of the section, and it should be backed
up by a heavy mass placed on the back side.
At each of selected points, made smooth and clean, take six rebound
readings. For each reading shift the hammer 25 mm and take care not to
rebound the same spot twice. The point of impact should be at least 20 mm
away from any edge or sharp discontinuity. Small air pockets near the surface
under the point of impact cause low rebound, on the other hand, immediately
over a hard aggregate the impact will result in a high rebound.
Note: Manufacturer of Schmidt hammer recommend at selected points 5 or
better 10 impact reading. BS: 4408 ; Part 4 : 1971 specified at least 9 valid
reading and not more than 25. It is normally better to confine the readings of a
test (9 to 25 readings) to an area not exceeding about 300 mm x 300 mm
rather than to carry out random testing extending over the whole structure or
unit. Revised CPWD specifications 2002 specified the result should be the
average of at least 12 readings. IS: 13311 (Part 2)-1992 specified around each
point 6 readings. ASTM-C805 required 10 readings to be taken.

 The usual directions of test are either horizontal or vertically down, but any
direction of test can be used a long as it is consistent. Calibration or
corrections for a given direction of test are supplied with the hammer or can be
derived.
The rebound values usually are considered reliable when at least six readings
deviate not more than +2.5 to 3.5 on the impact scale. The compressive
strength is then determined by taking average of rebound reading.
Compressive strength of the concrete can be determined from the
relationship between the rebound number and the strength given by the curve.
For reliable results the calibration curve shall be drived from the given set of
materials and conditions. If cubes are available from the structure to be tested,
the hammer should be checked first on Anvil then upon these cubes, if need be
the hammer should be adjusted accordingly and re-checked for satisfactory
performance. If it is found that hammer performance is doubtful, the hammer
should be changed.
Factors Influencing the Results
Type of cement
Concrete made of high alumina cement can given strengths upto 100% higher,
whereas supersulphated cement concrete can give 50% lower strength
compared to a calibration obtained on Portland cement cubes. It is necessary
to recalibrate the hammer for different types of cement.
Type of aggregate
Gravel and most crushed rocks give similar correlations, but lightweight
aggregates and aggregates with unusual properties require special calibration.
Surface and internal moisture condition of the concrete
This method of testing is applied only on close textured concrete. Open texture
concrete typical of masonary blocks, `honeycombed concrete, or no fines
concrete cannot be tested using this method.
Trowelled and floated surfaces as in floors, are harder than moulded surfaces
and in most cases will tend to overestimate the strength.
A wet surface will give rise to under-estimated of the strength of concrete
calibrated under dry conditions. This influence can be considerable and in
structural concrete it is about 10% lower on wet surfaces than on an equivalent
dry surface.
Age of concrete
In very old and dry concrete the surface will be harder than the interior, giving
rebound values some what higher than normal. New concrete with moist

surface generally has a relatively softer surface, resulting in lower than normal
rebound.
Carbonation of concrete surface
Surface carbonation of concrete significantly affect the rebound hammer test
results. In old concrete where the carbonation layer can be upto 20 mm thick,
the strength may be overestimated by 50%.
Limits
Testing concrete by test hammer has its own limitations. If all factors are taken
into consideration the strength of concrete in a structure may be determined
within an accuracy of +15%. The concrete test hammer is an excellent tool in
the hands of experts. The operation of the hammer is very simple, yet it is not
so simple as to entrust this tool to a raw hand for taking readings of a
structure. Its operation, calibration, taking readings of a concrete structure,
analysis and interpretation of the test data must always be carried out by
specialists trained for this purpose

Experiment Number -04

AIM;To verify clerk- Maxwells Reciprocal Theorem and to determine the
Youngs modulus of beam arterial of the apparatus
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
1. Clerk-Maxwells reciprocal theorem apparatus
2. Tire weight
3. Dial gauge
THE THEOREM
Clerk-Maxwells reciprocal theorem state that in a linearly elastic structure, the
deflection at any point. A due to a load applied at some other point 13 will be
equal to the deflection at B when the same load is applied at A.
THE APPARATUS
Clerk-Maxwells reciprocal theorem apparatus consists of a rigid frame and a
light beam. The beam is provided with simple end supports over the rigid
frame in the form of a hinge at one end and a roller at other end. There is a tire
rod assembly to load the beam using tire- weights (Weight of this assembly is
made equal to that of one tire weight). There is also a traveling pedestal to
support the dial gauge for measuring deflections.
PROCEDURE
Place the beam correctly over the supports. Mount the dial gauge on the
pedestal, place it under the beam exactly at mid- span and adjust it to read
zero on the scale. Hung the tire rod assembles exactly at quarter-span and
notes the dial gauge reading. Place the tire weights one by one, noting the dial
gauge reading every time a weight is placed. Continue the observations while
unloading the beam also.
Repeat the process after interchanging the positions of the dial gauge and the
tire rod assemble.
OBSERVATIONS
Record the observations in the tabular form.
GRAPH

Plot a graph with deflection on X- axis and load on Y- axis for both the case.
CALCULATIONS
The deflection at quarter point due to at the center is given by

Where is the deflection, W- the load, L- the span, I the moment or inertia of
the section the beam and E- the Youngs of the beam. Hence E can be found
out.
VERIFICATION
1. Compare the deflection under different loads in case (1) with those in case
(2). They will be found to be the same, thus verifying the theorem.
2. Superpose the plot of load Vs deflection or case (I) with that of case (2).
They will coincide, thereby, verifying the theorem again.
RESULT
Verification of Clerk-Maxwells reciprocal theorem
Youngs Modulus of the material of the beam=

Experiment number -05

AIM: Flexural Strength of Concrete (The Modulus of Rupture Test)
Concrete pavement carries load as a simple , plain, (non-reinforced) concrete
beam. The strength of the concrete in flexure is the most
important requirement. In previous labs then primary interest has been the
compressive strength of concrete. This strength is used in the structural design
of reinforced concrete, where tension, in which concrete is very weak, is
assumed to be taken entirely by the reinforcing steel. The rebars in concrete
pavement are not important from the point of view of bending stresses. There
are dowel bars at joints and possibly shrinkage control bars. As the correlation
between it and compressive strength is only approximate, it is usually
measured directly and many specifications for concrete pavement specify only
the flexural strength of the concrete, and not the compressive. The flexural
strength is referred to as the modulus of rupture of the concrete. Fibre
reinforcement of concrete mixes has
been in use for over 20 years mainly to provide added resistance to crack
propagation and improve its resistance to failure in tension.
In this lab, half the class will cast and test concrete beams in in flexure while
the other half does the same, only with polypropylene fibres added to the mix.
This will enable the class to determine whether or not the addition of fibre
reinforcement had a significant effect on the flexural strength of the mix.
Procedure Mixing and Casting
1. Each group will cast one 152.4 mm x 152.4 mm (6" x 6") x 914.4 mm (36")
beam and two 101.6 mm x 203.2 mm mini cylinders.
2. The mix proportions are shown in Table 1.Calculate the quantity required for
the beams and cylinders. An extra 15% should be allowed for waste and also
as a margin for possible error in the assumed density of the concrete . The
volume of the air test container is 7.07910-3m3. If a density of 2350 kg/m3 is
assumed, this calculation can be done in advance to save time in the
laboratory.
3. After making the moisture determinations on the aggregates and correcting
for them, each group will mix a batch. Groups 1 to 4 will add 25 grams of
polypropylene fibres to their batch. The laboratory mixers being us ed must
first be dampened, spraying the insides of the mixer with water from the hose
and making sure that all sides of the paddles are moistened then finally
turning the mixer to the drain position for at least three minutes.
4. The slump, fresh density and air content of the concrete should be
measured and then the beam and cylinders should be cast by ro
dding or vibrating depending on the slump.

5. The procedure for casting the beams is as follows: Vibration

(Slump less than 80 mm): One layer is used and the mold is over-filled so that
after consolidation the top of the concrete will be slightly above the edge of
the mold.
Vibrate the concrete along the centreline of the mold at not less than 150 mm
intervals.
Be careful not to touch the sides or bottom of the mold with the vibrator.
Remove the vibrator slowly after each insertion to eliminate voids. After
vibrating, tap the sides of the mold gently to dislodge any air bubbles.
Roding(Slump greater than 80 mm): Two equal layers will be used. The number
of roddings per layer is specified as one for each 14 cm2 of surface area of the
beam. After rodding each layer spade around the sides of the beam with a
trowel.
Table 1 Mix Design Proportions
Design SSD
SSD Mass
SSD Mass for
Masses (kg)
for Required
Required
1 m3 (kg)
Volume (kg)
Cement
Water
CA
FA
Total

20.67
9.92
0.68
8.71
100.00

2350

Table 1 Mix Design Proportions Design SSD Masses (kg) SSD Mass for
Required 1 m3(kg) SSD Mass for Required Volume (kg)
Cement 20.676 Water 9.924 CA 30.686 FA 38.714 Total 100.000 2350 3
6. The tops of the cylinders should be finish ed in the normal manner. The
beams are to be struck off level, finished with a sponge float and covered with
plastic.
7. The following working day each group must strip and tag their beams and
cylinders and place them in the curing tanks, unless otherwise instructed.
B. Flexural Testing of the Beams
(After one week of curing)
1. The beam will be tested on its side relative to the position in which it was
cast.
2. The span should be 457.2 mm (3 times the depth). The load should be
applied to the specimen at the third points as illustrate
d in Figure 1 (152.4 mm from each support).
3. The specimen should not be removed from the curing tank until just before
testing.
Even a small amount of drying can adversely affect the results. Two tests will
be made on each beam. Therefore, for the first test, position the beam with
one end about 30 mm from the support.
4. The points of support and loading should be marked on the beam.

5. The test should be carried out at a rate of loading indicated by the

instructor.
6. After the load test, the average depth and width of the specimen at the
failure section must be measured to the nearest mm.
Testing of Cylinders
1. After determining the hardened density of the cylinders, they should be
capped and tested in compression in the usual manner.
Calculation
1. The modulus of rupture is calculated as follows:
Case I where fracture occurs within the middle third of the span:
R = PXL/bxd
Where
R = modulus of rupture in kPa
P = maximum load in kN
L = span length (457.2 mm) in metres
b = average width in metres
d = average depth in metres
Case II
where fracture occurs outside the middle third of the span as measured along
the beam bottom by no more than 5% of the span length (grace zone):
R= 3XPXa/bxd
where
a = distance in metres of the fracture from the nearest support measured
along the bottom centre line of the beam...
if left support is closest, record as positive, if right support is closest, record as
negative
CASE III where fracture occurs more than 5%outside the middle third, the
results of the test are discarded (i.e. the test is indeterminate).
2. The constant k, which is sometimes used in converting compressive strength
to modulus of rupture is calculated as follows:
K= (R/1000) / fc
where
f'c = compressive strength in MPa
R = modulus of rupture in kPa

Experiment -06
Aim : Reinforced cement composite of steel fibre reinforced concrete
Theory : Concrete made with portland cement has certain characteristics: it is
relatively strong in compression but weak in tension and tends to be brittle.
The weakness in tension can
be overcome by the use of conventional rod reinforcement and to some extent
by the inclusion of a sufficient volume of certain fibres. The use of fibres also
alters the behaviour of the fibre-matrix composite after it has cracked, thereby
improving
its toughness.This leaflet aims to provide information on the properties of the
more commonly available fibres and their uses to produce concrete with
certain haracteristics. Some new developments are discussed.
concept of toughness;Toughness is defined as the area under a load-deflection
(or stress-strain) curve. As can be seen from Figure 1, adding fibres to concrete
greatly increases the toughness of the material. That is, fibre-reinforced
concrete is able to sustain load at deflections or strains much greater than
those at which cracking first appears in the matrix.
use of fibres :For the effective use of fibres in hardened concrete:
i)Fibres should be significantly stiffer than the matrix, i.e. have a higher
modulus of elasticity than the matrix Fibre content by volume must be
adequate.
Ii)There must be a good fibre-matrix bond.
iii)Fibre length must be sufficient.
iv) Fibres must have a high aspect ratio, i.e. they must be long relative to their
diameter.
It should be noted that published information tends to deal with high volume
concentrations of fibre. However, for economic reasons, the current trend in
practice is to minimise fibre volume, in which case improvements in properties
may be marginal.

For the quantities of fibres typically used (less than 1% by volume for steel and
about 0,1% by volume for polypropylene) the fibres will not have significant
effect on the strength or modulus of elasticity of the composite. It is thus
important to evaluate published test data and manufacturers claims carefully
It must also be noted that high volume concentrations of certain fibres may
make the plastic concrete unworkable
Types of fibre :In this section each of the most commonly used fibre types is
discussed, giving information on the manufacture of the fibre, its properties,
fibre content in applications and the effects of the fibre type on concretes and
mortars.
Glass:In the form first used, glass fibres were found to be alkali reactive and
products in which they were used deteriorated rapidly. Alkali-resistant glass
containing 16% zirconia was successfully formulated in the 1960's and by 1971
was in commercial production in the UK. Other sources of alkali-resistant glass
were developed during the 1970's and
1980's in other parts of the world, with higher zirconia contents. Alkali-resistant
glass fibre is used in the manufacture of glass-reinforced cement (GRC)
products, which have a wide range of applications.
Glass fibre is available in continuous or chopped lengths. Fibre lengths of up to
35-mm are used in spray applications and 25-mm lengths are used in premix
application
Glass fibre has high tensile strength (2 4 GPa) and elastic modulus (70 80
GPa) but has brittle stress-strain character is tics (2,5 4,8% elongation at
break) and low
creep at room temperature. Claims have been made that up to 5% glass fibre
by volume has been used successfully in sand-cement mortar without balling.
Glass-fibre products exposed to outdoor environment have shown a loss of
strength and ductility. The reasons for this are not clear and it is speculated
that alkali attack or fibre
embrittlement are possible causes. Because of the lack of data on long-term
durability, GRC has been confined to non-structural uses where it has wide
applications. It is suitable for use in direct spray techniques and premix
processes and has been used as a replacement for asbestos fibre in flat sheet,
pipes and a variety of precast products. GRC products are used extensively in
agriculture; for architectural cladding and
components; and for small containers
ii) Steel :Steel fibres have been used in concrete since the early 1900s. The
early fibres were round and smooth and the wire was cut or chopped to the
required lengths. The use of straight, smooth fibres has largely disappeared
and modern fibres have either rough surfaces, hooked ends or are crimped or
undulated through their length. Modern commercially available steel fibres are
manufactured from drawn steel wire, from slit sheet steel or by the meltextraction process which produces fibres that have a crescent-shaped cross
section.

Typically steel fibres have equivalent diameters (based on cross sectional

area) of from 0,15 mm to 2 mm and lengths from 7 to 75 mm. Aspect ratios
generally range from 20 to 100. (Aspect ratio is defined as the ratio between
fibre length and its equivalent diameter, which is the diameter of a circle with
an area equal to the cross-sectional area of the fibre).
Carbon steels are most commonly used to produce fibres but fibres made from
corrosion-resistant alloys are available. Stainless steel fibres have been used
for high-temperature applications.Some fibres are collated into bundles using
water-soluble glue
to facilitate handling and mixing have been used in shotcrete applications
using both the wet and dry processes. Steel fibre contents of up to 25% by
volume have been obtained in slurry-infiltrated fibre concrete.
Concretes containing steel fibre have been shown to have substantially
improved resistance to impact and greater ductility of failure in compression,
flexure and torsion.
Similarly, it is reported that the elastic modulus in compression and modulus of
rigidity in torsion are no different before cracking when compared with plain
concrete
tested under similar conditions. It has been reported that steel-fibre-reinforced
concrete, because of the improved ductility, could find applications where
impact resistance is
important. Fatigue resistance of the concrete is reported to be increased by up
to 70%.
It is thought that the inclusion of steel fibre as supplementary reinforcement in
concrete could assist in the reduction of spalling due to thermal shock and
thermal gradients.
The lack of corrosion resistance of normal steel fibres could be a disadvantage
in exposed concrete situations where spalling and surface staining are likely to
occur
iii)Synthetic fibres:Synthetic fibres are man-made fibres resulting from
research and
development in the petrochemical and textile industries. There are two
different physical fibre forms: monofilament fibres, and fibres produced from
fibrillated tape. Currently there are two different synthetic fibre volumes used
in application, namely low-volume percentage (0,1 to 0,3% by volume) and
high-volume percentage (0,4 to 0,8% by volume). Most synthetic fibre
applications are at the 0,1% by volume level. At this level, the strength of the
concrete is considered unaffected and crack control characteristics are sought.
Fibre types that have been tried in cement concrete matrices include: acrylic,
aramid, carbon, nylon, polyester, polyethylene and polypropylene. Table 1
summarises the range of physical properties of some synthetic fibres.
iv) Acrylic :Acrylic fibres have been used to replace asbestos fibre in many
fibre-reinforced concrete products. In this process fibres are initially dispersed
in a dilute water and cement mixture.

A composite thickness is built up in layers using a pressure forming process

and vacuum dewatering. Acrylic fibres have also been added to conventional
concrete at low volumes to reduce the effects of plastic-shrinkage cracking.
v) Aramid :Aramid fibres are two and a half times as strong as glass fibres and
five times as strong as steel fibres, per unit mass. Due to the relatively high
cost of these fibres, aramid-fibre-reinforced concrete has been primarily used
as an asbestos cement
replacement in certain high-strength applications.

Slurry Infiltrated Fibrous Concrete (SIFCON) SIFCON is a high-strength, highperformance material l containing a relatively high volume percentage of steel
fibres as compared to SF RC. It is also sometimes termed as high-volume
fibrous concrete. The origin of SIFCON dates to 1979, when Prof. Lankard
carried out extensive experiments in his laboratory in Columbus, Ohio, USA
and proved that, if the percentage of steel fibres in a cement matrix could be
increased substantially, then a material of very high strength could be
obtained, which he christened as SIFCON. While in conventional SFRC, the steel
fibre content usually varies from 1 to 3 percent by volume, it varies from 4 to
20 percent in SIFCON depending on the geometry of the fibres and the type of
application. The process of making SIFCON is also different, because of its high
steel fibre content. While in SFRC, the steel fibres are mixed intimately with
the wet or dry mix of concrete, prior to the mix being poured into the forms,
SIFCON is made by infiltrating a low-viscosity cement slurry into a bed of steel
fibres pre-packed in forms/moulds
The matrix in SIFCON has no coarse aggregates, but a high cementitious
content. However, it may contain fine or coarse sand and additives such as fly
ash, micro silica and latex emulsions. The matrix fineness must be designed so
as to properly penetrate (infiltrate) the fibre network placed in the moulds , since
otherwise, large pores may form leading to a substantial reduction in properties.
A controlled quantity of high-range water-reducing admixture (super
plasticizer)may be used for improving the flowing characteristics of SIFCON. All
types of steel fibres, namely, straight, hooked, or crimped can be used.
Proportions of cement and sand generally used for making SIFCON are 1: 1,
1:1.5, or 1:2. Cement slurry alone can also be used for some applications.
Generally, fly ash or silica fume equal to 10 to 15% by weight of cement is used
in the mix. The water-cement ratio varies between 0.3 and 0.4, while the
percentage of the super plasticizer varies from 2 to 5% by weight of cement. The
percentage of fibres by volume can be any where from 4 to 20%, even though
the current practical range ranges only from 4 to 12%.
Slurry Infiltrated Mat Concrete (SIMCON): SIMCON can also be considered a
pre-placed fibre concrete, similar to SIFCON. However, in the making of
SIMCON, the fibres are placed in a mat form rather than as discrete fibres. The
advantage of using steel fibre mats over a large volume of discrete

fibres is that the mat configuration provides inherent strength and tilizes the fibres
contained in it with very much higher aspect ratios . The fibre volume can, hence,
be substantially less than that required for making of SIFCON, still achieving
identical flexural strength and energy absorbing toughness. SIMCON is made
using a non-woven steel fibre matsthat are infiltrated with a concrete slurry.
Steel fibres produced directly from molten metal using a chilled wheel concept
are interwoven into a 0.5 to 2 inches thick mat. This mat is then rolled and coiled
into weights and sizes convenient to a customers application (normally up to 120
cm wide and weighing around 200 kg). As in conventional SFRC, factors such as
aspect ratio and fibre volume have a direct influence on the performance of
SIMCON. Higher aspect ratios are desirable to obtain increased flexural strength.
Generally, because of the use of mats, SIMCON the aspect ratios of fibres
contained in it could well exceed 500. Since the mat is already in a preformed
shape, handling problems are significantly minimised resulting in savings in
labour cost. Besides this, balling of fibres does not become a factor at all in the
production of SIMCON.
Carbon Fiber Based Linear Reinforcing Elements Due to their light weight (about
one fifth that of steel), high tensile strength (higher than steel) and good overall
environmental durability, carbon fiber based tendons and cables are increasingly
being used for reinforcemen
t of concrete structures in Japan. The reduction in weight facilitates better
handling and easier field installation compared to steel. These elements also
cause significantly less sag under their own weight, which increases load
capacity while enabling the construction of longer bridge
spans.
Leadline Rods/Tendons
Leadline reinforcing elements are circular rods that are pultruded using
unidirectional carbon fibers at 65% fiber volume fraction with an
epoxy resin. The rods have a specific gravity of 1.6, a relaxation ratio of 2-4% at
20C, and a coefficient of thermal expansion of 0.68 x 10-6 /C in the longitudinal
direction. The rods have a tensile modulus of 147 GPa and 1.5 to 1.7%
elongations at break. Rods are available in a number of diameters with four
major surface types.

Designat
ion
Diameter
mm
Tension
KN
Area
mm2
Weight

Characteristics
Round rod
R1 R2 R5 R8
1

1.8 16

44

0.8 7.
1
1.2 11

19.
6
32

11
1
49
78

12

Intended rod
D5 D8 D1
0
5
8
10

D12 Remar
ks
12

255

40

245

113
.1
178

17.
8
30

R1
0
10

R12

17
0
75.
4
11

10
4
46.
1
77

16
2
71.
8
11

108
.6
177

g/m

Experiment 7. High performance concrete

Theory : The efficiency of steel fibres as concrete macro-reinforcement is in
proportion to increasing fibre content, fibre strength, aspect ratio and bonding
efficiency of the fibres in the concrete matrix. The efficiency is further
improved by deforming the fibres and by resorting to advanced production
techniques. Any improvement in the mechanical bond
ensures that the failure of a SFRC specimen is due mainly to fibres reaching
their ultimate strength, and not due to their pull-out.
Method : Mix Design for SFRC Just as different types of fibres have different
characteristics, concrete made with steel fibres will also have different
properties. When developing an SFRC mix design, the fibre type and the
application of the concrete must be considered. There must be sufficient
quantity of mortar fraction in the concrete to adhere to the fibres and allow
them to flow without tangling together, a phenomenon
called balling of fibers. Cement content is, therefore, usually higher for SFRC
than conventional mixes Aggregate shape and content is c
critical. Coarse aggregates of sizes ranging from 10 mm to 20 mm are
commonly used with SFRC. Larger aggregate sizes usually require less volume
of fibers per cubic meter. SFRC with 10 mm maximum size
aggregates typically uses 50 to 75 kg of fibers per cubic meter, while the one
with 20 mm size uses 40 to 60 kg. It has been demonstrated at the coarse
aggregate shape has a significant effect on workability and material properties.
Crushed coarse aggregates result in higher strength and tensile strain
capacity. Fine aggregates in SFRC mixes typically constitute about 45 to 55
percent of the total aggregate content.
Typical mix proportions for SFRC will be: cement 325 to 560 kg; water-cement
ratio 0.4-0.6; ratio of fine aggregate to total aggregate 0.5
-1.0; maximum aggregate size 10mm; air content 6-9%; fibre content 0.5-2.5%
by volume of concrete. An appropriate pozzolan may be used as a replacement
for a portion of the Portland cement to improve workability further, and reduce
heat of hydration and production
n cost. The use of steel fibers in concrete generally reduces the slump by
about 50 mm. To overcome this and to improve workability, it is highly
recommended that a super plasticizer be included in the mix. This is especially
true for SFRC used for high-performance applications. Generally, the ACI
Committee Report No. ACI 554 Guide for Specifying, Mixing, Placing and
Finishing Steel Fibre Reinforce d Concrete is followed for the design of SFRC
mixes appropriate to specification.
Applications. Factors Controlling SFRC
Aspect ratio, l/d

Volume fraction, vf
Fiber reinforcing index, RI=l/d x vf
Critical length, lmin
Balling of fibers
Good mix design: more matrix, small aggregate, workable
Type of fibers-size, shape, strength, modulus

Experiment 8. High performance concrete

Materials :The cement used throughout the experiment was Ordinary Portland
Cement (OPC). The 28 day compressive strength and specific gravity of
cement were 50.2 N.mm2 and 3.10 respectively determined as per IS: 12269198711. Locally available alluvial sand (medium; specific gravity = 2.6) inside
the laboratory was used throughout the experimental investigation unless
otherwise mentioned. Particle size distribution of aggregates is presented in
Table 1 and 2. Crushed stone aggregates (specific gravity = 2.6) of nominal
maximum size 16 mm were used as coarse aggregate. The physical properties
of aggregates were determined as per IS: 2386-1997 12. Ordinary tap water was
used for all the mixes to prepare fresh concrete. Poly-Carboxylic Polymer (PC)
with set retarding effect was used as high range water reducing admixtures
(HRWRA).

Mixing

Concrete was mixed in a tilting mixer (laboratory type). The following mixing
sequence was adopted:

Mix coarse aggregate, fine aggregate cement for 2 minutes;

Add water during mixing and mix for two minutes more;
Stop mixing for one minute;
Add HRWRA to the mix and mix for 3 minutes;
Pour the concrete mix.

Experimental Program
A large number of high-performance concrete mixtures were prepared in the
laboratory for the present study. Rheological tests were carried out to
investigate the effect of percentage sand, sand zones such as coarse, medium
and fine, nominal size of coarse aggregate and aggregate volume-paste
volume ratio. For the determination of rheological parameters, average of
three readings was taken.
Rheological tests were performed with a rheometer fabricated in the laboratory
(Figure 1). It consists of a 150 mm diameter flat circular vane plate driven by a
motor through a gearbox. Vane plate is mounted coaxially with a cylindrical
container (effective diameter = 270 mm) with sleeve and bearing arrangement
to ensure accurate alignment. The cylindrical container is provided with
vertical ribs of 20 mm projection at a pitch of 60 mm along the circumference.
Ribs are also welded at the bottom of the cylinder. The effective gap between
the bottom and the shearing surface is 75 mm. The effective concrete height
above the vane plate is also 75 mm. The no-slip condition at top of the cylinder
is achieved by providing 20 mm high mesh of blades. The blade mesh can be
detached as and when necessary. The torque of the motor and hence the vane
plate is controlled by varying input voltage with a 10 ampere AC variac. The
number of revolution of the vane plate is measured with a non-contact infrared
digital tachometer, by focusing at the retro-reflective tape glued to the spindle.
The spindle has a pulley welded to it that is used for calibration purpose only.
The torque provided by the rheometer was calibrated in terms of input AC
voltage by rotor blocking method. A spring balance anchored to a fixed object
is fitted to the pulley of the spindle. When the motor is switched on, the spring
balance blocks its rotor and the spring balance reading is noted. This
arrangement gives the braking torques at different voltages. In the present
study, concrete was sheared at each step for 30 seconds. Stepwise increasing
shear stress sequence followed by a decreasing shear stress was used and the
down curve was taken to draw the flow curve. Calibration of torque was
validated by testing a magneto-rheological fluid (MRF 132DG) and comparing
the data with measurement made by RS1 rheometer. The MR Fluid (magnetorheological fluid) is a suspension of micron sized magnetizable particles in a
carrier fluid (density = 2980-3180 kg/cu.m; solid content by weight = 80.98%;
operating temperature = 40 to +130 C). The fluid can be used in a shear

mode. It responds to an applied magnetic field with a change in rheological

behavior. This property enables MR fluid to find its use in various control
devices such as brakes and clutches, dampers, shock absorbers etc. In many
engineering applications, Bingham model can be effectively used to describe
essential fluid properties. It was observed that both the readings agreed
reasonably well. The detail of the set up was presented elsewhere 13. The
expression for the total torque in the present rheometer is given by

In the present equipment, d (diameter of the vane plate) = 0.270 m; h

(effective gap between bottom of the vane plate and the bottom of the
cylinder) = 0.075 m; t (height of the ribs of vane plate) = 0.025 m and g
(effective gap of the annulus) = 0.060 m. Substituting these in Equation 1, one
has the following equation

The above Equation 2 is in Bingham's form. Comparing Equation 2 with

Bingham's equation, total shear stress (Pa) in terms of torque (N.m) can be
expressed as

The overall shear strain rate (per second) in terms of rotational frequency
(rpm) can be written as

Both the quantities g. and t can be observed during the experiment. By

plotting the values of (, ), one has the flow curve from which 0 and can be
obtained.
After the rheological tests were over, fresh concrete mixes were transferred to
the concrete mixer again. Balance concrete and mortar left in the cylindrical
container were cleaned manually and transferred to the mixer. The concrete
mixes were then mixed for two minutes and transferred to the bucket.
Concrete was placed in cube mould in three layers; each layer compacted by
16 mm rod 25 times. Final compaction was achieved by vibration table in a
standard manner. Between 1-2 hours of casting, when the surface of concrete
in cube moulds became dry, wax based curing compound was sprayed on the
surface of concrete. After 24 hours of casting, concrete cubes were cured in a
curing tank for 28 days. Compressive strength was determined after 28 days
and the average of three readings were reported as the required strength.

. Proposed Method of Mix Design Procedure

Proposed method of mix design is a combination of empirical results and
mathematical calculations based on absolute volume method. The water
content is assumed to be inclusive of HRWRA content. The procedure is
initiated by selecting different mix characteristics or material proportions in the
following sequence:
5.1. Estimation of yield stress and plastic viscosity
In a mix design procedure, trial batches are prepared in the laboratory and
workability is measured after arriving at all the ingredients of concrete. If the
workability criterion is satisfied, cubes or cylinders are cast for compressive
strength test. If desired level of workability is not obtained, adjustments of the
constituents of concrete are again made and trial batch is prepared. The fact
that rheological parameters are fundamental properties of fresh concrete and
compressive strength is the most important hardened property of concrete, the
correlation curves between rheological properties and compressive strength of
concrete was used in the mix design. The correlation graphs are presented in
Figure 2 and 3. The details of the correlation may be found elsewhere14.

HRWRA dose, sand content

It was observed that optimum dose of high range water reducing admixtures
(HRWRA) is around 1.5% by weight of cement beyond which it does not
significantly reduce yield stress and plastic viscosity. For yield stress, the
optimum sand content is 30% for minimum yield strength; between 30-40%
sand, plastic viscosity is minimum. IS code also assumes sand content equal to
28% when zone 2 (medium) sand is used.
5.3. Water cement ratio and aggregate-paste volume ratio

Since water-cement ratio is not a good predictor of strength in case of HPC,

relationship between water-cement ratio and compressive strength has not
been used. In fact, there may be various combinations of water-cement ratio
and paste volume to aggregate volume ratio. The water-cement ratio can be
obtained from Figure 4 for a given target strength. Extrapolation may be done
to obtain values not presented in the figure.

Aggregate content
Coarse aggregate content depends on the particle shape. The coarse
aggregate content may be determined from Aitcin1.
5.5. Cement content
Cement content may simply be calculated once aggregate volume-paste
volume ratio and water-cement ratio is known. Water content here is the free
water content including HRWRA.
5.6. Correction factors
Corrections are to be made in the mix design for different zones of sand and
maximum size of coarse aggregates. To do this, a reference mix as per IS:
10262-1982 has been considered and rheological parameters of this reference
mix were obtained with the present rheometer. The reference mix is follows:

53 grade OPC = 571 kg/cu.m;

Indian Standard zone II sand = 436 kg/cu.m;
Coarse aggregate of nominal size 10 mm = 1083 kg/cu.m;
Water = 200 L/cu. m inclusive of HRWRA;
PC as HRWRA = 7.7 kg/cu.m;
Water-cement ratio = 0.35;
Percentage sand = 28%.

Now, comparing the values of yield stress and plastic viscosity of the various
other mixes with the rheological parameters of the reference mix, correction
factors have been calculated and presented in Table 3. These correction
factors were derived from the experimental results of the variation of
rheological parameters with sand gradation and maximum size of coarse
aggregates.

The steps of present mix design procedure are as follows:

Assume sand = 28% and take air content as follows:

For 10 mm nominal maximum size of aggregate (Msa): air = 3%
12.5 and 16 mm: air = 2.5%
20 mm: air = 2%.

These are as per the provisions of IS: 10262-1982.

Assume HRWRA dose = 1.5% by weight of cement.

From Figure 2 and Figure 3, read 0, for target given strength.
Calculate correction factors: K = k1k2, K* = k1* k2* from Table 3.
Corresponding to K 0, obtain aggregate volume- paste volume ratio
from Figure 4 and choose water-cement ratio.
Assume quantities of coarse aggregate from Aitcin1, depending on
particle shape.
Calculate cement and water content.

Examples of Mix Design of HPC Using Proposed Method

Example 1: Data:
i) Cement: OPC, sp gravity = 3.1, 53 grade as per IS: 12269-1987.
ii) Sand: zone II as per IS: 2386-1963, sp gr = 2.6
iii) Coarse aggregate: crushed, 10 mm msa, sp gr = 2.6
iv) HRWRA: Poly-carboxylic ether polymer, no mineral admixtures.
To design a mix for target strength = 70 MPa.
a) Assume air content = 3.0 %, PC = 1.5% bwc,
b) From Figure 2 and Figure 3, obtain values of yield stress and plastic
viscosity for 70 MPa as 0 = 310 Pa; = 60 Pa.s.
c) Calculate K 0 = 1.0 1.0 310 = 310 Pa,
K* = 1.0 1.0 60 = 60 Pa.s from Table 3.
d) Refer Figure 4, take w/c ratio = 0.35;
Aggregate-paste volume ratio at w/c ratio = 0.35 and K 0 = 310 Pa is
approximately equal to 1.52.
e) Assume coarse aggregate content = 1085 kg/cu.m and sand = 435 kg/cu.m
so that sand = 28%.
f) Substitute sand and coarse aggregate content in the following expression:

The final proportions of the ingredients (kg/cu.m) are as follows:

Cement = 573;
Sand = 435;
Coarse aggregate = 1085 kg/cu.m;

 Water = 200.5 kg/cu.m including HRWRA;

HRWRA = 8.6 kg/cu.m
Water/cement ratio = 0.35.
With the above mix proportion, rheological test was carried out and
compressive strength (cube strength) was determined after 28 days of moist
curing. Prior to curing by water, wax based curing compound was used after 2
hours from casting up to 24 hours. The laboratory results were as follows:
0 = 235 Pa; m = 74 Pa.s; Slump = 170 mm and 28 day cube
strength = 71.5 MPa.
Example 2: Data:
i) Cement: OPC, sp gr = 3.1, 53 grade as per IS: 12269-1987.
ii) Sand: zone III as per IS: 2386-1963, sp gr = 2.6
iii) Coarse aggregate: crushed, 16 mm msa, sp gr = 2.6
iv) HRWRA: Poly-carboxylic ether polymer, no mineral admixtures.
To design a mix for target strength = 60 MPa.
As illustrated in example 1 above, estimated yield stress = 230 Pa and plastic
viscosity = 59 Pa.s. Assuming coarse aggregate = 1085 kg/cu.m and
sand = 29%, the final mix proportions are as follows:
Cement = 559;
Sand = 444;
Coarse aggregate = 1085 kg/cu.m;
Water = 200.7 kg/cu.m including HRWRA;
HRWRA = 7.2 kg/cu.m; Water/cement ratio = 0.36.
The laboratory results were as follows:
0 =289 Pa; = 56 Pa.s; Slump = 180 mm and 28 day cube strength = 62.6
MPa.
Example 3: Data:

i) Cement: OPC, sp gr = 3.1, 53 grade as per IS: 12269-1987.

ii) Sand: zone III as per IS: 2386-1963, sp gr = 2.6
iii) Coarse aggregate: crushed, 16 mm msa, sp gr = 2.6
iv) HRWRA: Poly-carboxylic ether polymer, no mineral admixtures.
To design a mix for target strength = 45 MPa.
Estimated yield stress = 110 Pa and plastic viscosity = 41 Pa.s. Assuming
coarse aggregate = 1035 kg/cu.m and sand = 33%, the final mix proportions
are as follows:
Cement = 545; Sand = 516;
Coarse aggregate = 1035 kg/cu.m;
Water = 207 kg/cu.m including HRWRA;
HRWRA = 8.2 kg/cu.m;
Water/cement ratio = 0.38.
The laboratory results were as follows:
0 = 160 Pa; = 49 Pa.s; Slump = 170 mm and 28 day cube strength = 46.2
MPa.
It may be mentioned that above mix proportion has been arrived at on the
assumption that aggregates are saturated and surface dry. For any deviation
from this condition, correction has to be applied on quantity of water as well as
to the aggregate. The calculated mix proportions shall be checked by means of
trial batches. A minor adjustment in aggregate quantity may be made to
improve the finishing quality or freedom from segregation and bleeding.

A mix design procedure for HPC has been suggested. The proposed mix design
procedure takes rheological parameters in to account to determine
compressive strength, water cement ratio and aggregate volume to paste
volume ratio. Instead of using water-cement ratio and compressive strength
relationship, relationship between compressive strength, paste volumeaggregate volume ratio, physical properties of aggregates and rheological
parameters were used in mix design. Correlation charts for rheological

parameters and compressive strength was developed based on cube test

results of several trial mixes whose rheological parameters have also been
found by the present rheometer. The ranges of Bingham parameters and
compressive strength studied in the present investigation are as follows:
Yield stress: 40- 820 Pa;
Plastic viscosity: 15- 120 Pa.s;
Compressive strength (28 day): 40-90 MPa.
It is to be mentioned that it is always difficult to develop a mix design method
that can be used universally because same properties of fresh and hardened
concrete can be achieved in different ways from same materials. Since
materials from different sources can vary widely in their composition and
physical characteristics, a trend drawn from data for a single material source
should not be extended to all material sources. In fact, a broad range of data
from various sources is desirable for drawing general conclusions. The method
discussed in this paper is related to calculation of the composition of concrete
containing poly-carboxylic ether polymer as HRWRA without incorporating any
mineral admixture.