MAE314

Solid Mechanics

Fall, 2008

Chapter 2. Stress and Strain; Design

2.1 Introduction
Concepts of stress, strain and its relation are discussed in this chapter. Design of bars under axial
loads and direct shear are given.
2.2 Normal Stress in the Members of a Structure (One-Dimensional)
Galileo Galilei
(1564-1642)

Galileo's illustration
of tensile tests. He
observed:

Italian physicist,
astronomer, and
mathematician;
performed
experiments to test
the strength of bars .

"The strength
(ultimate load) of a
bar is proportional
to its cross-sectional
area and is
independent of its
length"

Fig. 1 Galileo's illustration of tensile tests of copper bar

Often structures are composed of slender members (or called bars) that are subjected to axial
loads, for example, the widely used bridges and building trusses or pin-connected structures.
A bar under an axial load P, the (normal) stress is uniformly distributed over the entire
cross section A.

P
n
m

Fig. 2 Normal stress in a bar under axial load P

P
F
( =
is used in the book)
A
A

(2.2.1)

1kPa = 103 Pa = 103 N / m 2 , 1MPa = 10 6 Pa = 10 6 N / m 2 , 1 GPa = 10 9 Pa = 10 9 N / m 2 .

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Dr. Yuan

MAE314

Solid Mechanics

Fall, 2008

If the axis along the length of the bar is designated as x, then a subscript is sometimes added to
the stress component, x.
Assumptions:
1. The bar is straight (centroidal axis is a straight line),
2. The material over the cross section is homogeneous (single material),
3. The axial load P acts at the centroid of the cross section area A, (otherwise the bar will
bend)
4. The formula is valid for the cross section at least a distance e away from the ends
where the load P is applied. ( e is the largest transverse dimension of the loaded
region). Within the distance e , the stresses depend on the details of the loading. (Saint
Venants Principle)

=P/A

=P/A

=P/A

5. The formula is valid for prismatic bar (straight member having constant cross section
throughout its length). In this case, the axial force produces a uniform stretching. The
formula also gives good stress for tapered bars if the angle between the sides of the bar
is smaller than 20 degrees.
Cross section: section perpendicular to the longitudinal (centroidal) axis of the bar
* In eq. (2.2.1), no restriction on the shape of the cross section.
A positive sign in (2.2.1) is used to indicate a tensile stress (bar in tension) and a negative
sign to indicate a compressive stress (bar in compression).
Stress: a measure of the intensity of forces to which a body is subjected.

Example 2.2.1 A bar is subjected to an axial tensile force 50 kN.

(1) If the bar has a diameter 20 mm, the normal stress is given by
P = +50 kN = 50 10 3 N
2

20mm
6
2
A = r 2 =
= 314 10 m
2
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Dr. Yuan

MAE314

Solid Mechanics

Fall, 2008

P
50 10 3 N
=
= 159 MPa
A 314 10 6 m 2
(2) If the bar is made of aluminum with the stress allowable all = 100 MPa , what is the
minimum diameter that the bar can sustain the 50 kN load?
P
P
50 10 3 N
all = , A =
=
= 500 10 6 m 2
A
all 100 10 6 Pa
=

Since A = r 2 ,
A
500 10 6 m 2
=
= 12.62mm , d = 2r = 25.2 mm

Design: an aluminum rod with 26 mm or more in diameter.

r=

Axial Loading: Normal Stress

F
A0 A
dA , P = dF = dA
= lim

dF =

Examples 2.1, 2.2, 2.3

Example 2.3 Two circular rods are welded at point B. The loadings applied at B and C are 30 kN
and 10 kN respectively. Determine the axial stress of each bar.

Because there is a force applied at joint B, the internal force of the entire bar will experience
discontinuity at the point B. Therefore two FBDs are needed to find the internal force of each
rod.
(1) For section 1, by cutting the FBD at any location between A and B, the internal force is
equal to -20 kN. (i.e., compression)
The stress at the section 1 is
F
20kN
= =
= 63.7 MPa
A (20mm) 2 / 4
(2) For section 2, by cutting the FBD at any location between B and C, the internal force is
clearly 10 kN (i.e., tension).
F
10kN
= =
= 56.6MPa
A (15mm) 2 / 4
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Dr. Yuan

MAE314

Solid Mechanics

Fall, 2008

2.3 Normal (Extensional) Strain under Axial Loading

The internal forces are associated with stretching deformations of the body. These
stretching deformations are due to relative displacements between neighboring points in the
body. Measures of these relative deformations are termed strains. If the bar stretches (i.e., L*>L),
the elongation (L) of the bar under the axially loaded bar with length L is the cumulative results
of the uniform stretching of all elements of the material. The (normal) strain is defined by
L L* L
=
(2.3.1)
L
L
In this case, the strain is positive and is called tensile strain; otherwise a shortening of the bar
results in a negative value of , referred to as compressive strain.
=

Similar to the stress, if the axis along the length of the bar is designated as x, then a subscript is
sometimes added to the strain component, x.
Thermal Strain

When a member experiences a temperature change, it can experience a change in size and
shape. Solids generally expand when heated and contract when cooled. Consider a homogeneous
bar of uniform cross section which rests freely on a smooth horizontal surface. If the temperature
of the bar is raised by T, the bar elongates by an amount T which is proportional to both the
temperature change T and the length L of the bar.
L

T
L

T = LT = (T ) L

T = LT / L = T

: Thermal expansion coefficient

The strains resulting from thermal effects are assumed to be independent of any stress or
deformation that at the time of, or that is imposed during or after, the temperature change. This
enables us to use superposition and to write the total strain resulting from a combination of
mechanical and thermal effects can be superposed according to

or

TOTAL = MECH + THERMAL

(2.3.2)

TOTAL = MECH + T

(2.3.3)

If the solid is linearly elastic the stress-strain temperature relation for a one-dimensional
solid can be further specialized to

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MAE314

Solid Mechanics

Fall, 2008

+ T
E
Another form of this relation that is frequently useful is

(2.3.4)

TOTAL = =

= E ( T )

(2.3.5)
Example 2.3.1 A bar of length L, fixed at one end and free at the other is subjected to a uniform
temperature T. Determine the stresses and displacement in the bar.
There are no mechanical loads applied so that the free-body diagram of a portion of the
bar yields the result that there is no internal force P transmitted and hence that = P/A = 0. From
the eqn. (2.3.4), the strain is then given by
= T
Assuming that is a constant, the elongation of the bar is obtained from
L
=
L
or
L = L = TL
for the elongation of the bar. The conclusion is that for this statically determinate structure, there
is strain ( =T), but no stress! However, if there is a constraint imposed in the bar, stress
induced by the constraint will occur. This state of stress is under self-equilibrium.

2.4 Stress-strain Diagram

Stress-strain curve under tension (not to scale)

PL : Proportional limit. The ratio of the stress to strain in this linear region is called Youngs
modulus or the modulus of elasticity and is given by

E=

Two yield stresses, upper yield stress (YP)u and lower yield stress (YP)l are indicated in the
figure. The lower yield stress is often called yield stress. It means that if strain will not go back
to zero when the stress is totally relaxed; that is permanent strain will remain. The flat region
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Solid Mechanics

Fall, 2008

between D and E is referred to perfectly plastic zone. U at point F represents the ultimate stress
or ultimate strength; F fracture stress at G. There is a pronounced reduction in cross sectional
area between F and G, called necking.
P
, A0: original cross-sectional area
(2.4.1)
Engineering stress: =
A0
P
True stress: t = ,
A: current (deformed) cross-sectional area
A

, L0: original gage length

Engineering strain: =
L0
True strain:
L
, L: current (deformed) gage length.
=
L
Adding successive value of , the true strain is defined as
L
t = =
L
Replacing the summation by the integral, the true strain is rewritten as
L dL
L
t =
= ln
L0 L
L0
For small strains,

L +

=
t = ln 0
= ln1 +
L0
L0 L0

2.6 Linear Elasticity; Hookes law and Poissons ratio

When the bar is loaded in tension by a magnitude P along the x axis, we have x = P/A,
and from Hooke's law,

(2.6.1)
x = x
E

we also note that the normal stresses on faces respectively perpendicular to the y and z axes are
zero: y = z = 0. It would be tempting to conclude that the corresponding strains y and z are
also zero. This, however, is not the case. In all engineering materials, the axial elongation
produced by an tensile force P in the direction of the force is accompanied by lateral contraction
d/2
P

d/2

lateral strain = -

d : height of the bar

Poisson' s ratio = = -

lateral strain ( y or y )

(2.6.2)

axial strain ( x )
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Dr. Yuan

MAE314

Solid Mechanics

Fall, 2008

> 0, 0.25 0.35 for metals

2.7 Shear Stress and Shear strain; Shear modulus

Shear stress is produced whenever the applied forces cause one section of a body to tend
to slide past its adjacent section. The av is determined by the shear force V in the plane of the
section by the corresponding area A.
If you pull the center of a pencil by a force F, while the ends of the pencil touches the
walls. By equilibrium, the reaction force R acting on the each surface of the pencil is
F = 2R

Therefore, each of two cross sections is subjected to average shear stress

av =

R
F
=
A 2A

This type of loading is typical of many technological applications such as the clevis
shown. If each of the bolts has a cross-sectional area A. Then from an FBD of the left-hand plate
and the pieces of bolt it contains we see that there are six areas over which the shearing forces
are distributed (three on the underside of the plate not shown). See Fig (b). Thus the average
shear stress is av = F/6A.

It should be emphasized that the value obtained is an average value of the shear stress
over the entire cross section. Contrary to the normal stress, the distribution of shear stresses
across the section cannot be assumed uniform. (see later Chapters). It will show that the actual
of the shear stress varies from zero at the surface of the member to a maximum value max which
may be much larger than the average value av. Therefore, the average shear stress serves to
establish a low bound on the actual maximum shear stress.
Applications: Shear stress are commonly found in bolts, pins, welds, glued joints, and rivets used
to connect various structural members and machine components. This type of shear is usually
called direct shear in which the shear stresses are created by a direct action of the forces in trying
to shear off the material. Shear stresses also arise in an indirect manner when members are
subjected to tension, torsion, and bending, as discussed in later chapters.
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Dr. Yuan

MAE314

Solid Mechanics

Fall, 2008

Bearing stress or contact stress (always compressive): Bolts, pins, and rivets create bearing
stresses in the members they connect, along the bearing surface, or surface of contact.
Shear stress acts parallel or tangential to the cross section of the material.
Example 2.7.1 Determine the average stress of the adhesive between the blocks.

av =

P
A

av =

P/2
A

Example 2.7.2 Single lap joint (single shear)

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Dr. Yuan

MAE314

Solid Mechanics

Fall, 2008

P
P

(b)

(a)

bolt

e
A

av

P
P

(d)

(c)

P
Abolt
Consider the plate B connected by a bolt. The plate exerts on the bolt a force P and opposite to
the force P exerted by the bolt on the plate B. The force P represents the resultant of elementary
forces distributed on the inside surface of a half-cylinder of diameter d and of length t equal to
the thickness of the plate. Since the distribution of these forces - and of the corresponding
stresses- is quite complicated, one uses in practice an average nominal value bearing of the stress,
called bearing stress, obtained by dividing the load by the area of the rectangular representing the
projection of the bolt on the plate section. Since this area is equal to dt,

av =

t
projected area = d

contact stress

b
B

an average normal stress referred to bearing stress is

bearing =

P
dt

Example 2.7.3 Double lap joint (Double shear)

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Dr. Yuan

MAE314

Solid Mechanics

t1

t2

t2

Fall, 2008

P/2
P/2
P

P/2

P/2

(a)

(b)
A

bolt

P/2
P

t1

av

P/2

(d)

(c)

av =

P/2
Abolt

P
C

The average bearing stress at the hole in member C is bearing =

P
. Similarly, the bearing stress
dt

P/2
dt
Sign convention for shear stresses and strains

at the hole in member A and B is bearing =

Shear stress: A shear stress acting on a positive face of an element is positive if it acts in the
positive direction of one of the coordinate axes and negative if it acts in the negative direction of
an axis. A shear stress acting on a negative face of an element is positive if it acts in the negative
direction of an axis and negative if it acts is a positive direction.

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Dr. Yuan

MAE314

Solid Mechanics

Fall, 2008

/2

/2

Fig. Shear stress always comes with two pairs in mutually perpendicular planes.

Shear strain: The square element with length unity under shear is observed to deform into a
parallelogram of both sides equal to one. Two of the angles formed by the four faces under stress
are reduced from /2 to /2-, while the other two are increased from /2 to /2+. The small
angle (expressed in radians) defines the shear strain. When the deformation involves a
reduction of the angle formed by the two faces oriented respectively toward the positive x and y
axes, the shear strain is said to be positive; otherwise it is said to be negative.
Hookes Law in Shear : Shear stress is proportional to shear strain

=G

G : Shear modulus of elasticity

(2.7.1)

For isotropic materials,

G=

E
2(1 + )

(2.7.2)

2.8 Introduction to Design-Axial Loads and Direct Shear

Use stress to determine when a structure fails. In the design process, we take the expected
loads and design the structure such that the stress at any point in the structure remains below
some allowable level.

Factor of safety = FS =

failure load
allowable load

(2.8.1)

Factor of safety = FS =

failure stress
allowable stress

(2.8.2)

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Dr. Yuan

MAE314

Solid Mechanics

Fall, 2008

Sometimes in the conservative design, the failure stress is replaced by yield stress Y for tension.

allow =

Y
FS

allow =

Y
FS

In shear

Example 2.9

Allowable Force based on Member BC:

8 P1
= (T ) allow = 300 MPa P1 = 56.25 kN
3 A1
Allowable Force based on Member BD:

5 P2
= (C ) allow = 200 MPa P2 = 60 kN.
3 A2
Comparing the allowable for BD and BC,
Pallow = 56.2 kN.

Example 2.10

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Dr. Yuan

MAE314

Solid Mechanics

Fall, 2008

Ans: Plan the solution:

(1) The structure is pin-loaded, therefore there is no moment around the supports, A, B, and D.
(2) BD is two-force member.
(3) Pin A is in double shear, pin B single shear. No specification for pin at D.
(4) The problem is to design the bar BD and the pins at A and B.
(5) Since the factor of safety is given, the normal and shear allowable can be determined before
solving the problem. allow=Y/FS=36/3=12 ksi; allow=Y/FS=48/3=16 ksi.
Solution:
By recognizing the BD is a two-force member, the direction of the force is along the
direction of the member. By taking the moment at point A and summing the forces to zero in two
directions, the reaction forces at point B and A can be determined.
(a) Design of bar BD:
FBD = allow ABD ABD = (2in.)t BD =

10kips
12ksi

t BD = 0.417in. The nearest 1/8 in. gives t BD = 0.5in.

(b) Design of Pins A and B:

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Dr. Yuan

MAE314

Solid Mechanics

Pin A is in double shear. Thus

AA =

Fall, 2008

1
6.708kips
FA = allow AA AA =
= 0.210in 2
2
2(16ksi )

d A2
d A = 0.517in. The nearest 1/8 in. gives d A = 0.625in.
4

Similarly pin B is in single shear. Thus FB = allow AB AB =

AB =

10kips
= 0.625in 2
16ksi

d A2
d B = 0.892in. The nearest 1/8 in. gives d B = 1.0in.
4

2.9 Stress on an Oblique Plane under Axial Loading

For equation = P/A, the normal stress is uniformly distributed over the cross section
(say, mn). Since there are no forces in the other directions, the shear stresses are zero. Does this
mean there are no shear stresses at any point in the bar?
Next consider a free-body diagram made by slicing the bar at an angle to the
longitudinal axis. From equilibrium, the force is still P in the horizontal direction.

Since every part of the bar has the same axial strains, the stress acting over section p-q
must be uniformly distributed. The normal and tangential components of the force P are
N = Pcos , V = Psin

(2.9.1)
n

nt

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Dr. Yuan

MAE314

Solid Mechanics

Fall, 2008

The area over which the forces are acting has also changed. A1 = A/cos. Therefore, the
normal and shear stresses over the inclined surfaces are
N P
n =
= cos 2 = x cos 2
A1 A
V
P
nt = = sin cos = x sin cos
(2.9.2)
A1
A
The important lesson to be learned from this example is that it is meaningless to ask
"What is the stress at point O?" unless you also stipulate the orientation of the planes on which
you want the stress computed. We also conclude that the general state of stress will vary with the
choice of coordinate axes.
Further, if the small element is drawn where the sides are parallel or perpendicular to the
inclined faces, the element will experience the extension and distortion under and .
For a bar under compression, two stress elements which provide the extreme values of
the stress state can be drawn. The first element called A is oriented at = 0o, the other B oriented
at = 45o. The element A has the maximum normal stresses, max = x, and element B has the
largest shear stresses, max = x/2 with equal biaxial tensile stresses, x/2. Even although the
maximum shear stress is only half the maximum normal stress, the shear stress may cause the
failure the material (in other words, the failure surface is along the 45o inclined surface) if the
shear strength of the material is much weaker than the tensile strength

Key Concepts
P
(normal stress, direction perpendicular to the cross section) (the formula is valid
A
regardless of the shape of the cross section)

1. =

av =

F
(shear stress, direction parallel to the cross section)
A

2. shear stress in the stress element always comes with two pairs (satisfying moment equ.)
3. bearing stress (compressive normal stress)
4. shear stress can develop in axially loaded members.
5. factor of safety, stress allowable

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Dr. Yuan