Appfied Ergonomics 1988, 19.

2, 111 - 121

Determinants of load carrying ability

M.F. Haisman

Army Personnel ResearchEstablishment, Farnborough, Hants. GU14 6TD, UK

The aim of this paper is to review the literature in respect of the main determinants of
a person's load carrying ability. Possible determinants of load carriage ability include age,
anthropometry, aerobic and anaerobic power, muscle strength, body composition and
gender; other relevant factors are the subjective effects perceived during load carriage,
the dimensions and placement of the load, biomechanical factors, nature of the terrain
and the gradient, the effect of climate and protective clothing. It is important to
distinguish between the maximum load carrying capacity and load carriage ability
which enables the individual to retain the capability to perform other tasks - eg,
observation and navigation, or industrial tasks. The soldier has been used as the worst
case example of extremely heavy loads having to be carried for long durations; civilian
examples are usually less demanding except in the case of mountaineers, explorers and
some occupations.
The energy cost of walking with loads has been found to depend primarily upon the
walking speed, body weight and load weight, together with terrain factors such as
gradient and surface type; equations exist which allow the prediction of energy
expenditure from these variables, and they can provide a valuable guide in assessing
the physical severity of proposed tasks involving load carriage. Other factors such as
the degree of environmental heat stress and protective clothing worn would have to
be taken into account, but the level of energy expenditure (or heat production) assumes
central importance as it is related to physical exhaustion, heat exhaustion and also less
directly to the efficiency of performance of occupational tasks involving load carriage.
This review confirms that there is no obvious definition of a maximal load, because of
the widely varying circumstances which might apply, but for healthy young males there
appears to be some consensus for the traditional rule of thumb of one-third body
weight, or 24 kg on an assumed mean body weight of 72 kg, or in terms of relative
work load equivalent to one-third of the VO 2 max for a working day. Renbourn (1954c)
considered that the load carried by the soldier will probably always be a compromise
between what is physiologically sound and what is operationally essential. Load carriage
in industrial and other civilian areas will also involve a similar compromise and may in
some circumstances lead to important implications for health and safety.

Keywords: Physical exertion, performance assessment, load carrying

I ntroduction
Interest in the military aspects of individual load carriage
is longstanding and was recorded in such reports as the
British Royal Commission of 1858 quoted by Renbourn
(1954a). A number of reviews cover various aspects of load
carriage - for example, energy expenditure studies
(Passmore and Durnin, 1955; Redfearn et al, 1956);
physiological limitations of the soldier and load carriage
development (Kennedy, et al, 1973); the effects of load

Copyright ~) HMSO, London (1987)

carriage on military performance (Lotens, 1982). The

manual handling and lifting review by Troup and Edwards
(1985) is particularly concerned with the back and includes
references to carrying problems.
The scope of this review includes studies which are
concerned with load carried on the trunk, hands or head,
whereas lifting in a static position, (eg, I_egg and Pateman,
1984), and also the use of mechanical devices such as wheels,
(Haisman et al, 1972) have not been considered. The aim is
to draw together the main factors which affect load carriage
itself, from civilian as well as military spheres. Although
much of the early research was done from a military
standpoint, more recent work has examined occupational

0003 6870/88/02 0111 - 11 $03.00 1988 Butterworth & Co (Publishers) Ltd

Applied Ergonomics

June 1988

111

load carriage, particularly in respect of occupational health

problems, whereas other studies are related to the increase
in popularity of leisure activities such as 'back-packing'.

Severe load carriage tasks

The extent of the military load carriage problem may
not be fully appreciated, either because it is believed
that mechanised transport will always be available, or
because the diversity of the equipments involved obscures
the large weights involved - eg, an infantryman's load
(Table 1). The basic clothing assembly weighs 7 kg and the
Assault Dress equipment increases the total to 26 kg; with
the addition of support weapons, radios and extra equipment
the total weight carried can escalate to the very high figures
quoted for military operations - eg, up to 68 kg in the
Falklands operation (McCaig and Gooderson, 1986). United
States infantrymen also have heavy loads (Kennedy et al,
1973) - a basic load is 17 kg, adding protective clothing and
basic existence load increases it to 28 kg, radio operators
carry loads of about 35 kg. Renbourn (1954c) has describe(i
some of the medical conditions, such as march fracture,
which can be caused by the carriage of heavy loads. Other
military groups besides the infantry have demanding load
carriage tasks; large quantities of ammunition weighing up
to 45 kg may have to be manually handled (Legg and Patton,
1987).
As an example of an industrial task, Magnusson et al
(1987) investigated butchering; lifting and carrying boxes
(up to 40 kg) and meat parts (up to 70 kg) were common
tasks, and the total load was greater than 4000 kg per day.
The authors suggested that these heavy loads contributed to
a high incidence of physical disorders of the back and
shoulders among butchers. Many other civilian occupations
involve load carriage - for example, firemen (Louhevaara
et al, 1985), postmen (Ilmarinen et al, 1984), brewery drivers
(Astrand, 1958), mines rescue personnel (Lind and McNicol,
1968), and steel workers, refuse disposal operators and
cable twisters (Garg et al, 1978). Cady et al (1979) showed
that in a group of 1652 firefighters, strength, fitness and
physical conditioning exerted a preventive effect on
subsequent back injuries. Noro (1967) noted the importance
of load carrying as a possible cause of injury and ill health
in industrial workers.

Factors affecting load carrying ability

Factors affecting load carriage have been examined m
order to assess their importance, and to seek ways of
minimising the overall strain on tile carrier. Maximal, safe
and optimal load concepts will be examined. The direct
effects of carrying excessive or unbalanced loads, such as
musculo-skeletal disorders, may be more difficult to
quantify. Carrying is one aspect of dynamic work,
together with heavy manual handling and lifting, which
have been implicated as risk factors in low back pain on the
basis of epidemiological studies (Dul and Hildebrandt, 1987).
Load factors
1. M a x i m u m weight of'load

There have been numerous attempts to define the upper

limit of weight to be carried by the soldier. During World
War 1 the soldier became grossly overloaded: Cathcart
et al,(1923) described the problem of a heavy load of 27 kg
increasing to 43 kg because of water and mud soaking into
the clothing and equipment. This problem of water uptake
has been minimised by using water-resistant materials but
that extra load has now been replaced by other equipment
(Table 1). Marshall (1950) cites training loads of about
27 kg for US troops being increased in combat. In respect
of the maximal load carriage capacity of man, Soule et al
(1978) showed that the constancy of measured energy
expenditure per kg of load (or body weight) extended up to
loads of 70 kg provided the load was well balanced and close
to the centre of gravity of the body. Daniels (1956) cited
reports of observations of loads of up to about 180 kg
being carried using a Korean A frame. On the other hand
there is evidence (Durnin and Passmore, 1967) that the
physiological efficiency of load carriage falls at high load
weights, especially at fast speeds and up inclines. Winsmann
and Goldman (1976) compared load carriage systems and
they showed that provided the weight is properly distributed
over the body, weight per se is the most important factor
in load carriage rather than the specific load-carriage system
design. There is clearly a case for setting an upper limit to
the weight carried, and if the load is not going to impair
efficiency to a marked extent this weight limit ought to be
less than 30 kg. While it is more logical to relate the load
to the body weight, as it is obvious that a 30 kg load is a

Table 1: Weights of clothing and personal equipment carried by a British infantryman (kg)

112

A.

Dress

Clothing, boots and helmet

B.

Assault dress

Clothing etc as in A, weapon, ammunition,

digging tool and equipment

C.

Combat order

Dress and equipment as in A'& B, food and

warm clothing

D.

Marching order

Clothing and equipment as in A, B & C, spare

clothing, rations, rucksack and sleeping bag

E.

Additional
equipment
to be added

There are a number of additional items which

could have to be carried ranging in weight
up to 16 kg

Applied Ergonomics

June 1988

Weight

Total
weight

7.0

7"0

19.4

26.4

3"7

30-0

10"2

40.2

very heavy one for a 58 kg man (5th percentile for British

Infantry, (Gooderson, 1976) but a reasonable load for a
91 kg man (95th percentile), it may, however, be quite
impractical to tailor the load to body weight. In trying to
apply these guidelines to an industrial workforce it should
be remembered that this population may be older and less
fit compared with young healthy soldiers.
Gracovetsky (1986) has reviewed the biomechanical
criteria used in the formulation of safe loads for lifting and
carrying, and has considered the effect of load carriage on
the spine. Troup and Edwards (1985) have drawn together
limits and regulations for manual handling, although few are
related to carrying per se. Lind and McNicol (1968)
examined the blood pressure and heart rate responses to
holding and carrying weights by hand and by shoulder
harness in the context of the stretcher-carrying task of mine
rescue personnel; they found a fatiguing response from hand
carriage in excess of 10 kg, and shoulder carriage in excess of
80 kg. Borghols etal (1977) investigated loads up to 30 kg
carried on the back and showed that in their subjects each
extra kilogram of weight increased VO2 by 33.5 ml/min,
heart rate by 1"1 beats/min and pulmonary ventilation by
0"6 1/min.
2. Dimensions o f the load

Morrissey and Liou (1984) varied the dimensions and

weights of boxes carried in two hands by subjects walking
on the level and showed that the width of the container can
influence the metabolic cost of carrying; this dimension
factor can be included in prediction equations for energy
cost. Amor and Vogel (1974) compared three methods of
carrying a missile 35 kg inweight and I "2m in length; they
found no difference in energy cost between the methods
but the subjects preferred to carry the missile in a
horizontal position on the back. Torre (1973) investigated
the effects of weight and length of a missile system on
performance and found that the soldier was reluctant to
carry loads longer than 0"79m (at 3"6 kg) when added to
his existing load.
3. Load placement

Legg (1985) listed 12 different possibilities for load

carriage on the body, and even that number could be
increased by consideration of both high and low back-packs.
(a) Load placed on the head, hands or feet

Soule and Goldman (1969) showed that energy costs of

carrying a load on the head, hands and feet were, in
comparison to a no load condition, in the ratio of l'2x
for the head, 1"9x for the hands and 4 - 6 x for the feet (up
to 6 kg on each foot). The maximum possible weight to be
carried on the head of an Indian worker was defined as 30
kg (Datta et al, 1975). Strydom et al (1968) reported that
provided the boot weight was no more than 1'8-2"9 kg
per pair there was no increase in oxygen consumption. In
contrast, Jones et al (1984) showed that subj ects wearing
boots (1.78 kg per pair) had a higher energy cost for
walking (except for the slowest walking speed) and running
than for the same activity whenwearing atl-detic shoes
(weight 0.62 kg per pair). Essentially similar results showing
an increment of energy cost of 1 "0% per 100 g increase in
weight of footwear was found.for females (Jones et al, 1986).
Legg and Mahanty (1986) found that the increase in energy
cost of carrying weight on the feet was 6"4x that of carriage
on the trunk, in agreement with Soule and Goldman (1969).
The fatiguing effects of carrying weight on the lower
extremities (ankle spats) have been utilised to induce

physical conditioning in sedentary middle-aged men

0aandolf and Goldman, 1975). For hand carried weights
(1"8 kg in each hand), Francis and Hoobler (1986) could
only detect an increase in energy cost compared to a no
load condition when running and not when walking. Using
a biomechanical approach, Ghori and Luckwill (1985)
investigated loads up to 20% body weight carried in either
hand, and loads up to 50% carried on the back whilst
subjects walked at a comfortable speed. Changes in several
parameters were observed with the heavier loads on the back
and in the hand but were not large considering the
substantial loads involved. Burton (1986), using electromyographic analysis of lumbar and suprascapular muscle
activity, found that clutching a shopping bag (US style)
created a lower and more even load on the spinal musculature
compared with carrying the load by handles (UK method).
Again using electromyographical techniques, together with
anaylsis of heart rate increments, Evans et al (1983) defined
a hyperbolic relationship between time to exhaustion for
load holding or for load carrying in the hands, and mass of
the load up to 40 kg; the increments in heart rate at
exhaustion were linearly related to load and were always
greater for carrying than holding.
(b) Alternative load carriage methods on the trunk

Datta and Ramanathan (1971) compared seven methods

of carrying loads of 30 kg; a double pack (front and back)
proved to be the best and the hands the worst in terms of
physiological efficiency. Using biomechanical techniques,
Kinoshita (1985) showed that compared with a back-pack
system, a double pack (front and back) was more effective,
especially for heavy loads (40% of body weight), because
forward lean was reduced and the gait characteristics were
closer to unloaded walking. I_egg and Mahanty (1985)
compared five methods of carrying a load of 35% body
weight on the trunk and found that there were no significant
physiological differences between them. The front/back pack
combination and a load carrying jacket were subjectively
rated as more comfortable than the back packs (with or
without frame), but the front/back pack was associated with
a restrictive type of ventilatory impairment.
Bobet and Norman (1984) compared two different load
placements Oust below mid-back or just above shoulder
level); heart rate analysis revealed no differences between the
two but EMG analysis showed lower muscle tension
associated with the lower, more stable, back load. Balogun
et al (1986), found that the metabolic efficiencies (VO2 per
kg total weight) of a headpack and a transverse yoke system
of carriage were better than a front yoke system.
Physical characteristics o f man
1. Body weight

That the maximum comfort load should be related to

body weight is an idea of long standing. The weight carried
by the soldier steadily increased during World War I up to
85% of body weight (Renbourn, 1954b). On the basis of the
energy cost of load carriage, which rose steeply above 40%
of body weight, Cathcart et al (1923) recommended that
under laboratory conditions the maximum load for the
maintenance of efficiency and health should be 40% of
body weight, and for service conditions they accepted the
traditional limit of one-third of body weight. Marshall (1950)
cites the British and other studies to recommend an optimal
marching load of not more than one-third of body weight.

Applied Ergonomics

June 1988

113

Kinoshita (1985) cites a number of studies to support the

statement that the weight of the individual load should not
exceed 40% of body weight for continuous carrying, and
50% for intermittent or occasional carrying. McFarland
(1969), reviewing the safety of carrying objects in
occupational tasks, considered that objects carried with
hand grips become 'heavy' at about 35% of body weight.
Individuals with a high body weight can therefore carry
greater loads, but as will be discussed later the constituent
proportions of body weight, whether muscle or fat, will be
important. Indian porters appear to be an exception to any
generalisations about the advantages of high body weight
in load carriage; Nag et al (1978) studied porters of mean
body weight 53 kg who carried loads up to 100 kg on the
treadmill. These subjects were, however, very lean (body
fat 8"3%) and had a high VO2 max relative to their body
weight.
2. A n t h r o p o m e t r i c dimensions

The design of load carriage equipment must take into

account the range of dimensions in key anthropometric
variables in the population to be fitted, especially back
length and waist circumference. Drury et al (1982) defined
relationships between the height and weight of workers, box
size and the hand positions adopted in industrial box
handling.

Physiological factors
1. M a x i m u m aerobic p o w e r I V 0 2 max)

VO2 max is much used as an index of cardio-respiratory

performance (Astrand, 1956; Shephard, 1968) and also as an
index of ability to perform maximal work (Taylor et al, 1955;
Mitchell et al, 1958). It follows that factors which will raise
VO2 max will improve the ability to carry loads, and the
converse will also be true. It has been shown by a large
number of studies that aerobic physical training will increase
VO2 max. Saltin (1969) showed that the absolute improvement in VO2 max is 33% starting from a post-3 weeks of
bed-rest level, but the improvement is highly dependent
upon the initial level of VO 2 max and may be about 20%
for average, non-exercising individuals. A number of factors
have been associated with a decrease in VO2 max - for
example, increasing age (Hermansen, 1978); semi-starvation
with consequent loss of lean body mass (Keys et al, 1950);
high altitude (laugh et al, 1964); and dehydration (Buskirk
et al, 1958).
Factors such as these will tend to lower the maximal load
carriage capacity, or slow the walking speed at which the
load can be carried. Another important consideration is that
a well-trained man cannot be expected to work all day at a
work level equivalent to more than 50% of his VO2 max
without becoming fatigued (Astrand, 1956), but Astrand
(1960) showed that working at 50% could produce objective
and subjective indications of fatigue, whereas the
spontaneously chosen work load in building work
corresponds with about 40% of individual VO2 max
(Astrand, 1967). Edholm (1967) suggested a somewhat
lower limit of 2000 kcal during work, equivalent to about
0.85 litres VO2/min for an 8 hour day. Saha et al (1979)
proposed that an acceptable workload for average young
Indian workers in comfortable thermal conditions should
be 35% VO2 max, corresponding to 18"0 kJ/min energy
expenditure (or 0"88 1/min VO2) and 110 beats/min for

114

Applied Ergonomics

June 1988

heart rate. Bink (1964) recommended (tematlvely) that ilk

workload should not exceed 33% VO2 max during a 5013
minute work day, Shapiro et al (1973) recommended that
adjusting the work intensity during prolonged work to the
individual's VO2 max should minimise muscle enzyme
leakage and muscle damage.
To summarise, VO2 max will be a major determinan~ of
the severity of load carriage tasks which can be sustained for
a prolonged period. As VO2 max is usually correlated with
body weight, and in particular with muscle mass, individuals
with a high V Q max (l/min) and large load carriage capacity
will also tend to have higher than average body weight or
muscle mass.
Shoenfeld et al (1977) used the size of the decrement in
VO2 max after load carriage by young men to assess the
maximum load which should be carried for 20 kin; they
concluded that for individuals in good physical condition
this should not exceed 25 kg - that is, just over one-third
of the body weight of a 70 kg man. Davis (1983) reviewed
the literature of fatigue caused by load carriage and suggested
that long carries by males of more than 25 kg should be
avoided.
2. M a x i m u m anaerobic power and muscle strength

Anaerobic power and muscle strength are important for

activities of high intensity for brief periods of time - i e,
less than 1 min. According to surveys of the tasks which
soldiers undertake in the US Army, a considerable
proportion require muscle strength, e g, handling heavy
weights such as artillery shells, pulling, pushing and throwing
(NATO, 1986). Methods of measurement of anaerobic power
are available - e g, the Wingate ergometer test (Bar-Or et al,
1980) -and some of these methods have been compared
recently (Patton and Duggan, 1987). Isometric muscle
strength can be measured using strain gauge dynamometers
(Hermansen et al, 1972), and by using an isokinetic
dynamometer, dynamic muscle strength and muscle
endurance can be measured (Thorstensson, 1976). Maximal
isometric lifting strength has been included in test batteries
designed for the pre-employment screening of" workers for
jobs involving heavy manual handling (Griffin et al, 1984).
In a recent study on 49 infantrymen carrying 18 kg on a
maximal effort 10 mile road march, Dziados et al (1987)
found that although VO2 max correlated with performance
time, in a step-wise multiple regression analysis only hamstring muscle strength emerged as a significant predictor of
march time.
3. B o d y composition

The main body composition factors to affect load carriage

are, firstly, the size of the lean body mass (i e, total weight
minus fat) and secondly, the proportion of the total weight
which is fat. Lean body mass is highly correlated with VO2
max (Buskirk and Taylor, 1957) and is a positive factor in
load carriage ability. Conversely, excess body fat is dead
weight in the performance of work and degrades the
performance of physical tasks involving movement of the
body and external load; hence the utility of expressing VO 2
max on a body weight basis as an expression of aerobic
fitness. A man weighing 85 kg with 25% body fat is carrying
about 21 kg of body fat; assuming he need only have about
9 kg of fat (i e, about 10% of body weight) for good health,
this represents about 12 kg less of external load which he
can carry.

4. Gender

Snook and Ciriello (1974a) determined maximum weights

and workloads for females on six carrying tasks; although
women handled significantly less weight than men they
experienced similar or higher heart rates. In general, women
will be at a disadvantage in load carriage tasks because,
compared with men, they tend to have lower body weight,
higher body fat, lower VO2 max and lower muscle strength,
particularly in the arm muscles (Vogel and Patton, 1978).
Evans et al (1980) compared fit young males and females
in a self-paced load carriage task of 1 - 2 hours duration.
Although the males had a higher absolute energy expenditure
than the females, in relative terms the two groups were very
similar at about 45% of the V02 max. Females were shown
to change their gait characteristics (stride length and swing
time) more than males as the carried load was increased, and
Martin and Nelson (1986) concluded that absolute loads for
fcmales should be lower because of biomechanical as well
as physiological considerations. Pierrynowski e t al (1981 a)
also found that increases of load (up to 34 kg) produced
virtually no alterations in gait pattern in male subjects,
but in contrast, Kinoshita (1985) showed that both light
(20% of body weight) and heavy (40%) loads substantially
modified the normal walking gait pattern. Davis (1983)
showed that stability decreases when loads are held at and
above the waist level, higher and greater loads decreasing the
stability, and the stability in females was always less than
males. Some differences between the sexes are revealed
during load carriage in hot climates, which is discussed later.
5. Age

It has already been mentioned that VO2 max decreases

with age (Hermansen, 1978). This effect of ageing is likely to
be associated with the decline in maximal heart rate with
increasing age (Robinson, 1938). Furthermore, VO2 max
(ml/kg/min) will decline as the body fat (as a percentage of
body weight) increases with age (Durnin and Womersley,
1974). Astrand (1958) investigated a group of truck drivers
aged 5 0 - 6 4 years (VO2 max 2'5 1/min at a heart rate of
160 beats/min). During their daily work they were engaged
in carrying 5 0 - 8 0 cases of beer (43 kg), or 100-125 cases
(I 9 kg), work which required oxygen intakes up to 2"5
1/min. The subjects could not be considered to be
representative of the population age group because it is
probable that physically weak workers left before reaching
age 50 years. Samanta et al (1987) found that the maximum
permissible load carried on the head (as defined by the load
at 35% VO2 max) by groups of Indian porters ranging in age
from 20 to over 50 years, decreased from 41 kg for the
youngest group to 11 kg for the oldest.

Subjective aspects of load carriage

Subjective reactions to the task can be considered in
terms of the application of ratings of perceived exertion
(RPE) and other rating scales as measures of the acceptability
or the severity of the task, also in terms of the psychophysical approach to manual handling developed by Snook
(1978). Borg (1970) developed a scale to elicit RPE from the
relationships between the physiological responses and the
subjective ratings to different levels of work. Although in
some circumstances RPE correlates with the heart rate,
Davies and Sargeant (1979) considered that heart rate has
little influence on RPE and is not an important factor in
the perception of effort.

RPE is a useful tool for evaluating the severity of a load

carriage task, or for comparing different methods of carrying
a load (Legg and Mahanty, 1985). Pandolf (1977) emphasised
the importance of both local and central factors. When
increments in RPE with increases in loads carried were
compared with increases in heart rate and oxygen
consumption, it was found that the perception of exertion
increased faster than the cardio-respiratory measures (Goslin
and Rorke, 1986); thus 'local' factors, if accentuated by load
carriage, may dominate the overall perception of exertion.
Borg (1982) described a new category scale with ratio
properties, using numbers anchored by verbal expressions
which were simple and understandable to most people;
ratings according to this scale correlated with exercise blood
lactate levels and may prove useful in future load carriage
studies. The scale of Corlett and Bishop (1976), although
aimed primarily at work postures when using industrial
machines, can be adapted to assess local discomfort on a
load carriage task. Using this scale, Randle and Legg (1985)
showed that local discomfort was lower in subjects walking
uphill in hot conditions than when additionally carrying
20 kg in the arms at the same external work rate, presumably
because of the greater static component in the carrying task.
Snook (1978) has undertaken a number of studies on
manual handing using a psycho-physical approach and has
published tables of maximum acceptable weights for males
and females from an industrial population to carry over
short distances (up to 8.5 m), (Snook et al, 1970; Snook and
Ciriello, 1974a). This information can contribute to guidelines for the design of manual handling jobs and possibly
reduce the back injuries attributable to such tasks.

Environmental factors
1. Climate

la.Hot climates
Kamon and Belding (1971) found no difference in the
metabolic costs of carrying loads up to 20 kg in the hands in
hot climates (35 and 45C) compared with those in a
temperate climate, but heart rate was found to increase by
7--10 beats for each 10C in air temperature. Based on
indices of physiological cost, fatigue and the need for rest
pauses, 15 kg loads appeared to be most suitable for the
subjects. Snook and Ciriello (1974b) showed that load
carrying ability was reduced by 11% in a hot environment
(WBGT 27C) with significantly higher rectal temperature
and heart rate. Krajewski et al (1979) investigated a load
carriage task demanding 30% and then 75% of VO2 max in
men and women in warm-humid and hot-dry ambient
conditions in order to validate the length of rest periods
required. Although both sexes worked at the same relative
load, the males carried 12 kg (in the hands) and the females
10 kg, and the males achieved higher blood lactate levels
than the females. Judging by the heart rate plateau and
limits of core temperature rise, only the rest period spent in
neutral conditions proved adequate. Durnin et al (1966)
found that the metabolic rate, heart rate, sweat rate and
body temperature of acclimatised subjects carrying loads
were all elevated in hot-wet and hot-dry climates, compared
with similar work in a temperate climate.
1b. Cold climates
In cold climates, the energy cost of walking at standard
speeds with loads is increased compared with that predicted

Applied Ergonomics

June 1988

115

for temperate ambient conditions, but this is possibly not

because of reduced air temperature per se (Haisman, 1977).
It has been shown (Amor et al, 1973) that the energy cost of
walking in multi-layer, cold-weather clothing is increased by
up to 20% over the same task wearing shorts with the weight
of multi-layer clothing carried on the belt; similar results
were reported by Teitlebaum and Goldman (1972). Thus,
should higher levels of energy expenditure be found in cold
climates, the extra energy expenditure is more likely to be
attributable to the weight, hobbling and restrictive effects
of multi-layer clothing than to the effects of the cold itself.
2. Terrain

Strydom et al (1966) showed that carrying loads over

sandy surfaces required an energy expenditure 80% greater
than over a firm surface. Soule and Goldman (1972)
investigated a variety of terrains including smooth and dirt
roads, light and heavy brush, as well as swamp and sand, and
they compared the results with the control conditions of
walking on a tread-mill to show how the energy cost increased
with increasing severity of the terrain. Pandolf et al (1976)
examined the effects of walking in various snow depths and
found that the energy cost was increased by 5x with a
footprint depth of 45 cm in the snow. Thus, combining the
snow depth effect with the effect of multi-layered coldweather clothing already mentioned, it can be seen that this
is an activity which results in very high rates of energy
expenditure and the production of large amounts of heat.
3. Grade and stair climbing
Gordon et al (1983) compared the effects of added

load (up to 50% body weight) on walking subjects, with

unloaded walking. They found that added loads brought
about larger increases in heart rate and RPE than did
unloaded walking on grades for equivalent increases in power.
Borghols et al (I 977) compared the effects of carrying
weight up to 30 kg at 25%, 50% and 75% of the subjects
VO2 max; the effect of added weights was the same when
walking with and without grade on the treadmill. Orsini and
Passmore (1951) examined the carriage of loads (up to 38 kg)
up and down stairs and concluded that much of the energy
expended is used in maintaining body posture in between
steps. The postal delivery workers studied by Ilmarinen et al
(1984) exceeded 50% of VO2 max whilst carrying relatively
light loads of mail upstairs at their own pace and it was
recommended that such work be limited to 2 hours per day.
Other factors affecting load-carrying ability
1. Sleep loss

In a series of studies on the effects of reduced sleep on

military performance, Haslam (1984) has shown that the
tasks worst affected are those requiring cognitive ability,
especially sustained attention; physiological function,
particularly in the performance of work, appears to be
little affected. Some changes in physiological function
during work have been found in other studies. Takeuchi
et al (1985) examined a range of physical performance tests
and found decrements after 64 hours of sleep loss only in
vertical jump height and isokinetic strength. Martin and
Chen (1982) found that after 50 hours of sleep loss, time to
exhaustion by walking at 80% VO2 max was reduced by
20%. Soule and Goldman (1973) looked for changes over
time in subjects carrying loads of 15 or 30 kg during one
hour of self-paced work in every period of 6 hours for a total

116

Applied Ergonomics

June 1988

of 31 hours without sleep; there were no significant

differences in walking speed for the 30 kg load and although
the perceived exertion ratings showed a clear trend to
increase, this only became significant with the 15 kg load.
The combined effects of sustained manual work and
partial sleep deprivatiorl (3 to 4 hours sleep per night over
8 days) on muscular strength and endurance was investigated
by l.egg and Patton (1987). Isometric hand grip strength
decreased and lower body anaerobic power increased over
the trial period for all subjects, but in only the experimental
group who handled heavy loads during tlie 8 days did the
upper body anaerobic power fall. Murphyet a1(1984)
investigated changes in anaerobic power capacity in
infantrymen who engaged in a 5-day exercise allowing 4 hours
sleep per day. They found a decrease in upper body/elbow
flexor performance which may have been associated with the
continuous load bearing of 28 kg over the 5-day period.
2. Protective clothing

A series of experiments has been conducted to study the

effects of wearing protective clothing with loads in a range
of temperate to hot environments (Gooderson, 1981). The
results provide a guide which allows an appropriate work
rate to be selected for a particular clothing assembly m
different levels of climatic stress. As might be anticipated,
the increased heat production associated with heavier loads
exacerbates the heat stress when wearing such clothing. The
effects of wearing multi-layer armoured vests (part of a total
load of 25.6 kg) were investigated in hot-wet and hot-dry
climates by Haisman and Goldman (1974). With impermeable
garments, such as body armour, the amount of air movement
under the garment associated with the movement of the
wearer is important for the elimination of heat. Shvartz
(1975) described methods of using conductive cooling for
men wearing impermeable and other protective clothing in
different work situations.
Prediction of physiological strain involved in load carriage
The energy cost of walking with loads has been found to
be dependent primarily upon the speed of walking, the
weight of the body and the load, and the gradient, and there
are several equations available to predict energy cost from
these variables. Goldman and Iampietro (1962) combined
data from their own subjects with those from the literature
to predict the energy cost of walking with loads up to 30 kg.
They concluded that the energy cost per unit weight is
essentially the same whether the weight is of the body or the
load, but Myo-Thein et al (1985) showed that the increment
in the energy expenditure of walking was lower for load
weight (10% of body weight) than the energy expenditure
per kg of body weight. Other equations have been derived
for example, Durnin and Passmore (1967) derived an
equation for walking on level ground; Workman and
Armstrong (1963) and van der Walt and Wyndham (1973)
predicted the energy cost of walking from body weight and
speed; and the usefulness of other variables such as leg
length, stride length and frequency has also been examined.
Givoni and Goldman (1971) derived an equation using
body and load weights, walking speed, slope and a terrain
factor. A wide range of speeds and grades was included viz, walking 2"6-9 km/h and up to 25% grade, running from
8 17 km/h up to 10% grade, and loads up to 70 kg.
Modifying coefficients were suggested for terrains other than
the treadmill, for load placement if not carried on the trunk

Table 2: Metabolic rate (watts) as a function of march rate on a level tarmac road
(for 70 kg man carrying 30 kg load including clothing)
March rate (m/s)

0"69 0.83 0.97 1.11 1.25 1.39 1"53 1.67 1.81

Metabolic rate(watts)

213

245

283

327

376

431

493

560

633

Table 3: Energy cost of walking (watts) at a given speed (1.6 m/s) for various level terrains
(Pandolf etal, 1977). (70 kg man with no load)
Terrain

Tarmac
road

Dirt
road

Light
brush

Hard
snow

Heavy Swampy Loose

brush
bog
sand

Soft
snow

Soft
snow

(15 cm) (25 cm)

Energy
cost
(watts)

374

401

428

454

and for very heavy levels of work. The mean standard error
of estimate over all conditions was 29 kcal/h. Soule and
Goldman (I 972) investigated terrain coefficients, and
Pandolf et al (1977) modified the equation to include walking
speeds down to standing still. Most recently, Epstein et al
(1987) developed an equation for predicting the metabolic
cost of running with and without back-pack loads. The
equation of Pandolf et al (1977) has been compared with
observed data (Pimental and Pandolf, 1979) and was found
to predict slightly high.for standing with loads, and low for
slow speed walking; it is not useable for negative grades.
Pimental et al (1982) showed that the equation was accurate
for grades up to 10% at a speed of 1-12 m/s, but the
predictions were too low (5-16%) for a slower speed on
grades and for level walking (14-33%). Duggan and Ramsay
(1987) found good agreement between the predicted values
and observed energy expenditures of walking at 1 "67 m/s on a
level treadmill with and without a 21 kg load; the predictions
were on average 3% too high.
Using this equation (Pandolf et al, 1977), the relationships
between energy expenditure, march rate, grade, load weight
and terrain can be examined. For example, Table 2 shows
the effect of increasing speed for level walking with a load
of 30 kg.
In a previous section the effect of terrain was discussed.
Table 3 shows the effect of different terrains at a standard
speed for no load - for example, walking on loose sand is
almost 80% more costly than walking on a tarmac road.
Similarly, the effect of increasing grade and load is
shown in Table 4.
Other physiological parameters besides the energy
expenditure of load carriage have also been estimated.
Givoni and Goldman (1972) developed equations to predict
the rectal temperature response to work, environment and
clothing. This method of body temperature prediction has
been compared with three other models (Haslam and
Parsons, 1986). Predictions of rectal temperature have been
used to estimate heart rate (Givoni and Goldman, 1973).
The metabolic heat production is a major contributor to the
problem of maintaining acceptable levels of deep body
temperature and heart rate, particularly if evaporative skin
cooling is limited by protective clothing in high ambient
humidity.

508

589

669

785

1005

Prediction of physiological cost of industrial load carriage

tasks
The prediction models described in the previous sections
were, in general, designed for steady load carriage. In the
industrial setting it has been shown that most loads are
carried intermittently (Drury et al, 1982). Randle (1987)
compared four methods of predicting the metabolic cost of
load carrying in the arms, including the Givoni and Goldman
(1971) method; all four methods were inappropriate for an
intermittent load carriage task and a revised model was
proposed. Garg et al (1978) adopted an approach for
estimating metabolic rates for manual materials handling
jobs. Based on partitioning the jobs into component parts,
the system has many applications, including investigation
of the duration and frequency of rest periods and the
comparison of alternative work methods.
Load carriage and performance

An important consideration is how the load carried

effects the performance of a task. Renbourn (1954b)noted
the extreme example of the British infantry at Cambrai in
1917 who were so exhausted by their great loads that they
were unable to take advantage of the first mass attack by
tanks. Marshall (1950) described similar problems with
American troops. Bensel and Lockhart (1975) found that
load carriage equipment degraded body flexibility compared
with a control condition. Lotens (1982) took the view that
performance decrement due to carried load is dependent on
weight and that the method of suspension (within limits) is
of minor importance.
The effect of increasing load weight on march-rate when
self-pacing over 6"4 km can be seen (Table 5) (Hughes and
Table 4: Energy cost of walking (watts) at a given speed
(1"34 m/s) for loads of 0, 20 and 40 kg at various
grades (Pandolf et al, 1977) (70 kg man)
Grade

(%)

12

16

Load

294

425

556

687

819

20

362

531

700

868

1037

40

473

679

886

1092

(kg)

* outside the physiological range for young, healthy men

Applied Ergonomics

June 1988

117

Goldman, 1970). As the toad weight increases, the speed

decreases proportionately, and the average energy cost per
unit distance marched was found to be lowest for 30 40 kg
of load. When the effects of carrying light and heavy loads
(10 and 40% of body weight) at the same energy expenditure
level were compared (Myles and Saunders, 1979), the
heavier load was found to produce an extra strain on the
cardiopulmonary system and was perceived by all subjects
as harder work. There is, therefore, likely to be an effect
on performance due to the weight carried, irrespective of an
effect linked to total energy expenditure.

circumstances, but for healthy young males there appears t~

be some consensus for the traditional rule of thumb ,~t"onethird body weight, or 24 kg oll an assumed mean bod~
weight of 72 kg, or in terms of relative work load equivalent
to one-third of the VO2 max for a working day. Renb~mr,
(1954c) considered that the load carried by the soldier will
probably always be a compromise between what is
physiologically sound and what is operationally essential.
Load carriage in industrial and other civilian areas will also
involve a similar compromise between the person's
capabilities and requirements of the task which may in some
circumstances have important implications for health and
safety.

Optimal load
The optimal load is an elusive concept. Pierrynowski
et al (1981 b) considered the minimum energy cost per unit
of mass carried and distance covered, but they argued that
the critical point concerned definition of the load (i e, the
load or load + body mass). When the back-pack load only
was taken into account, they recommended 40 kg as an
optimal load decreasing to 7 kg when the defined load
included the entire body mass. Legg (1985) examined six
separate load carriage studies and considered that there was
seldom a single 'best' way to carry a load. In the Hughes and
Goldman (t970) self-pacing study quoted above, the lowest
energy expended per kilogram-metre is for a rather high load
in the range 44-59% of nude body weight. It may well be
impossible to define an optimal load in isolation from other
relevant factors such as the velocity, grade, climate, clothing
and nature of the terrain. Total energy expenditure of the
task integrates some of these factors and there is some
evidence that fit male subjects will self-pace at an energy
expenditure of 425 kcal/h (494 watts) -+ 10% (Hughes and
Goldman, 1970; Levine et al, 1982). Other investigators
such as Myles et al (1979) preferred to use relative workload
when they found that fit young soldiers self-paced at 3 0 40% of VO2 max over a 6-day period, but in absolute terms
the mean energy expenditure of 384 kcal/h was just within
the 10% limits of 425 kcal/h. In 1950, Lippold and Naylor
set out four essentials in the design of any load carriage
equipment to ensure a minimum expenditure of energy:
(1) elimination of local strain, (2) maintenance of normal
posture, (3) maintenance of a normal and free gait, and
(4) chest freedom. These essentials still hold today in the
design of military or civilian equipment and should be
considered in the definition of optimal load.

Acknowledgements
It is a pleasure to thank colleagues at APRE and
elsewhere who have advised during the evolution of this
paper and to Dr R.F. Goldman for his suggestions on the
original manuscripts.
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Table 5: Weight of load, energy cost and speed when self-pacing over 6"4 km. Compiled from

Hughes and Goldman (1970) with permission from the author and the J of Appl
Physiol
Weight of load (kg)

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20

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Speed km/h (approx)

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