Introductory Power Plant Operation

Training Course

MABAR POWER STATION

CONTENT
1.

INTRODUCTION

FAMILIARISATION WITH PLANT

THE A.P. A S POSITION IN THE OPERATING TEAM

INSTRUCT IONS
4.1 Types of Instruction
4. 1.1 Written Instruct ions
4.2
4.3
4.4

4.1.2 Verbal Instructions

Receiving Instructions
Carrying Out Instructions
Reporting Back

UNDERSTANDING RUNNING CONDITIONS

5.1 Instruments
5.1.1
5. 1.2 Cooler
5.2

Use of Senses

CARE OF PLANT
6.2
6.3

Pumps

6.1 Electrical and Mechanical Maintenance

Design of Plant
Correct Use and Operation of Plant
6.3.1 Mistakes in Operation
6.3. 2 Incorrect Operating Methods

LUBRICATION
7.1

Why Plant Lubrication is Necessary

7.2

Types of Lubricant
7. 2.1
Lubricating Oil
7.2.2
Lubricating Grease

7.3

Applications of Lubrication
7.3.1
Plain Journal Bearings - Pressure Lubricated
7.3.2
Ring Oiled Journal Bearings
7.3.3
Ball and Roller Bearings
7.3.4
Gearboxes
7.3.5
Valves

7.4

A.P.A.'s Duties on Lubrication

ROUTINE INSPECTION

CLEANLINESS AND GOOD HOUSEKEEPING

9.1
9.2

10

Cleanliness
Good Housekeeping

INSTRUMENTS
10.1 Instrument Readings
10.2 Target Conditions

11

DEFECT REPORTING

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Fig.5.1.1

Pump and Tank System Conditions

Fig.5. 1 .2

Oiler Cooler Conditions

Fig.6.3.1A

Damage to Heat Exchanger

Fig.6.3.1 B

Error in Valve Operation

Fig.6.3.IC

Effect of Lack of Drainage

Fig.6.3.2A

Damage to Parallel Slide Valve

Fig.6.3.2B

Damage to Wedge Gate Valve

Fig.6.3.2C

Overstressing Cold Pipe by Sudden Inrush of Hot Steam

Fig.7.3.1A

Bearing Shell

Fig.7.3.1 B

Bearing Oil Baffles and Throwers

Fig.7.3.2

Ring Oiled Bearing

Fig.7.3.3

Ball and Roller Bearings

Fig.7.3.4

Gearbox Showing Oil Bath and Sight Glass

Fig.7.3.5

Valve and By-pass Showing Lubrication Points

Fig.10

Instrument Readings

Introductory Power Plant Operation Trainin Course

Lesson 5
Duties of Auxiliary Plant Attendants

INTRODUCTION
The object of this lesson is to outline the duties and responsibilities of the auxiliary
plant attendant. The subject will be dealt with in general terms as it would be
impracticable to cover all types of plant in detail.

FAMILIARISATION WITH PLANT

The first essential an operator s job is to know his plant He will work on a variety
of plant and in rotating his duties to cover leave and other absences he will add to
this variety.
Whilst it may be difficult to have a detailed understanding of all types of
plant some basic information and a few simple rules will enable an operator to
do his job properly and confidently.
A useful summary is:(a) Know the layout of the station; particularly one s own working area. Be
thoroughly conversant with the position of plant, access routes, telephones and
firefighting equipment.
(b) Use correct operational practices; know and practice correct operational
techniques. Operate valves correctly. Avoid changing operating conditions
suddenly. Allow sufficient time for thick metal parts to warm up.
(c) Regular lubrication is vital; there are many types and grades of lubricants and
a variety of uses. Always use the correct grease oil for a particular job. Have
lubrication faults remedied immediately.
(d) Keep the plant clean; clean and tidy plant 1s essential both to prevent
accidents and to prevent deterioration of the plant. Spillages and debris must be
cleared away promptly.

The points mentioned above will become clearer with training and experience; however
more detail will be covered later in the lesson.
Keep the unit engineer fully informed about plant conditions and have standby plant
ready for him to switch in at any time.
An A P.A. will be trained so that he can locate and operate important plant in difficult
circumstances, for example, in semi-darkness or in clouds of steam and vapour.
Continuous observation by the A.P.A. will maintain this high level of awareness.
To summarise, the main requirement is confidence. Not rash over-confidence, which
often stems from ignorance, but confidence arising out of knowledge and familiarity
with the plant.

SELF TEST QUESTION

1.

What are the qualities that a good A P.A. possesses?

3.

THE A.P.A. S POSITION IN THE OPERATING

TEAM

Plant can be divided into main units such as boilers and turbo generators and auxiliary
plant, as described in Lesson I.
Each main unit has a Unit Engineer who is responsible for its operation. If he is by
himself his movements are restricted to the immediate vicinity of the control panel or
desk. In central control rooms, where there are Assistant Unit Engineers, one man can
tour the plant whilst the other remains in the Control Room. In this way personal contact
is maintained between Unit Engineer and A P.A., and the Unit Engineer can check his A
P.A. and give help or advice if it is needed.
The auxiliary equipment installed on the various levels or floors of a power station will be
attended to by auxiliary plant attendants. In addition, processes may be carried out in
separate buildings; these will fall within the A P.A. 's orbit also.
Auxiliary plant divides into two classes and these are:
(a)

auxiliaries serving one unit only.

(b)

auxiliaries common to all units.

When unit auxiliaries fail immediate attention will usually be necessary to enable the
unit to stay in service.
Auxiliaries vital to the safe operation of a unit are duplicated. Important example are
boiler feed pumps and condensate extraction pumps. As mentioned in Section 2,
standby items must be kept in a state of instant readiness. The continuing safe
operation of a unit in the event of a failure depends upon the standby auxiliary being
immediately available when it is needed.
Plant for handling fuel and treating water are examples of equipment that is common
to all units. A breakdown occurring in this class of plant will not always affect the
station output immediately. However, when the output from equipment serving all
units is reduced it may become necessary to restrict output. A breakdown in fuel or
water supplies could cause this.
An A P.A. working on the two classes of plant mentioned carries out a supporting
role to the staff responsible for the equipment' s operation. It is vital that he should
be observant and repot accurately, because important operational decisions may be
based on the information that he supplies.

SELF TEST QUESTION

1.

H ow do an A P.A ' s duties fit in with those of the rest of the staff in the operating

team?

4.

INSTRUCTIONS
Before dealing with instructions in detail, it is as well to consider why they are
necessary, a power station is large and complicated, with staff fairly widely
dispersed. Therefore to have efficient control, each man must know precisely what
is expected of him. In particular, A.P.A.s must be trained to carry out their duties so
that the plant under their control functions properly.
4.1

Types of Instruction
4.1 .1

Written Instructions
Operating instructions for the plant item
Station standing instruction

Lubrication schedules
Standing orders in the event of fire
Plant log book
Instructions in the event of emergencies
4.1.2

Verbal Instructions
These are to cope with day-to-day or hour-to-hour changes in
plant requirements and cover such aspects as warnings of
developing trouble, instructions to start up or shut down plant
and preparation of plant for maintenance or operation.
A verbal request may be made to an A P.A. to investigate an
alarm. An example of this would be an indication on the control
panel of bearing cooling water failure. The AP.A. would be
asked to investigate and report back his findings to the Unit
Engineer.
Instructions issued in an emergency to safeguard personnel or
plant would also come under this heading.

4.2

Receiving instruction
For each type of instruction there is an issuer and a receiver. It is the
issuer s responsibility to ensure his instructions are clear and not liable to
be misunderstood. The receiver, on the other hand, must make sure he
understands the instruction and knows exactly what is expected of him.
Written instructions should be read carefully; ask for an explanation if any
points are not clear.
With complicated instructions a notebook or rough sketches will assist in
avoiding mistakes. Always ask questions if something is not understood.

4.3

Carrying Out Instructions

When an A P.A. is given instructions he will usually have to make some
change in the operating situation. Moreover it is not always a straight
forward procedure. For example an instruction:

(a) Open valve C.W. 1A; the inlet to Number I A water storage tank.
(b) Close valve C.W. IB; the inlet to Number 1 B water storage tank.
Each instruction above is in two parts. Once the A P.A. has understood the
instruction, the first part open valve C.W.IA and close valve C.W.1B)
gives him an easy reference when carrying out the instruction. The second
part (the inlet .......... etc.) gives a brief description of the operation which
reinforces the understanding of the first part

Further reinforcement can be given by explaining why the operation is being

carried out, i.e. the east tank is being put in service after cleaning and the
west tank emptied for clean1ing.
This should follow after the instructions shown above.
Even a simple instruction like this carries several implications. These are:
(a) That valve C.W.1A is closed and that valve C.W.1B is open.
(b) That the operations should be carried out in the sequence given.
(c) That there is no danger involved in access to the valves or in operating them.
It may be that the situation is not that which the person issuing the
instruction understands it to be. The operator may find that he is unable to
carry out the instruction as given and he will have to think carefully about his
next action. As a general rule situations like this should be reported to the
person issuing the instructions. However, if the operator thinks that his next
step is obvious it will not usually be difficult for him to telephone and say
what he is about to do. Any course that he takes on his own initiative must not
involve a risk for himself, other people, or the plant. If he has any doubts at all
he must tell his supervisor before proceeding.

4.4

Reporting Back
The need for efficient control in a power station has already been mentioned.

It is essential in any system of control that whoever issues instructions is

informed that the instructions have been carried out. If the instructions
cannot be carried out he should be told the reasons why. This is called
reporting back and it requires an operator to report the carrying out of
instructions or other wise to his supervisor. It clearly makes a great deal of
sense from the control point of view, but there are three other important
advantages:(a) It maintains communication between the members of an operating team.
(b) In the carrying out of an instruction, the operator may get into difficulties
and require assistance.
(c) The operator may meet with an accident or be taken ill while carrying out a
particular instruction. The absence of a report would then alert his
supervisor.

SELF TEST QUESTIONS

1.

In the event of sudden emergency on the plant what instructions would you
expect to work to?

2.

What would you do if you found yourself unable to comply with an instruction
when you went out on the plant?

3.

What would you do if at the time of receiving an instruction you knew it could
not be carried out?

4.

Why is it important to tell your supervisor that you have carried out his
instructions or have been unable to do so?

UNDERSTANDI NG RUNNING CONDITIONS

The auxiliary plant in a power station must be operated to support the main boiler
and turbine units.
The main units can then be operated to generate the load as instructed by the
System Control Centre.
The various items of auxiliary plant are dealt with in detail in Lessons 7, 8, 9 and
10, but there are some basic Principles which apply to the running conditions of
any plant.

5.1 Instruments
When a machine is running it is possible for the operator to make limited
checks on its performance by listening, feeling for excess heat, and perhaps
smelling for burning oil or insulation. Howeverto get an accurate
indication most equipment has basic instruments fitted to monitor features
such as pressure of oil or gas, current flowing in motor windings, fluid
levels in tanks and draughts produced by fans.
Compared with the operator who is controlling and directing the operation
of the entire unit, the A.P.A. covers a much narrower field. However, this
enables him to concentrate on the detail of his section. He will make a
regular survey and log his instrument readings.
From this information he will be able to recognise abnormal occurrences
immediately. Moreover experience and training will show him what to
expect whenever loads are changed; whether slowly or suddenly. Thus
continuous observation of his instrument readings will assist the A.P.A. in
passing on information whenever undesirable situations arise on the plant
in his section.
Two examples are considered below in a little more detail.
5.1.5

Pumps
Fig. 5.1.1.(a) shows a simple arrangement of a pump supplying
a tank with water with conditions normal. Figs.5.1.1 (b) and (c)
show examples of abnormal conditions and causes.
Bear in mind also that any failure of the pump to perform its
job will mean a shortage of water in the tank.

5.1.2

Cooler
Consider Fig. 5.1.2.(a) shows an oil cooler operating normally,
(b) and (c) show the cooler operating under abnormal conditions.

10

5.2

Use of Senses
Instruments are not normally provided on auxiliary plant to detect the
type of defect mentioned in 5.1 The plant will be maintained regularly to
avoid trouble. However, between overhauls faults can still occur. To
anticipate or detect potential breakdowns the A. P.A. must use his powers
of observation, which include seeing, hearing, feeling and smelling
symptoms as soon as they arise.
Like instrument readings these observations must be made regularly to be
effective or accurate. The sense of touch is no where near as sensitive as
the visual indication of an ammeter needle; moreover the change in
temperature of a bearing housing as the bearing wears is very slow.
Changes in an ammeter reading can be recorded fairly accurately but a
change of 1C on a bearing housing between morning and afternoon
would hardly be detectable by hand. If the A.P.A is alert at all times and
makes regular checks he will increase the chances of finding trouble
before it is disruptive.
The senses most likely to be used and some of the symptoms that they
will detect are summarised below.
Touch
vibration in bearing or moving parts
excessive heat in bearing or moving parts
Sight
flashing lights
changes in instrument reading
oil and water leaks
steam leaks
Smell
anything burning or unusual
insulation overheating
oil overheating

listen

Sound
telephone bells, sirens, klaxons
alarms from control panels
anything unusual noisy (even if the cause or sources is not apparent,
and have a look around)
steam leaks
knocking or excessive vibration from bearings or moving machinery

11

speeding up or slowing down of motors or machinery plant tripping

out
The possibility of high pressure steam leaks is a risk faced by anybody
working in a power station. Good maintenance will ensure that the risk
is kept to a minimum, but the danger will always the leak the escaping
steam will be invisible; however the noise that it produces is
considerable and unmistakable. This emphasises once again the value
of listening for trouble. With faults like this see that warning notices
and barriers are erected as soon as possible to restrict access to the
danger zone.

SELF TEST QUESTIONS

1

How does the running of auxiliary plant affect the main boilers and turbinegenerators?

2.

What means are available to an Auxiliary Plant Attendant to check on the

running conditions of his plant?

CARE OF PLANT
Most people own power operated equipment of one sort or another, from
mechanised kitchen equipment to home workshops and of course transportation,
from the moped to the motor car. Designers and manufacturers try to provide
equipment which will give long, reliable service, with the minimum of attention.
Owners of such equipment either know, or have learned the hard way, that this
minimum attention is essential to achieve good service.
Power station plant is run to provide an economic public service; a long service is
expected of it, 25 years or more, and in this respect the same is expected of power
station plant as privately owned equipment.
Any machine will give long, reliable service if attention is given to the following:(I)

Overhauls are carried out regularly.

(II )

The machine should be used only for those jobs for which it was
designed.

(III)

Operate the machine correctly.

12

(IV)
(V)
6.1

Clean the machine regularly.

Lubricate regularly.
Electrical and Mechanical Maintenance
Maintenance work is not normally part of an A.P.A s duties but he can
assist the Maintenance Department by operating the plant correctly and
reporting defects promptly. Section 6.3 will have more to say on this
topic.

6.2

Design of Plant
This also is not a matter over which an A.P.A. has any influence. It is
Primarily a question of station design and installation. Examples
illustrating this are, correct size pumps properly installed; coolers of
adequate size with a margin for fouling; drains and sumps of adequate
capacity
.
6.3

Correct Use and Operation of Plant

Defective auxiliary plant can reduce the output of a main unit and because
of this the need for correct operation cannot be overstressed. Moreover
the affects of maloperation are not usually immediately obvious; trouble
often occurs when it causes a maximum of inconvenience. Maloperation
generally occurs for one of the following reasons:(a)

A wrong method is used; perhaps deliberately, as a short cut;

or frorn a mistake in training.

(b)

A mistake is made; e.g. an instruction is not heard correctly

or misread and the wrong valve is closed.

6.3.1

Mistakes in Operation
When a mistake occurs in operations it is important to get back
to the cause of the mistake. Some common cause of operational
mishaps are:(a)

Not hearing instructions properly

(b)

Not writing down instructions correctly.

(c)

Not reading instructions properly.

13

(d)

Operating in error a simiar or adjacent piece of equipment.

(e)

Doing a series of operations out of sequence.

(f)

Forgetting an operation in a sequence through urrying,

being distracted or working under pressure.

Errors like these although largely unintentional, can be reduced

considerably by a little discipline.
Always read instructions back to the issuer.
Always read the instruction again immediately before carrying
out the instruction
Dont stop for a chat whilst doing operations - leave it until the
job is finished.
Resist the urge to hurry whilst carrying out operations that can
have disruptive consequences if not done properly. Of course
this doesn't mean linger, but occasionally in their concern for
the situation people become flustered and very easily forget
important details.
It is probably a useful point now to consider some of the
consequences of the mistakes discussed.
Without any doubt points (a), (b), (c) and (d) are the most serious
and can lead to disastrous situations, not only to the system, but
to the man concerned or even his colleagues. The least that can
happen if the mistake is not realised before the event occurs is
that an incorrect operation is performed. Unfortunately, this
event itself can cause a panic and the man, realising his mistake,
tries to reverse the incorrect operation he has first carried out.
Alternatively he may try to carry out the correct operation before
having the consequences of his error put right. In other words a
chain reaction can very easily occur, brought about by the
pressure of the moment Caution is paramount once a mistake has
been realised; think carefully about what has happened as a
result of the incorrect action. Once the situation is clearly in
perspective think carefully about the remedial action that will
follow. Always report back a situation like this. Consequences
are sometimes more far reaching than is appreciated, and it is
essential that the unit engineer or supervisor knows exactly what
is happening on the plant

14

Mistakes with pumps and valves

There are many types of pumps, but the most common type in a
power station is the centrifugal pump. This pump must be full of
water when running. If the pump is run without water, it may be
damaged due to overheating. A pump could be starved of water by
shutting the suction valve, or allowing the suction to become
blocked, or allowing a supply tank to empty.
There is a correct procedure of sequence for operating valves
when starting up, shutting down, or controlling a particular piece
of plant.
The importance of keeping to the correct sequence has been
mentioned and some examples of what to avoid are as follows.
Never supply hot fluid to a heat exchanger before the cold fluid
flow is established.
Never open a drain valve so that oil is lost from a lubrication
system.
Drain valves on steam, water and air systems should always be
opened at the right time. If this is overlooked it may mean that
undesirable fluids are driven through the system causing damage
to parts of the plant in the path of the fluid. The damage may be
caused by physical impact with parts of the plant because fluid
droplets travelling fast enough can act as an abrasive.
Alternatively, the parts may be subjected to undesirable sudden
temperature changes.
Three examples of the effect of incorrect operation of valves are
given in Figs. 6.3.1A, B and C.
6.3.2

Incorrect Operating Methods

The majority of incorrect operating methods centre around the
short cut. They range from leaving something out to doing things
too quickly. Vital lubrication is perhaps skipped or a steam valve
rapidly opened subjecting cold metal to sudden and large
temperature changes. At the other end of the scale too much
attention to making sure can also lead to incorrect techniques.
Valves can be damaged by over screwing (down or up) when
attempting to make sure that they are closed or open.

15

16

By keeping to methods taught during training an operator will keep on the right track.
Occasionally an error may occur in training and the wrong method taught but this
situation is exceptional. An operator can even help here by always asking questions
about his training especially as to why he is expected to perform a task in a particular
way. He will learn more by this approach and it will certainly prompt his supervisor to
have further thoughts on the task.
A few detailed notes and diagrams on plant will help to complete this section.
Valves that become defective from incorrect handling, besides jeopardising the efficiency
of the main plant, are a source of danger to men working near to them
.

Examples of damage to valves are shown in Figs. 6.3.2A and 6.3.2B

The forces contained in high pressure steam, water or air can cause considerable damage
if they are not effectively controlled. To withstand fluctuations in these forces the plant is
17

designed with large safety factors but sudden drastic changes can result in overstraining
and even failure.

18

Fig. 6.3.2C shows an example of subjecting cold pipework to

excessive temperature increases.
CRACKS CAUSED BY EXCESSIVE
STRETCH OR OVERSTRESSING

OUTER SURFACE OF PIPE COOL AND DOES NOT EXPAND

BUT IS STRETCHED BY EXPANDING INNER SURFACE

INNER SURFACE OF PIPE HEATED QUICKLY

TRIES TO EXPAND IN DIRECTION OF ARROWS

Fig. 6.3.2C Overst essing cold pipe by sudden inrush of hot steam

Another example of this situation is when relatively cold water or wet

steam makes contact with hot metal surfaces. Pouring cold water into the
radiator of an overheated car engine would almost certainly crack the
cylinder block due to the sudden chilling of a limited area of the block.
A useful conclusion to reach on this topic is that operations on power plant
should be deliberately and carefully thought out. The time allocated to each
stage of the operation must allow a smooth change to take place and the
plant should not be put at risk by rushing stages where a degree of patience
is necessary.

SELF TEST QUESTIONS

1.

How can mistakes in operation be avoided?

2.

What effects are produced on plant by say, opening valves too quickly?

LUBR.ICATION
Lubrication is the lifeblood of all machinery; without it industry would quickly
grind to a halt. With this in mind it should not be difficult to appreciate that
lubrication is one of the most important aspects or an A.P.A. 's job. Whilst falling
under the heading Care of Plant it merits separate treatment because of its
importance.
7.1 Why Plant Lubrication Is Necessary
Put simply, lubrication is necessary because without it the plant wears out.
The plant wears out because it is designed to run aided by lubrication. The
expense to industry if machinery ran without efficient lubrication would be
astronomical. Indeed lubrication is a fundamental part of the process in
many machines; without it there would not be an alternative however much
was spent.
Why does the plant wear out?
Again put simply, usually because of friction, but in many situations the
machinery would be knocked to pieces. How does lubrication overcome
the wearing out process? It either reduces friction by making the surfaces
slippery or it acts as a shock absorber and prevents a general disintegration.
The auxiliary plant operator will be more concerned with wear due to
friction. Friction, as well as lubrication, will now be discussed in more
detail.
Friction
Resistance to movement is called friction, and frictional forces are
encountered in every day life as well as in engineering. When two surfaces
slide over each other friiction impedes the motion. A skater on ice
experiences very little friction from the ice but is gradually brought to rest
by the resistance of the air. If there was no friction between our shoes and
the floor, walking would be impossible; this is an example of friction being
a help, and there are many others. Narrowing the discussion to machinery,
friction is lower between highly polished surfaces than between rough
surfaces but it can never be eliminated completely. No matter how highly
polished surfaces appear to the naked eye, they have innumerable hills and
valleys which bind together when movement takes place.

In the case of bearings, however, every endeavour is made to reduce

friction as far as possible by introducing oil, or grease, or by using ball or
roller bearings.
In ball and roller bearings, sliding in the bearing is replaced by rolling,
and friction is further reduced. Compared with a roller bearing the friction
produced by a brake lining may be 300 times as great.
However carefully the surfaces of a bearing are machined they are never
perfectly smooth. The low areas between high spots may be filled with a
layer of lubricant of a small thickness, but at the high spots the thickness
of oil or grease is infinitely small. This type of lubrication is referred to as
boundary lubrication.
Boundary lubrication is used in slow speed drives such as C.W. strainer
shafts and in worm gears in which the greater part of the motion is sliding
between the mating teeth.
Boundary lubrication is not the ideal method of lubrication. A better
method is to completely separate the bearing surfaces by a film of oil.
Once this film has been established there is no metal to metal contact.
Even with this method friction cannot be completely eliminated, since
one layer of oil will slide over another layer. This is known as fluid
friction or viscosity.
Conditions for film lubrication
The presence of a film of oil which completely separated two bearing
surfaces was first observed to exist in 1883. Three conditions are
necessary before this film can be established.
(a) There must be relative motion between the two surfaces, because
the oil film will break down if the shaft ceases to rvolve in the
bearing. In practice it will break down at a certain minimum
speed before the shaft stops.
(b)

There must be a continuous supply of oil to the bearing

surfaces.

(c)

One of the surfaces must be inclined at a small angle to the

other one so that the oil itself is formed into the shape of a thin
wedge tapering in the direction of motion. In cylindrical bearings
this wedge must be imagined as being wrapped round part of the
shaft.

How these conditions are fulfilled in practice will be shown later. The
thickness of the oil film depends upon the load on the bearings, the speed
of rotation and the viscosity of the oil.

If an oil has too low a viscosity the oil film would rupture, that is it
would be squeezed out by the load. On the other hand, an oil with too
high a viscosity would cause extra frictional losses and generate
additional heat in the bearing. A compromise must be made and, at the
highest working temperature for the bearing, the viscosity must be high
enough to maintain the oil film with a margin of safety and yet not high
enough to overheat the bearing.
Film lubrication is used in turbines for both journal and thrust bearings
and also for the bearings in such auxiliaries as fans and feed pumps.

7.2
7.2.1

Types of Lubricant

Lubricating Oil
Requisites of a good oil
The main requirements for a good oil are:
The correct viscosity
Oxidation stability Demulsibility
Prevention of rust
Anti-foaming properties
Viscosity
Provided the oil satisfies the conditions that follow it is usually
chosen for its viscosity value. The viscosity must be high
enough to maintain film lubrication but not high enough to
cause increased friction losses and overheating.
Oxidation stability
Oil is a highly complex chemical mixture and some of its
components are very prone to combine with oxygen under
operating conditions. The noticeable results of oxidation are:

(a)
(b)
(c)

The oil darkens in colour.

It develops an acrid smell.
It forms lacquers and sludge and may cause corrosion

Oxidation takes place by the effect of heat in the presence of

water and entrained air and the action is speeded up by the

presence of copper and ferrous metals. Local hot spots in

bearings are a frequent cause of oxidation.
Care in the refining of oil goes a long way to reduce this
oxidation tendency. Oxidation inhibitors can be added to the
oil by the suppliers and these help to prolong the useful life
of an oil. A careful and regular check is made by the station
chemist on the oil condition because once oxidation
commences, rapid breakdown can follow.
Demulsibility
The ability of the oil to separate rapidly from water is
important, If water is able to accumulate in the system, it will
lead to the formation of oil-in-water emulsions. These
emulsions are dangerous, and may lead to a breakdown of the
oil film in a bearing and allow metal-to-metal contact. The
resistance of an oil to oxidation has a great bearing on its
ability to shed water in the settling tanks and centrifuges.
There are four main sources of water contamination in oil.
These are:(a)

Faults in steam and water glands, causing them to leak.

(b)

Leaks in oil coolers.

(c)

Faults in oil purification plant.

(d)

Moisture in the atmosphere.

Prevention of rust
There are three main forms of corrosion in oil systems.

Corrosion can occur on the upper surfaces of oil tanks,

bearing housings and surfaces not normally covered with
oil. This corrosion takes the form of a red scale and it can
be avoided by protectting these surfaces with a special
moisture-proof paint, together with the provision of
adequate ventilation of bearings and oil tanks.
Corrosion on surfaces normally covered by oil can be
caused by acids formed during oxidation of the oil. The
corrosion products dissolve in the oil and are not seen, but
they accelerate oxidation of oil and are, therefore, harmful.

Because of their high refining, modern turbine oils tend to

lose their ability to completely wet the metal surfaces and a
black rust is formed on the surfaces not wetted. The
addition of a rust inhibitor to the oil gives a high degree of
protection against rust.
Anti-foaming properties
Despite the precautions taken in designing an oil system, a
certain amount of churning of the oil takes place and foam
is produced. Foam is unwelcome in several ways, because
it interferes with heat transfer, promotes oxidation and may
cause spilling of oil at vents. In turbine control gear it can
cause erratic operation and hunting.

SELF TEST QUESTION

Consider some of the ways in which an oil can deteriorate
7.22

Lubricating Grease
Something like one tenth of each ton of lubicants
consumed consists of grease, not oil. The popularity of
lubricating grease has increased over the last thirty years
largely because of the improvement in quality. Grease has
also contributed to the progress made in various industrial
fields among which can be mentioned that of agricultural
machinery. In America, it has been claimed that the
increased use of grease lubrication for the anti friction
bearings of railway rolling stock has made possible higher
speeds and mileages.

Advantages and disadvantages of grease as a lubricant

The only basic disadvantage of grease, compared with oil, is
that it is less efficient as a coolant. Also it cannot be used as a
flushing agent for circulating systems. Its advantages are
many and include the basic property of staying put, not
flowing under its own head, not leaking or dripping away,
and usually providing a more metal-adherent film than that
of oil.
The provision of seals becomes much easier and this lends itself
to a simplification in machine design.
Grease itself acts as a seal and it protects metal surfaces by
preventing the ingress of solid impurities. Because it does not

flow away in bulk, units may often be located in a vertical

position. As it stays in the bearing it provides a far longer service
life than an oil and needs far less attention. Pre-packed bearings
will in some cases last the life of the machine and function
satisfactorily from one major overhaul to the next.
Being a good protective, many grades will lubricate well in the
presence of water and prevent rusting.
Grease keeps starting friction low in journal bearings and
provides a good cushion between certain types of gear teeth.
The first greases were either blends of viscous oil and soap,
made from lime, water and resin or, alternatively, lighter bodied
oil with soda soap from palm oil. Both types held comparatively
large amounts of water and were mainly used for the lubrication
of wheel bearings of mind tubs railway waggons, etc. and
plain journal bearings.
Axle greases will continue to be made, but are no longer in any
way representative of lubricating grease as a class.
For many years soft solid greases were combinations of
petroleum products and a soap or mixture of soaps. But
nowadays this is no longer an adequate description of lubricating
greases, for liquids other than mineral oils are used and
thickeners other than the metal soaps.
Modern grease may be soap thickened or bodied with a special
type of clay and, just as the lubricating oils, it may be treated
with additives to improve certain property

Grease made from soda based soap can be washed out with water and
should not be used in wet applications such as pump bearings. Grease
made from lime based soap is resistant to water. Other greases made from
lithium based soap are designed for use at high temperature where other
types of grease would melt and run out. Special lithium based grease is
also made which will withstand a relatively high temperature and is also
water-resistant. The table below compares oil and grease in the situations
in which they are used
Significant
Operating
Condition
High Speed

Preferred
Lubricant
Oil

Remark

Grease may give high fluid

friction and a rise in
temperature.

Low Speed

Grease

Difficult to establish and

maintain oil film. Grease can
provide lubrication under thin
film or boundary conditions.

High or Shock
Load

Grease

As for low speed; grease also

preferred for intermittent
operation.

Low Torque

Oil

Offers less resistance than

grease

Vertical position

Grease

In general does not leak.

Dust Location

Grease

Act as a seal for bearing.

Inaccessible
Location

Grease

Gives long life, reple nishment

infrequent.

Exposed Bearing
Surface

Grease

Complex Bearing
System

Oil

Clings well to surface, protect

larger surface than oil. Prevents
rusting and corrosion.
Distribution system for oil
(mechanical lubrication) can
be simpler than for grea

Must not drip or

Splash lubricant
on material being
Processed

7.3

Grease

Is less liable to be affected by

gravity or centrifugal force.
Simpler seal can be used.

Application of Lubrication
The following are typical examples which an A P.A. can expect to meet
frequently.

7.3.1

Plain Journal Bearings - Pressure Lubricated

The plain journal bearing with pressure lubrication, as used in
steam turbines, generators and some feed pump motors, is
illustrated in Fig. 7.3.1A.
The bearing shell is of cast construction, split in two and lined with
white metal. The.bearing is then machined to the required size.
To ensure an adequate supply of oil to the whole length of the
bearing, longitudinal oil grooves are provided at or near the
horizontal joint.
Oil which flows through the end of the bearing is prevented from
passing along the shaft and out of the bearing pedestal, by a series
of oil throwers on the shaft and oil scrapers or baffles in the ends of
the bearing housing. The trapped oil is drained back to the bearing
housing (see Fig.7.3.1 B).
Bearing oil pressures vary from 7 to 27 lbs/in2 depending on
design, and any deviation from the normal pressure should be
reported at once. Forced lubrication provides a means of supplying
sufficient oil to the bearing for heat dissipation.
Any high spots in the white metal lining will cause local hot spots
which may not be apparent from the bearing outlet temperature.
Such high spots lead to carbonising of the oil.
The bearing pedestal should be well ventilated.

PEG TO PREVENT ROTATION

OF BEARING IN HOUSING

HORIZONTAL SPLIT

PADS MACHINED TO FORM

SPHERICAL SLATS

Fig. 7.3.1A Beainq Shell

BEARING
SHELL

SHAFT

OIL THROWERS ON SHAFT

DRAINAGE CHANNELS

Fig. 7.3.1 B Bearing oil baffles and throwers

7.3.2

Ring Oiled Journal Bearings

The construction of ring oiled journal bearings is similar to the
previous type with the exception that there is no oil pump to supply
oil to the bearing. This type of bearing is used for much lighter
duties than the forced lubricated type and where a smaller amount
of heat is to be dissipated.

RING

PIN HOLE WHICH MUST BE KEPT

CLEAR TO ENSURE CORRECT
READING IN GLASS

SIGHT GLASS TO SHOW OIL

LEVEL

Fig. 7.3.2 Ring oiled bearing

The oil ring, shown in Fig.7.3.2, rests on the shaft through a slot in
the top half of the bearing and is turned by contact with the shaft.
As it turns it dips into the oil reservoir and carries oil to the shaft.
Distribution of oil along the shaft is through oil grooves in the
white metal.
This type of bearing usually has a fairly large clearance at the top.
The bottom half is, however, carefully scraped to fit the profile of
the shaft. The oil wedge is formed in the scraped section of the
bearing.
Heat dissipation is by convection air currents past the oil
reservoir, but when this method provides insufficient cooling, it can
be augmented with water cooling by a coiled pipe fitted in the oil
reservoir, through which water passes.

7.3.3

Ball and Roller Bearings

Ball and roller bearings are usually fitted to electric motors and similar
plant. The advantages claimed for this type of bearing are:Friction is low except at high speeds.
Accurate shaft alignment can be maintained. This is important
with electric motors.
Lubrication is simple.
With some types radial and thrust loads can be carried in one
bearing.
Replacement is easy.
Ball bearings are generally more expensive than plain journal
bearings.
There are many different arrangements of ball and roller bearings but,
in general, they consist of:An inner raceway fitted tightly to the shaft with a channel
for the balls to roll in.
A set of hard steel balls or rollers
An outer raceway fitted tightly in the bearing housing
with a channel for the balls to run in. For roller bearing it
is usual to provide a channel in the inner raceway only.
In medium and large size bearings, a cage to keep the balls or
rollers evenly spaced around the bearings.
All surfaces are finished to a high polish. The lubricant, usually
grease, serves the following purposes:To protect bearing surfaces from corrosion.
To reduce sliding friction between the balls and the cage.
To prevent ingress of foreign matter.
To aid in dissipation of heat.

Overheating is due mainly to the high viscosity of the grease

and the poor qualities of grease as a coolant, i.e. the grease
cannot carry away the heat generated by the fluid friction.
These bearings are usually greased on assembly and will usually
run for 8,000 to 10,000 hours without attention. After this time a
small quantity of grease can be added to top up the bearing. After
about 20,000 hours the bearings are stripped down, cleaned and
repacked with grease.
Fig.7.3.3A and B show the variation in designs that are
available with this type of bearing.

Fig. 7.3.3A Ball and Roller Bearings

7.3.4

Gearboxes
Gearboxes will frequently be found installed between electric motors
and rotating strainers, although there are, of course, many other
situations where they are found. The oil level in a gearbox is usually
indicated by dipstick or sight glass. Sometimes there is just a plug
which is set in the casing at the maximum oil level. Fig.7.3.4

7.3.5

Valve

Valves may be hand ormotor operated. If the latter, then the

motor bearing and gearbox will be as described above. The
valve itself, however, will have a screw thread mechanism
grease lubricated by a gun. An example is show in Fig.7.3.5.

7.4

A.P.A. s Duties on Lubrication

This section aims to bring together the points that the A P.A. should bear
in mind; some may have been mentioned earlier in the lesson. These
points fall generally under the headings of good housekeeping or correct
operational practice.
As far as operational practices are concerned:(a) Only correct grades of lubricants must be used and they must be checked
carefully they are used each time.

(b) Maintain correct oil levels - if level indicators are fitted check them for
corrrect operation, e.g. air hole on standing leg sight glass. Be wary of
high levels - water may be getting in. It is important to note that some
sight glasses and dipsticks give two levels marked "Standing " and
"Running".
(c) Check that oil rings are free to rotate and are in their correct position.
(d) Use only the correct quantity of grease. Overpacking can lead to
overheating and bearing failure. All greasing should be carried out to a
planned schedule.
(e) Check flow indicators and see that the cooling flow is correct.
Overcooling in some plant can cause damage.
(f) Clean filters at the recommended intervals.
(g) If plant is to stand for a long period carry out the standard routines for
safeguarding it against internal corrosion and shaft indentation.
(h) Lubrication faults must be remedied as quickly as possible. If this is
outside of your scope report it.

- and under good housekeeping

(a) The plant should be clean - if not dirt will inevitably find its way into
the lubricating system. Lagging is a bearing killer
(b) Leaks must not be allowed near lubricant stores which will
contaminate the lubricants.
(c) Contaminated lubricants must not be used. Keep storage containers
closed and in dry conditions.
(d) Only use recognised distribution cans and tins making sure they are
clean. Use only clean guns and equipment which is in good order.
Cans are sometimes identifiable by colours and/or numbers.
(e) Clean down caps, covers and surrounds etc. before moving covers,
and make sure they are replaced properly. Clean nipples before
greasing.
Automatic greasing equipment
Automatic greasing equipment is often fitted to plant where the slow speed or
access makes lubrication with oil impracticable and continuous greasing by a
pump is the only practical method. (This method is sometimes used for
greasing sliding feet and keys on large turbines.)
With this equipment the A P.A. s duties consist of checking that the
equipment is working and keeping the reservoir topped up with the
correct grease.

SELF TEST QUESTION

1.

Why is plant lubrication necessary?

2.

What is the difference in use between oil and grease?

3.

How is lubrication laid down for the many types of bearings in a power station?

4.

When should an Auxiliary Plant Operator grease a ball or roller bearing and why
is overgreasing harmful?

Routine inspection
Because of the variation between stations, routine inspection can only be covered
in general terms. As a general rule an A.P. A. will inspect the plant in his section at
the start of his shift to satisfy himself that everything is in order. In turn he will
also make an inspection at the end of his shift to enable him to report the plant
situation to the man taking over from him.
Patrols made later in his shift will be to log instrument readings and make other
general observations; in addition he will be watching the development of any
unusual circumstances that he has noted on earlier inspections. Serious defects or
trends should be reported when the are observed , perhaps by telephone,
and not left until the end of the tour. This may help to prevent the situation
deteriorating.
Make a note also of any lighting defects or safety hazards (obstructions etc.) and
report them. All plant should be inspected, and short cuts should not be made.
Defects not detected at the early stages may have serious consequences if not
observed until later in the day.
Finally to be eff ective routine inspection should be regular. About one hour is
probably a useful time interval. In this way sufficient observation can be made in
one shift to detect relatively small, but perhaps undesirable, trends.

SELF TEST QUEST ION

When are routine inspections best carried out and what are the main points to
look for?

CLEA NLINESS AND GOOD HOUSEKEEP ING

It is accepted that any operator will work better and more comfortably with clean
plant and a safe and tidy place of work.

Furthermore it is specially laid down in the CLP safety rules that plant associated with
pulverised fuel, gas and oil fired furnaces be kept clean as a precaution against fire or
explosion.
In this respect, cleanliness and good housekeeping go hand-in-hand. There are
however, important differences between the two.
9.1

Cleanliness
Cleanliness concerns plant both externally and internally and work
in general.
9.1.1

places

External Cleanliness
External cleanliness means keeping all outside surfaces and parts of
the plant or machine clean and free from rust and
accumulations of grease, mud and general debris. For safety reasons,
it is particularly important to avoid accumulations of coal dust or fuel
oil on or near plant.
Apart from safety and appearance, there are sound engineering
reasons why cleanliness is essential to the reliable running machines.
Some examples are given below.
(a) General dirt
If not removed, dirt will find its way into bearings causing
excessive wear, and into the pin joints of linkages, causing wear
and slackness. Dirt will also be carried into electric motor
windings, obstructing cooling air slots and causing overheating.
Modern plant is designed and constructed with relatively smooth
outlines and fitted with casings which ease the work of cleaning.
Cleaning of older plant can be rendered more difficult by the
multiplicity of external fittins and connections.

(b) Accumulation of grease and oil

There may be evidence of careless spilling of lubricants,
overgreasing, or they may indicate leakage.

Whatever the cause, it may well be masked unless the grease or

oil is wiped up and the area kept clear until the cause is
identified.

Accumulations of grease or oil, if left, will collect dirt, thus

leading to troubles as referred to ina) above.

Oil on a floor is a serious safety hazard as will be futther

explained in Section 9.2.2(a).
(c) Rust
Rust is unsightly and indicates neglect. It is the visible sign of
corrosion, frequently caused by either leakage from joints on the
item of plant itself, or leaking from joints on adjacent plant or
pipework dripping or spraying onto the item. Once the leakage
has been stopped, protection may be restored temporarily by the
use of oil or grease.
9.1.2

Internal Cleanliness
Internal cleanliness is not usually a matter forthe A P.A. - for
example, internal fouling of turbines, scaling up of pipes and heat
exchanger tubes and build-up of deposits on fan blades. An A.P. A.
should however, be able to note the start of fouling by instrument
readings. The example of fouled tubes shown in Fig.5.1.2 is a typical
case. Generally, once fouling noticeably affects the performance of
an item of plant it becomes a job for the maintenance department.
The duties of an A.P.A. regarding internal cleanliness centre around
prevention and ensuring that the protective measures provided are
used or kept in good order.
(a) Filters and screens
These are provided in many forms and sizes usually at pump
suctions. They vary from large wide mesh screens on cooling
water systems to small fine filters on lubricating oil systems.
The object of all filters and screens is the same; to prevent dirt,
foreign matteretc. entering the plant and causing damage.

An A.P.A's duties will consist of cleaning filters and

ensureing that they are in good order. The cleaning
operation may consist of hand cleaning a removable
element or scraping by rotating, the filter element by an
external handle. In some eases, filter are cleaned by
reverse flusing with fluid.

A damage filter, that is one that is holed, is as great, if not

a greater danger than a choked filter.
(b)

(c)

Covers on tanks, tundishes,

etc.
Open tanks, tundishes, etc. are a source of contamination of water. Dust in
the atmosphere will settle into an open tank. Some dust, as from lagging,
contains chemicals which dissolve in the water. Open tundishes are an
invitation to dispose of such items as water used for cleaning, tea leaves,
etc. and these tundishes usually drain back to a recovery tank, the contents
of which can thereby become contaminated. The entry of foreign bodies
into tanks can result in serious damage to rotary plant.
An A.P.A.'s duties in this respect invole ensureing that no contaminating
fluid is allowd to be poured down a tundish, andensuring that all cover are
in place and closed on tundishes and tanks.
Bearings, oil reservoirs and grease containers
Bearings have oil filler holes with caps and lubricant containers have
covers. Both caps and covers have to be opened for inspection and topping
up.

The A.P.A.'s duty is to see that the caps and covers are replaces of dirt,
water, etc. into the oil or grease.

9.2

Good Housekeeping

Good housekeeping is involved in practically every aspect of work in a

power station. The subject can be dealt with broadly in two
sections.General tidiness and safety.

9.2.1

General Tidiness

Clearly an A.P.A. cannot carry out his duties effectively if access

to plant and inspection routes are obstructed by accumulations of
general litter or rubbish
It is A.P.A.'s duty not to allow any untidiness within his area. His
own activities can be readily controlled by marking sure that the
area is cleared up after a job.
On the other hand, many cases of rubbish and debris being left
are the results of activities of other such as maintenance staff and
contractors. In such cases, it is the duty of the A.P.A. to make the
strongest representation to his supervisor to have the material
removed. If, however, the material is a safety hazard then the
A.P.A. should move it himself.
Small tools, implements or article should not be permitted to lie
around where they may present a slipping or tripping hazard.
Scrap, waste or surplus material must be properly disposed of
when any job is completed. Rubbish must be disposed of in the
proper receptacles provided for this.
Tidiness is required not only around the plant, but also in the
lockers, mess room, canteens and wash room. These must be
maintained in a sanitary condition at all times.
9.2.2

Safety
Under good housekeeping, safety applies to the area within which
the A.P.A. is working.
(a) Floors
Reference has already been made in Section 9.2.1 to the need
for unobstructed floors. Floors can also become hazardous if it
becomes necessary to lift floor plates or manhole cover. They
should be replaced as soon as possible. If there is any waiting
time an effective barrier is essential round the opening, unless a
man is standing by to warn of the hazard.

Oil or water spillage or leakage on to a floor also

presents a hazard. Spillage must be cleaned up and dried
immediately. Leakage may be diverted until repairs can
be arranged and much can be done by temporary catch
trays or buckets. Absorbent granules are also useful for
treating oil spills.
(a) Access, ladders and stairs
Access ways and passages must be kept clear at all times.
Any defects, such as loose treads on ladders or damaged
or missing handrails, should be reported to the supervisor.
Portable ladders should be examined before use and
appropriately lashed or footed by a second person.
(b) Lighting
It is in the A.P. A.'s own interest to have lamps renewed or
report lighting defects. Adequate lighting is essential for
safe and effective work on plant.
(c) Stocking and storage of materials
Materials must be stacked and stored correctly and in such
a manner that they do not block passage ways and so that
stocks will not fall.

SELF TEST QUESTIONS

1.

Why is dirty and neglected plant more likely to breakdown than clean, well cared
for plant?

2.

What means are provided to maintain internal cleanliness of plant and what are
an A.P.A. ' s duties regarding them?

3.

How does "Good Housekeeping" affect safety of staff?

10

INSTRUMENTS
10.1 Instrument Readings
An accurate set of instruments will not by themselves improve efficiency,
but intelligent use of their indications will. To be of value instrument
readings must be taken at the times stipulated and recordings made on the
log sheets must be accurate. Moreover the readings should be those
indicated by the instrument, not an estimation to compensate for reading at
a later or earlier time. If other work prevents readings being taken it is
better to omit them than to make guesses, or to record the actual time that
the readings were taken on the log sheet.
An A. P.A. must know how to read an instrument quickly and in the correct
units. To do this he must understand the marks or divisions on the scales or
dials, some examples of which are shown in Fig. 10
When an instrument indicates quantities like pounds weight or feet and
inches it is not difficult to appreciate the instrument's function. Quantities
like amps and volts may be a little difficult to understand as far as their
meaning goes. However reading these quantities from meters is no more
difficult than reading from a set of weighing scales or a metre rule.
To get an accurate indication instruments must be read from directly in
front. Try reading an ordinary watch or clock from different angles and
observe the differences that appear to occur in a particular indication. This
type of error is called parallax and is caused by the gap between the
instrument scale and the instrument pointer. The closer the pointer to the
scale the less is the error, but readings taken from an angle are always less
accurate than those taken from directly in front.
Care should be taken when estimating indications that lie between marked
points on the scale. If particularly accurate readings are required then
instruments that make this type of estimation necessary will not usually be
fitted. Examples of estimating are shown in Fig.10.
Some instruments, such as flow meters and temperature indicators, record
on charts that may be circular or of a strip type. Circular charts are usually
changed daily and strips may last several weeks.

Fig. 10 Instrument Reading

Target Conditions
It is possible for plant to be working satisfactorily and yet inefficiently as
far as the rest of the station is concerned. Consider as an example a heat
exchanger. This could be either a small oil cooler, or a turbine condenser.
In both cases, cooling water is supplied by pumps and there will be a
correct quantity to give the best performance of the heat exchanger.
If the quantity of water is less than the correct amount, then the oil leaving
the cooler will be hotter than it should, and in the case of the condenser,
the vacuum will fall and the turbine performance will suffer.
If, however, the water quantity is more than the correct amount, then in
both cases overcooling will occur and heat is wasted. Also electric power
is being wasted in pumping water unnecessarily.

The correct water quantity would be indicated by temperatures and these

best conditions would be established by the station efficiency engineer.
The figures may be issued to the A. P.A. as a chart or graph which he
would use to adjust the plant.
The Efficiency Engineer will check the daily log sheets to ensure that the
correct and best plant conditions are being maintained. It is extremely
important therefore that log sheets recording these conditions are
completed clearly and accurately.
Such figures are known as target conditions and give the best conditions to
aim at when adjusting plant. Sometimes target figures are printed at the top
of certain columns on log sheets as a guide to the A.P. A. These figures are
sometimes accompanied by instructions to adjust a particular valve if it is
found to have drifted off.

SELF TEST QUESTIONS

1.

When an instrument is read, how would you make sure the correct reading is
taken and that it is accurate?

2.

Why are log sheets sometimes used to record intrument readings?

11 DEFECT REPORTING
Many reference have been made in this lesson to defective plant. Most
defects require attention from the maintenance department and power
stations have a detect reporting procedure whereby a report card is
made out by a supervisor or engineer and sent to the appropriate
maintenance engineer,who then arranges a repair.
Consideration of an A. P.A.'s duties clearly shows that the majority of
defects will be first observed by him. An A .P.A. thus has a duty to
report defects clearly and correctly, together with any observations
which would be useful. By this means, time will be saved and the
taking out of service of the wrong item of plant could be prevented.
It is important to report all defects in their early stages. It should also
be remembered that one defect, such as a jammed valve, may
eventually lead to damage on other plant.

A defect repor should, if possible, give the following information:-

(a)

Correct identification of the plant item.

(b)

Description of the defect.

(c)

Accurate location of defect, for example, water dripping from a pipe may
have run some distance under the lagging from the faulty joint.

(d)

Any additional useful information. For example, an obstruction or chokage

in ducts or flues may be pinpointed by consideration of operating
conditions and draught gauge readings.

(e)

Where confusion may arise, a sketch should be given.

(f)

Reference to whether the safety of personnel is affected.

SELF TEST QUESTIONS

1.

Why must defects on plant be reported promptly?

2.

have

H ow would you make sure that no confusion could arise over a defect you

observed?