The Equation of Time

APPENDIX 1- THE EQUATION OF TIME

A1.1 Solar Position
The sky luminance distribution depends on the position of the sun in the sky. The
position of the sun in the sky is described by two angles: the suns azimuth and
elevation angle. To calculate these angles, it is necessary to know the solar time,
calculated from the equation of time, which is the difference between the solar and
local clock time and solar declination. The algorithms that calculate these values are
obtained from Munner (1997), and use in Matlab program equation of time.m
(Appendix 4- Attached CD):

A1.1.1

Apparent solar time (AST):

Solar time is the time used in all solar geometry calculations. It is based on the
apparent angular movement of the sun across the sky. Solar noon, therefore, is the
time that the sun crosses the meridian of the observer. Local standard time (LST) is
converted to solar time (AST) by first using a constant correction for the difference in
longitude between the location (LONG) and the meridian (LSM) on which the local
time is based (1 degree longitude being equivalent to 4 minutes, since 360 is one
day); the AST is also dependent on equation of time (EOT), which takes into account
changes in the earths rotation (Athienitis and Santamouris, 2002):
AST= standard time (local civil time) + EOT

[(LSM-LONG)/15]

(A1.1)

Where EOT is equation of time define by the difference between solar and local clock
time and it is calculated by
EOT

0.1236 sin x 0.0043 cos x 0.1538 sin 2 x 0.0608 cos 2 x (hours)

(A1.2)

Where

360 ( DN 1) / 365.242

DN=1 for 1 January in any given year. DN is the number of days elapsed in a given
year up to a particular date. Example: 1 March 2004, DN = 61; 1 March 2003, DN =
60.

A1-1

Appendix 1

Solar declination (DEC):

DEC is the angle between the earth-sun vector and the equatorial plane. Declination
angle varies during the year from 23.45 on 21 June to -23.45 on 21 December due to
the earths rotation around the sun once a year. During its rotation about the sun, the
earth follows an elliptical path as its axis is tilted at 23.45 with respect to the plane of
the earths orbit about the sun. At the autumn and spring equinoxes (March 21st and
September 21st , in the southern hemisphere), the sun is directly over the equator and
for this reason the length of day and night are equal everywhere on earth, except at the
poles. At any other time, the suns rays form an angle with the equatorial plane known
as the solar declination angle, DEC, (Athienitis and Santamouris, 2002). The DEC is
found by the following formula:
DEC

sin

0.39795 cos 0.98563 DN 1

(A1.3)

Solar attitude, azimuth and incidence angle:

Solar altitude (SOLALT) is the altitude or elevation angle of the sun above the
horizon; Azimuth (SOLAZM) is the angle from north of the suns beam projection on
the horizontal plane, and the clockwise direction from north is considered a positive
angle. The incidence angle (INC) is the angle at which the suns beam strikes a sloped
surface of any given tilt (Figure A1.1).

Figure A1.1: Solar geometry.

A1-2

The Equation of Time

SOLALT and SOLAZM define the suns position in the sky, Solar altitude and
azimuth angles are given by Muneer (1997):
sin SOLALT

cos SOLAZM

sin LAT sin DEC

cos LAT cos DEC cos GHA

cos DEC cos LAT tan DEC sin LAT cos GHA
cos SOLALT

(A1.4)
(A1.5)

where:
GHA is the Greenwich hour angle
GHA 15UT 180 C

And

is the solar right ascension (in degrees)

L 2.466 sin 2 L 0.053 sin 4 L

L 280.460 36,000.770t C
C 1.915 sin G 0.020 sin 2G
G 357.528 35,999.05t
Where for a given year (y), month (m), day (D), hour (h), minute (min) and second
(s),
t

UT / 24

30.6m 0.5

365.25 y 976

8707.5 / 365.25

if m>2 then y=y and m=m-3; otherwise y = y-1 and m=m+9

UT = Universal time = h + (min/60) + (s/3600)
Finally, the incidence angle is given by:
inc

cos 1 cos SOLAT cos SOLAZM

WAZ sin TLT

cos TLT sin SOLALT

(A1.6)

Where WAZ is the wall solar azimuth angle, defined by the projection on the
horizontal plane of the normal to the surface (Figure A1.1) and the north direction.
TLT is the tilt of a sloped surface.

A1-3

Appendix 1

Athienitis, A. K. and Santamouris, M. (2002) Thermal Analysis and Design of Passive

Solar Buildings, James and James, London, U.K.
Muneer, T. (1997) Solar Radiation & Daylight Models for the Energy Efficient
Design of Buildings, Architectural Press, Oxford.

A1-4

Calibration of Artificial Sky

APPENDIX 2 - CALIBRATION OF ARTIFICIAL SKY

A2.1 Introduction

A2.1.1 Artificial sky of School of Design at QUT

Appendix 2

Figure A2.1: Scanning sky simulator (Michel and Scartezzini, 2002).

This figure is not available online.

Please consult the hardcopy thesis
available from the QUT Library

Figure A2.2: Sky Dome at the Welsh School of Architecture (Alexander, 2005).

Calibration of Artificial Sky

Figure A2.3: a: Interreflections between the mirrors produce an image of an infinite diffuse sky,
b: External view of the Artificial sky, and hydraulic table.

Figure A2.4: Axonometric and sections of artificial sky room.

Appendix 2

Figure A2.5: Sky types a: Clear sky; b: intermediate (clouds); and c: overcast (Baker and
Steemers, 2002).

A2.2 Luminance distribution of the artificial sky (Method)

Calibration of Artificial Sky

A2.2.1 Design parameters of a mirror box sky

Appendix 2

A2.2.2 Measurement of the luminance distribution of the SDAS

F lumens
steradians

I candelas

(A2.1)

Calibration of Artificial Sky

E lux lumens m
F

F lumens
Am

(A2.2)

E A

F lumens
A

E A
A
E
L

Figure A2.6: Measurement of luminance, a black tube is used to define the solid angle.

(A2.3)

(A2.4)

Appendix 2

Figure A2.7: Set up of the digital Theodolite and the Minolta illuminance meter.

A2.2.3

Calculation

of

the

luminance

distribution:

CIE

sky

distribution

Eh

Lz

CIE

Lz

(A2.5)

p
p

Lz

(A2.6)

Calibration of Artificial Sky

A2.3 Results
A2.3.1 Experimental results

Artificial sky measured luminance

0
30

4500

60

Luminance (cd/m2)

4000

90

3500
3000

120

2500

150

2000

180

1500

210

1000

240

500

270

0
90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10

Altitude angle

Figure A2.8: Measured luminance in the artificial sky.

300
330

Appendix 2

90

0 distribution
Luminance

85

4500
330

4000
3500

75

3000

70

2500

300

80

30

60

1500

55

1000

50

500
0

270

65

60

2000

45

90

40
35
30
25

240

120

20
15
10

210

150

0
180

Figure A2.9: Luminance distribution of the Artificial sky. Values are in cd/m2.

A2.3.2 Results from mathematical calculations

Comparison of Measured luminance and CIE overcast sky

calculations
4500

Luminance (cd/m2)

4000
3500
3000
2500

CIE Lz 3400

2000

Artificial sky

1500
1000
500
0

90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5

Altitude angles

Figure A2.10: Comparison of Measured luminance and CIE standard overcast sky calculations.

Calibration of Artificial Sky

A2.3.3 Calibration

A2.4 Conclusions

Appendix 2

Calibration of Artificial Sky

Daylight Design of Buildings,

Lighting: Interior and Exterior,

Solar Energy, 72,

Daylighting in Buildings. A Source

book on Daylighting Systems and Componets, International Energy Agency
(IEA) Task 21. Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, Energy Conservation
in Buildings &Community System

Calibration of the Mathematical Model

APPENDIX 3 - CALIBRATION OF THE MATHEMATICAL

MODEL OF LIGHT PIPES PERFORMANCE UNDER
OVERCAST SKY CONDITIONS (ARTIFICIAL SKY)
A3.1 Introduction
In order to understand the accuracy of the mathematical models developed for this
thesis, and described in Chapter 3, a simple calibration was undertaken by testing
mirrored light pipes of different aspect ratios under the School of Design artificial sky
(SDAS) at QUT and then comparing the results with the mathematical models
mentioned above. The main objective of this experiment was to validate the
mathematical models to facilitate predictions of light pipe performance under
different conditions.

A3.2 Method
Three mirrored light pipes of square section and of equal length (800mm) but
different widths (40mm, 80mm and 160mm) were constructed of aluminum sheets of
95% reflectance. The pipes were coupled with pyramid skylights made of laser cut
panels (LCP) as light collectors. The LCP pyramids were of three different angles (tilt
between the face of the pyramid and the horizontal): 35, 45 and 55. The pipes were
placed on top of a wooden box of 20cm in height, 22.5cm in length and 19.2cm in
width, with an aperture on top the size of the pipes opening. The box was painted
white inside which allows it to perform as an integrating box. The function of the
integrating box is explained by Travers (1998):
The integrating box is based on the integrating sphere, the function of the device is to
allow light through one aperture and spread it uniformly around its internal surface so
that ideally the illuminance on any part of the surface will be the same as on another.
An illuminance meter may be placed at some point on the surface and knowing the
internal surface area of the sphere we can calculate the total lumen input or luminous
flux at the input aperture. The inside should be coated with a white diffusing surface so
as not to change the spectral make up of the light source and to avoid specular
reflection onto the detector.

A3-1

Appendix 3

Integrating spheres are commonly used for relative flux measurements in photometric
laboratories (Bean, 2004). Integrating spheres and light integrating boxes have been
previously used to measure flux output of light pipes (Edmonds et al., 1995,
Edmonds, 1995, Fontoynont and Nicolas, 2003, Travers, 1998). In the case of this
experiment, in order to prevent any specular reflection onto the light sensor and to
achieve a more uniform illuminance distribution, the input aperture of the box was
covered with a diffuser material. In addition, as the testing was undertaken under the
diffuse light of the artificial sky, the light-meter could be placed on the base of the
box under the opening. Figures A3.1 and A3.2 illustrate the experimental set up.

Figure A3.1: Experiment set up.

Experiments were done using the artificial sky, instead of real sky conditions. The
constant overcast conditions achieved with the artificial sky allow reliable comparison
of all the different light pipe strategies.

The experimental testing consisted of

measurements of illuminance inside the box of the light output flux of different width
light pipes (Figure A3.3). Measurements were repeated for all light pipes with each
different LCP collector. The results were compared with the results obtained from
mathematical models developed in Chapter 3 for vertical light pipes. The calculations
were performed with Matlab programs genlum.m and matlumens.m (see Appendix 4).

A3-2

Calibration of the Mathematical Model

Figure A3.2: Integrating box, LCP collectors 35, 45, 55, and light pipes of L/D=5, 10 and 20.

Figure A3.3: From left to right, light pipe L/D= 5, L/D= 10 and L/D= 5.

A3.2.1 Calibration of the box

The mathematical programs developed calculate lumens at the output of the pipe,
however, the illuminance meter used for the experiments, measured lux levels inside
the box. Therefore, in order to compare both set of results it was necessary to calibrate
the box, by first measuring the illuminance (in lux) falling onto the boxs aperture

A3-3

Appendix 3

(Ein) and secondly the illuminance inside the box (Ebox). Then Ein is multiplied by the
area of the box aperture, A, to obtain the output luminance (Lin) as follow:
Lin

Ein

(A3.1)

Finally, by knowing Ebox and Lin it was possible to find the constant, k, relating lumen
input to measured box illuminance Ebox:
Lin

k Ebox

(A3.2)

then k, is given by k

Lin
Ebox

(A3.3)

A3.3 Results
A3.3.1 Experimental results
Results of practical experiments under the artificial sky (horizontal illuminance,
E=7600 lux) are shown in Table A3.1. Testing was done for three different light pipes
and four different light collection systems as summarized below:
Table A3.1: experimental results

Type of collection system Lux measured inside the box

L/D=20 L/D=10 L/D=5
Open pipe (no LCP)
43.7
231
1020
(1)
LCP 35
183.5
774
LCP 45
28.43
145.2
619
LCP 55
25.9
122.9
513
(1)

The LCP pyramid at 35 is truncated at the top as shown in Figure A3.4, this

opening is as big as the collection opening of the pipe L/D=20, therefore it was not
possible to measure the influence of the LCP in the results.

A3-4

Calibration of the Mathematical Model

Figure A3.4: LCP 35 light collection pyramid and Light pipe L/D=20.

A3.3.2 Results from mathematical calculations

The programs developed in MatLab (genlum.m and matlumens.m) for the prediction
of light pipe performance, were then run for this study simulating as closely as
possible the conditions given in the experiments. The design sky used was the CIE
overcast sky, and runs of the program were done for the three light pipes (L/D 20, 10
and 5) and the different light collectors (No LCP, and LCP of 35, 45 and 55). Table
A3.2 shows the results from the mathematical models.
Table A3.2: Calculated results

Type of collection system Lumens at the output of the pipe

L/D=20
L/D=10
L/D=5
Open pipe (no LCP)
3.8
21.92
113.24
LCP 35
2.82
15.82
78.79
LCP 45
2.41
14.65
76.45
LCP 55
1.8
12.25
67.96

A3.3.3 Box calibration

The first step in the calibration of the integrating box was to measure the illuminance
inside the box without any pipe. Table A3.3 shows illuminance inside the box with
the different apertures in comparison to the illuminance on the aperture, Ein.

A3-5

Appendix 3

Table A3.3: Ebox, illuminance inside the box

Boxs aperture
Box 1 (0.04 0.04)
Box 2 (0.08 0.08)
Box 3 (0.16 0.16)

Ein (lux)
7600
7600
7600

Ebox (lux)
129.1
431
1373

The next step was to calculate the constant k (Table A3.4), that will relate the two set
of results (experiment and calculations), from the ratio between the lumens in, Lin, and
illuminance inside the box, Ebox.
Table A3.4: calculation of calibration constant k

Box 1
Lin= 7600 0.0016
Lin=12.16 lumens
k= 12.16/129.1
k=0.09 lumens/lux

Box 2
Lin= 7600 0.0064
Lin=48.64 lumens
k= 48.64/431
k=0.11 lumens/lux

Box 3
Lin= 7600 0.0256
Lin=194.56 lumens
k= 194.56/1373
k=0.14 lumens/k

Table A3.5: Estimation of illuminance from calculations by relating constant k to lumens

calculated from Matlab program

L/D
20

10

Collection Lumens
Calculated
No LCP
3.62
LCP 35
2.82
LCP 45
2.41
LCP 55
1.8
No LCP
21.92
LCP 35
15.82
LCP 45
14.65
LCP 55
12.25
No LCP
113.24
LCP 35
78.79
LCP 45
76.45
LCP 55
67.96

k
0.09
0.09
0.09
0.09
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.14
0.14
0.14
0.14

Expected box Measured

lux (L/k)
box lux
40.22
43.7
31.33
26.77
28.43
20
25.9
199.27
231
143.81
183.5
133.18
145.2
111.36
122.9
808.85
1020
562.78
774
546.07
619
485.42
513

Ratios
0.92
0.94
0.77
0.86
0.78
0.92
0.91
0.79
0.73
0.88
0.95

Finally, by relating the constant k to the lumens calculated (Table A3.5),

comparative results can be obtained. Table A3.5 shows that the maximum error is in
the order of 27% (0.73 ratio between measured and calculated), and the minimum
error is 5% (0.95 ratio between measured and calculated). Figure A3.5 shows
graphically how the results from the calculations compare to the values measured in

A3-6

Calibration of the Mathematical Model

the testing. It can be observed that in general the results are very close, especially for
the light pipes with higher aspect ratio, L/D.

Comparison of calculated and measured lux values for vertical

light pipes under Artificial sky
1200
1000

Calculated L/D 20

lux

800

Calculated L/D 10
Calculate L/D 5

600

Measured L/D 20

400

Measured L/D 10
Measured L/D 5

200
0
No LCP

LCP 35

LCP 45

LCP 55

Collection system

Figure A3.5: Comparison of calculated and measured lux values for vertical light pipes under
overcast sky (Artificial sky).

A3.4 Conclusions
The studies made to establish the accuracy of the mathematical models developed in
Chapter 3 showed that the calculations underestimate the performance of the light
pipes. Reasons for the underestimate may include:
Approximation done for the sky distribution: The luminance distribution of the
artificial sky is close to the CIE overcast sky but not exactly the same (See
Appendix 2), however because of the similarities, in the calculation the model
for the CIE overcast sky was used.
Approximations in relation to the performance of the laser cut panels skylight
collectors,
Testing was done with a rectangular pipe, in the calculations light transmission
through the pipe was calculated using the spiral method (spiral method refer to
Chapter 3) for circular light pipes, which is likely to underestimate the
performance with square pipes of width equal to pipe diameter.

A3-7

Appendix 3

In conclusion, after all the approximations involved in these simple mathematical

models a maximum error of 28% is considered acceptable for the purpose of this
research, specially when the main objective of the calculations is to give an
approximate idea of how light pipes work under different sky conditions. In the
example studied, the artificial sky reproduced an overcast sky which represents the
worse possible scenario for daylighting.

A3-8

Calibration of the Mathematical Model

Bean, R. (2004) Lighting: Interior and Exterior, Architectural Press. Elsevier,

Amsterdam.
Edmonds, I. (1995) Applied Optics, 34, 6522-6526.
Edmonds, I. R., Moore, G. I. and Smith, G. B. (1995) Lighting Res. Technol., 27, 2735.
Fontoynont, M. and Nicolas, L. (2003) In 25th Session of the CIE, Vol. 1 (Ed,
L'Eclairage, C. I. d.) CIE, San Diego, USA, pp. D3-68 - D3-71.
Travers, M. (1998) Queensland University of Technology, pp. 113, xxix.

A3-9

Matlab Programs

APPENDIX 4- MATLAB PROGRAMS

Appendix 4 is in the attached CD.

Program List
Chapter 3- Theory
Clearsky.m

Chapter 4- Horizontal light pipe

genHPLCP_azi.m and matHPLCP_azi.m
panel.m

Chapter 5- Vertical light pipe

Genlux2.m and Matlux2.m
Genlux.m and Matlux.m

Chapter 6- Alternative solutions

Equation of time.m
Fluorpipe.m
Gen1LCP.m and Matgen1LCP.m
Panel1.m

Appendixes
Overcast sky.m
Genlumen.m and Matlumens.m

A4-1

Scale Model Testing

APPENDIX 5: SCALE MODEL TESTING

A5.1 Scale models
The first method used to analyse the light pipe solutions in this project is the testing of
scale models. Scale models are useful because light does not require any scaling
corrections (i.e. the wavelengths of visible light are so short, relative to the size of
models, that light behaviour is not changed). Rooms that are exactly duplicated in
geometry and surface reflectance will provide the same quantity and quality of natural
illuminance as the actual space (Baker et al., 1993). In addition, scale models are
effective to assess visual performance of lighting systems by obtaining qualitative and
quantitative data. This includes (Ruck et al., 2000): 1) the characterization of the
illuminance of a given daylighting device (quantitative); 2) predicting illuminance
levels (quantitative); 3) identifying potential glare sources and evaluation of visual
comfort indices (qualitative); and 4) controlling sunlight penetration and dynamic
behaviour of sunlight. Various models, following the scale model construction
considerations suggested by (Moore, 1991), and carefully representing the
geometrical and photometrical features of the devices and spaces as to avoid
overestimations of performance (Thanachareonkit et al., 2005), were constructed for
light pipe analysis. Scale model construction in this thesis is detailed in Chapters 4, 5
and 6. Illuminance measurements were taken for environmental performance, as well
as photographic records for qualitative analysis. Two types of testing were performed:
under real sunny sky conditions (best possible scenario) and under an artificial sky
(C.I.E. Standard Overcast sky), which represents the worst possible daylight
conditions.

A5.1.1 Measurement under selected real sky conditions

Measurements under real clear sky conditions allow qualitative analysis by direct
observation of the space and photographic records, and quantitative analysis of the
natural illuminance. The system performance can be assessed for different times of
the year by tilting the scale-model relative to the sun, which effectively changes the
sun/light angle in order to achieve the desired solar altitude and azimuth angles.

A5-1

Appendix 5

A5.1.2 Measurement under artificial sky (overcast):

The artificial sky at the School of Design at QUT, which has a brightness distribution
that closely approximates the C.I.E. Standard Overcast Sky is utilized to test some of
the scale models (1:20 scale) under overcast conditions. The artificial sky is a 2.4m x
2.4m x 1.8m internally mirrored box lifted 0.9m from the floor which allows
quantitative and qualitative testing, under simulated overcast conditions (Appendix 2).
Overcast conditions represent the worst-case scenario for the light pipe technology.
In addition, artificial sky testing has been done to corroborate the accuracy of
mathematical models (Appendix 3).

A5.2 Monitoring instruments

Two monitor instruments have been used for this research (Figure A5.1).

Figure A5.1: Minolta illuminance meter (left), Minolta luminance meter (right).

For illuminance measurements, a Minolta Illuminance Meter T-10 M was used. This
illuminance meter is specific for scale model testing due to the small sensor size. The
illuminance meter has been calibrated at the School of Physics at QUT.

A5-2

Scale Model Testing

Characteristics or Specifications are: 1) a measuring range from 0.01 to 299,900lux;

2) a 14mm diameter receptor surface and 3) cosine correction characteristics from
1% at 10 to 20% at 90. For measurement of artificial sky luminance and sky
luminance, a Minolta luminance meter LS-100 was used.

A5-3

Appendix 5

Baker, N., Fanchiotti, A. and Steemers, K. (1993) Daylighting in architecture : a

European reference book, James & James (Science Publishers) Ltd.
Moore, F. (1991) Concepts and practice of architectural daylighting, Van Nostrand
Reinhold, New York.
Ruck, N., Aschehoug, O., Aydinly, S., Christoffersen, J., Courret, G., Edmonds, I.,
Jakobiak, R., Kischkoweit-Lopin, M., Klinger, M., Lee, E., Michel, L.,
scartezzj j, J.-L. and Selkowits, S. (2000), Vol. 2001 (Ed, 21, I. E. A. I. T.)
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, California.
Thanachareonkit, A., Scartezzini, J.-L. and Andersen, M. (2005) Solar Energy, 79,
168-182.

A5-4

List of publications

APPENDIX 6- LIST OF PUBLICATIONS

Garcia Hansen, V., Edmonds, I. and Hyde, R. (2001) The use of Light Pipes for deepplan Office Buildings. A case study of Ken Yeang's bioclimatic skyscraper
proposal for KLCC, Malaysia. 35th Annual Conference of the Australian and
New Zealand Architectural Science Association. New Zealand. Victoria
University of Wellington.
Garcia Hansen, V., Edmonds, I. R. and Hyde, R. (2002) Light pipes in deep office.
Application of light pipe technology to high rise building in Malaysia, RD&A
International Daylighting. University of Sydney, April, 9-12.
Garcia Hansen, V. and Edmonds, I. R. (2003a) Light Pipes in Deep Plan Office
Buildings: Design Solutions for Daylight Distribution. 25th Session of the
CIE. San Diego. USA. Commission Internationale de L'Eclairage.1.
Garcia Hansen, V. and Edmonds, I. R. (2003b) Natural Illumination of Deep-Plan
Office buildings: Light Pipes Strategies. ISES Solar World Congress 2003.
Goteborg. Sweden. International Solar Energy Society.
Edmonds, I. R. and Garcia Hansen, V. (In Press) Light transmission of vertical light
pipes, Lighting Res. & Tech.

A6-1

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