Single-phase Active Power Filtering

Method Using Diode-Rectifier-Fed Motor

Drive

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER

TITLE

PAGENO

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

ABSTRACT

PROJECT ASSOCIATES

ii

LIST OF TABLES

iii

LIST OF FIGURES

iv

LIST OF SYMBOLS

vi

LIST OF ABBREVIATION

vii

CHAPTER 1
1
2
3

Sub title
Sub title
Sub title

CHAPTER 2
1
2
3
4

Sub title
Sub title
Sub title
Sub title

3.CHAPTER 3
3.1Sub title
3.2Sub title
3.3Sub title

3.4Sub title
4. CONCLUSION
5. REFERENCES

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1. PULSE WIDTH MODULATION TECHNIQUE
The most efficient method of controlling output voltage is to incorporate PWM
control within inverters. In this method, a fixed DC voltage is supplied to inverter and a
controlled AC output voltage is obtained by adjusting on -off period of inverter devices. Pulse

Width Modulation variable speed drives are increasingly applied in many new industrial
applications that require superior performance. Recently, developments in power electronics
and semiconductor technology have lead improvements in power electronic systems. Hence,
different circuit configurations namely PWM inverters

have

become

popular

and

considerable interest by researcher are given on them. A number of Pulse width

modulation (PWM) schemes are used to obtain variable voltage and frequency supply.
The most widely used PWM scheme for voltage source inverters is sinusoidal PWM.
Because of advances

in solid state power devices and microprocessors,

switching power converters are used in industrial application to convert and deliver
their

required energy to the motor or load. PWM signals are pulse trains with fixed

frequency and magnitude and variable pulse width. There is one pulse of fixed magnitude in
every PWM period. However, the width of the pulses changes from pulse to pulse according
to a modulating signal. When a PWM signal is applied to the gate of a power transistor, it
causes the turn on and turns off intervals of the transistor to change from one PWM
period to another PWM period according to the same modulating signal. The frequency
of a PWM signal must be much higher than that of the modulating signal, t he
fundamental frequency, such that the energy delivered to the motor and its load depends
mostly on the modulating signal.

Fig.1.1: Symmetric and Asymmetric PWM Signals

Fig.1.1 shows two types of PWM signals, symmetric and asymmetric. The pulses of a
symmetric PWM signal are always symmetric with respect to the centre of each PWM
period. The pulses of an asymmetric PWM signal always have the same side aligned with
one end of each PWM period. It has been shown that symmetric PWM signals generate
fewer harmonics in the output currents and voltages. This literature is considers three
popular PWM techniques for the mostly used three phase voltage source power

inverter applications. This is the most popular method of controlling the output voltage and
this method is termed as Pulse -Width Modulation (PWM) Control.
The advantages possessed by PWM techniques are Lower power dissipation, Easy
to

implement and control, No temperature variation and aging -caused drifting or

degradation in linearity, Compatible with todays digital micro -processors, the output
voltage control can be obtained without any additional components and with the
method, lower order harmonics can be eliminated or minimized along with its output
voltage control. As higher order harmonics can be filtered easily, the filtering
requirements are minimized. The main disadvantage of this method is that SCRs are
expensive as they must possess low turn -on and turn-off times.
1.2 TYPES OF PULSE WIDTH MODULATION TECHNIQUES
Mainly the power electronic converters are operated in the switched mode. Which
means the switches within the converter are always in either one of the two states - turned off
(no current flows), or turned on (saturated with only a small voltage drop across the switch).
Any operation in the linear region, other than for the unavoidable transition from conducting
to non-conducting, incurs an undesirable loss of efficiency and an unbearable rise in switch
power dissipation. To control the flow of power in the converter, the switches alternate
between these two states (i.e. on and off). This happens rapidly enough that the inductors and
capacitors at the input and output nodes of the converter average or filter the switched signal.
The switched component is attenuated and the desired DC or low frequency AC component is
retained. This process is called Pulse Width Modulation (PWM), since the desired average
value is controlled by modulating the width of the pulses.
Almost all power electronic inverters are operated in the switched mode. This means
the switches within the inverter are always in either one of two states turned off (so no
current flows), or saturated (turned on completely, with only a small voltage drop across the
switch). Any operation in the linear region, other than for the unavoidable transition from
conducting to non-conducting, incurs an undesirable loss of efficiency and an unbearable rise
in switch power dissipation. To control the flow of power in the inverter, the switches
alternate between these two states. This happens rapidly enough that the inductors and
capacitors at the input and output nodes of the inverter average or filter the switched signal.
The switched component is attenuated and the desired DC or low frequency AC component is
retained. This process is called Pulse Width Modulation (PWM), since the desired average
value is controlled by modulating the width of the pulses.
To achieve the greatest possible attenuation of the switching component, it is generally

desirable that the switch frequency fc is high many times the frequency of the desired
fundamental AC component f1 seen at the input or output terminals. Two requirements which
all low pulse number PWM candidates should observe are synchronism with the fundamental
frequency and quarter and half wave symmetry.
Synchronism with the fundamental frequency means ensuring the switching frequency f c
is an integer multiple of the synthesized fundamental frequency f 1. That is, the pulse number
N=fc/f1 must be an exact integer. The frequency spectrum of the PWM waveform will then
consist of discrete frequencies at multiples of the fundamental frequency nf 1, where n is an
integer. Quarter and half wave symmetry ensures that no even harmonics will exist in the
output spectrum. This can be achieved by choosing N odd. An important even harmonic
which is eliminated is the DC component.
No frequency components below the fundamental frequency (commonly referred to as
sub-harmonics) will exist. This is important since an undesired harmonic component near
zero frequency, even if small in amplitude, can cause large currents to flow in inductive
loads. Beyond these basic requirements, there are many different ways of generating PWM
switching edges. Any technique can probably be placed into one of the following three
categories:
Off-line or pre-calculated PWM technique
Hysteresis control PWM
Carrier based PWM.
1.2.1 Off-line or Pre-Calculated PWM Technique
Selective Harmonic Elimination (SHE) and Selective Harmonic Minimization (SHM)
are two off-line (pre-calculated) non carrier based PWM techniques. SHE was proposed in a
early paper by Patel and H of t . Accepting first the conditions of quarter and half wave
symmetry to cancel all even harmonics, the angles of the switching edges in the first quarter
cycle can be considered variables for optimization. Each angle is one degree of freedom. For
each degree of freedom, one harmonic may be set to zero or any other reasonable desired
value. Using Fourier transforms, simultaneous equations in these angles are solved given
desired values for the fundamental and the lowest significant harmonics. These calculations
are slow and are done off-line. A look up table of edge angles is created which the on-line
controller uses to set the edge times. A summary of Harmonic elimination PWM techniques
is presented by Enjetiet al.
Optimal PWM or selected harmonic elimination PWM (SHE-PWM) seems attractive,
but cannot react to transients quickly. This is because pulses do not occur at fixed intervals,
that is, the switch period is not constant. Moving one edge may completely upset the

optimized spectrum. Closed loop control using

SHE/SHM is generally limited to cycle by cycle control of the fundamental frequency
and modulation depth. Some works have been done on closing feedback loops around
optimized PWM modulators to remove errors when they occur. These techniques cannot
compensate for distortions due to DC bus ripple, or switching imperfections.
1.2.2 Hysteresis Control PWM
A hysteresis band modulator calculates the error between the desired output and the
measured output. The state of the switches is changed when this error exceeds a certain
bound (leaves the hysteresis band) so as to drive the error back within that bound. This
method requires that the controlled output quantity of the inverter is integrated either by the
load, or as part of the controller. For example, in a voltage source hysteretic inverter, the
output current (the measured and subsequently controlled quantity) will be integrated by an
inductive load.
This technique has the advantage of bounded, predictable error and fast transient
response to changes at either the input or the output. It is closed loop by nature and
demonstrates low distortion. It is simple to implement in its simplest form. It has however a
number of disadvantages, which limit its usefulness to low power, high switching frequency
applications.
One disadvantage is the variable nature of the switch period. Because of this, the
output spectrum is continuous and spread to an extent, rather than discrete and grouped as
with carrier based techniques. Further, the switching instants are not necessarily synchronous
or cyclic and so sub-harmonics may be present. For these reasons, hysteresis control is not
applied for low switching frequencies.
One method of eliminating sub-harmonics is to force quarter wave symmetry by
resetting the error at each zero crossing and forcing a switching, and hence a reflection of the
pattern, at 90 degrees. This gives discrete spectra without sub-harmonics. Another technique
which limits the variations in switching frequency is to modulate the width of the hysteresis
band. This places upper and lower limits on the switching frequency, but does not address the
problem of sub harmonics.
1.2.3 Carrier Based PWM Techniques
There are many variations of carrier based PWM.
1) analog vs. digital
2) sine-triangle vs. space vector (in reality very similar)
3) triangular vs. saw tooth carrier

4) symmetric vs. asymmetric (sampled once/twice per triangle)

5) uniform sampling vs. natural sampling
6) Periodic vs. a periodic carrier.
For the purposes of defining this broad category, carrier based PWM methods are those
where the switching decisions of the inverter are made for each switching cycle either at the
beginning or during that switch cycle. That is, the PWM waveform is calculated on a cycle
by cycle basis, either pulse by pulse, or edge by edge. This distinguishes it from SHE and
SHM PWM, where multiple switching edges are mapped out for the entire fundamental
period or some fraction therein; and hysteresis PWM, where neither edges nor switch period
are defined, calculated or even known in advance. A comparison of waveforms and
frequency spectra of three different PWM strategies are shown in Fig.1.2 below.
The two basic approaches used to generate the PWM signals for multilevel inverters are:
1. Sub harmonic or Sub-Oscillation carrier based PWM-modulating waveform
comparison with offset triangular carriers.
2. Space Vector PWM-space vector modulation based on a rotating vector in multilevel
space.
These are the extensions of traditional two level control strategies to several levels. The
two main advantages of PWM inverters in comparison to square-wave inverters are
(i) Control over output voltage magnitude
(ii) Reduction in magnitudes of unwanted harmonic voltages.
Good quality output voltage in SPWM requires the modulation index (m) to be less than or
equal to 1.0. For m>1 (over-modulation), the fundamental voltage magnitude increases but at
the cost of decreased quality of output waveform. The maximum fundamental voltage that the
SPWM inverter can output (without resorting to over-modulation) is only 78.5% of the
fundamental voltage output by square-wave inverter.

Figure.1.2 From the top, wave forms and frequency spectra of the original sinusoidal
modulating waveform, the un modulated PWM square wave, sine-saw tooth (single edge
carrier) PWM, sine-triangle (double edge carrier) PWM, Selective Harmonic Elimination
(SHE) PWM and Hysteresis PWM.
The merits and demerits of these two PWM techniques are compared under
comparable circuit conditions on the basis of factors like (i) quality of output voltage (ii)
obtainable magnitude of output voltage (iii) ease of control etc. The peak obtainable output
voltage from the given input dc voltage is one important figure of merit for the inverter.
Carrere considered different methods of disposing the many carrier bands required in
multilevel PWM.
Four alternative carrier PWM strategies with differing phase relationships for a multilevel
inverter are as follows:
1) In-phase disposition (IPD), where all the carriers are in phase- Technique A1

2) Phase opposition disposition (POD), where the carriers above the zero reference are in
phase, but shifted by 1800 from those carriers below the zero reference- Technique A2
3) Alternative phase opposition disposition (APOD), where each carrier band is shifted by
1800 from the adjacent bands- Technique A3; 4) Phase Disposition (PD), all the carriers are
phase shifted by 2N/(N-1) radians- Technique B.PD strategy is used most frequently because
it produces minimum harmonic distortion for the linetoline output voltage.

Fig.1.3 Reference and carriers signals for SHPWM technique.

Fig.1.3 shows generation of reference and carriers signal for SHPWM technique, which is
used to control the switches of TBMCSL H- bridges inverter
1.2.4 PWM Techniques
The fundamental methods of pulse-width modulation (PWM) are divided into the
traditional voltage-source and current-regulated methods. Voltage-source methods more
easily lend themselves to digital signal processor (DSP) or programmable logic device (PLD)
implementation. However, current controls typically depend on event scheduling and are
therefore analog implementations which can only be reliably operated up to a certain power
level. In discrete current-regulated methods the harmonic performance is not as good as that
of voltage-source methods. A sample PWM method is described below

Fig.1.4 Pulse-width modulation.

Fig.1.5 Three-phase Sinusoidal PWM inverter

1.3 SINGLE PHASE PWM INVERTERS
In many industrial applications, to control the output voltage of the inverters is necessary for
the following reasons
To adjust with variations of dc input voltage
To regulate voltage of inverters
To satisfy the contain volts and frequency control requirement

Fig.1.6 Waveforms of three-phase SPWM inverter

There are various techniques to vary the inverter gain. The most efficient method of
Controlling the gain (and output voltage) is to incorporate pulse width modulation (PWM)
Control within the inverters. The commonly used techniques are
a) Single Pulse width Modulation
b) Multiple Pulse width Modulation
c) Sinusoidal Pulse width Modulation
d) Modified sinusoidal Pulse width Modulation
e) Phase-displacement control.
The PWM techniques given above vary with respect to the harmonic content in their
output voltages.
PWM can be considered to be an efficient modulation technique as it does not
require additional components and also the lower harmonics can be eliminated or
minimized leaving higher order harmonics which can be easily filtered out whereas the
requirement of SCRs in this technique with low turn-on and turn-off times makes it

expensive. Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM) is the simplest technique that can be
implemented in both two level and multilevel inverters. Basically, in SPWM, two signals a sinusoidal reference signal and a high frequency carrier signal (triangular signal) are
compared to give two states (high or low). The amplitude of the fundamental
component of the output voltage of the inverter can be controlled by varying
Modulation Index (MI). Modulation Index is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the
reference signal (Vr) to that of the magnitude of the carrier signal (V c). Thus, by keeping Vc
constant and varying Vr, the modulation index can be varied.
1.4 SPWM of a Single Phase H-Bridge Inverter
The basic SPWM techniques are unipolar pulse width modulation and bipolar
pulse width modulation which are used in a single phase H bridge inverter to vary its output
voltage.
1.4.1 Bipolar Pulse Width Modulation
In this modulation, the gate pulses are obtained by comparing a sinusoidal modulating
signal or reference signal with a high frequency carrier signal.

Fig.1.7 Bipolar Pulse Width Modulation

1.4.2 Unipolar Pulse Width Modulation
The unipolar modulation normally requires two sinusoidal modulating waves,
which are of same magnitude and frequency but 180 degree out of phase. The inverter
output voltage switches either between zero and +V d during the positive half-cycle or
between zero and Vd during the negative half-cycle of the fundamental frequency. This
modulation is also possible with two triangular carrier waves and one sinusoidal modulating
signal.

Fig.1.8 Unipolar Pulse Width Modulation

1.5 Multicarrier Pulse Width Modulation Techniques
The carrier based PWM techniques for cascaded multilevel inverter can be broadly
classified into: phase shifted modulation and level shifted modulation. In both the techniques,
for an m level inverter, (m-1) triangular carrier waves are required. And all the carrier waves
should have the same frequency and the same peak to peak magnitude.
1.5.1 Phase Shifted Multicarrier Modulation
In phase shifted PWM (PS-PWM), there is a phase shift of

between the adjacent

carrier signals. The phase shift is given by

For a three phase inverter, the modulating signals should also be three phase
sinusoidal signals with adjustable magnitude and frequency. For this modulation scheme,
the frequency modulation index mf and the amplitude modulation index ma is given by

Where fcr
respectively and

and fm
v^ cr

and

is the frequency of the carrier and the modulating signals

v^ mA

are the peak amplitudes of the carrier and the

modulating signals respectively. The amplitude modulation lies in the range of 0 to 1.

Fig.1.9 Phase-shifted PWM for five level CHB inverters

1.5.2 Level Shifted Multicarrier Modulation:
In Level Shifted PWM (LS PWM), the triangular waves are vertically displaced
such that the bands occupy are contiguous. The frequency modulation is given by

mf =

f cr
fm

and amplitude modulation index is

m a=

V mA
(m1) v cr

, where fm and fcr are

the frequencies of the modulating and carrier waves and VmA and Vcr are the peak
amplitudes of modulating and carrier waves respectively.
The amplitude modulation lies in the range of 0 to 1. Depending upon the disposition
of the carrier waves, level shifted PWM can be In Phase Disposition PWM (IPD
PWM), Phase Opposition Disposition PWM (POD PWM) and Alternate Phase
Opposition Disposition PWM (APOD PWM).
(i)IPD PWM:
In this modulation, all the triangular carrier waves are in phase as shown in Fig 1.10.

Fig.1.10 In Phase Disposition PWM for five level CHB inverter

(ii)POD PWM:
The carrier waveforms are in all phase above and below the zero reference value;
however there is 180 degrees phase shift between the ones above and below zero respectively
as shown in the Fig.1.11.

Fig.1.11 Phase Opposition Disposition PWM for five level CHB inverter
(iii)APOD PWM:
The carrier waves have to be displaced from each other by 180 degrees alternately as
shown in Fig.1.12.
In this modulation, the inverter switching frequency and the device switching
f cr
frequency is given by f inv =f cr f dev = (m1)

and

respectively.

Fig.1.12 Alternate Phase Opposition Disposition PWM for five level CHB inverter

ADVANTAGES OF PWM
The output voltage control is easier with PWM than other schemes and can be
achieved without any additional components.
The lower order harmonics are either minimized or eliminated altogether.
The filtering requirements are minimized as lower order harmonics are eliminated and
higher order harmonics are filtered easily.
It has very low power consumption.
The entire control circuit can be digitized which reduces the susceptibility of the
circuit to interference.
1.6.POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT
What is Power Factor
To determine the efficiency of a circuit, the input power is compared to the
output power (Figure 5). This tells us how much total power needs to be provided
in order to get the necessary output at the load. This value is known as the
power factor

Fig. 1.13: Input Power Vs. Output Power

Power factor improvement is often governed by the electrical energy supply company
applying penalties to large users if the power factor of their energy use falls outside certain
limits. However there are also benefits in correcting the power factor in terms of gaining
more efficient use of energy. To achieve the optimum power factor it is necessary to use the
correct method for the particular application in question. A number of different methods of
power factor improvement are available. The correct method needs to be chose for any given
application.
1.6.1.Capacitor power factor improvement
This is a simple method of providing power factor improvement. It is often applied to
areas where machines using electric motors are used. These motors are inductive. Applying a
capacitor neutralises the power factor error. Often these systems monitor the power factor and
switch in further reactance (capacitive) to provide the required power factor improvement
Points to note:

Load type: Capacitors are used to provide linear load power factor improvement.
The capacitors are only able to provide a change in phase and are not able to cater for

the issues surrounding non-linear loads.

Capacitive & inductive reactances cancel: For the system to work correctly the
capacitive reactance must cancel out the inductive reactance. This may require banks
of capacitors to be switched to enable the power factor improvement to be in place as

the load varies and the power factor changes.

Beware instability: The situation of capacitive and inductive reactances cancelling
out equates to resonance of a tuned circuit. Care smut be taken when deigning these
systems to ensure instability does not arise.

Applicability: This form of power factor improvement is normally applied to large

workshops using electrically driven machines and other similar situations.

1.6.2 Synchronous motor power factor improvement

The use of synchronous motors is another method of providing power factor
improvement. The motors are run without a load and are able to provide the capacitive load
required to ensure the power factor is improved. This form of power factor improvement
operates because the reactive power drawn by the synchronous motor is a governed by its
field winding excitation. This can be altered to provide a variable capacitive load. This type
of load factor correction has now generally been superseded by other solid state methods.

Load type : This type of power factor correction is only applicable to linear loads
such as motors and other inductive components. It does not accommodate non-linear

loads such as electronic power supplies.

Large motor required: For this system to work, the motor must be running all the

time. It is run in a non-loaded fashion to give the capacitive reactance required.

Motor expense: Synchronous motors are not cheap and the capital cost needs to be

remembered when considering this option.

Limited motor life: As the synchronous motor needs to be run continuously it
requires maintenance and also has a limited useful life. Both items add costs to this
solution.

1.6.3.Filter power factor improvement

Filtering the input signal to remove harmonics is a method used to provide power factor
improvement. Removing harmonics generated at the input can aid the input signal to return to
a better power factor. As harmonics will be at multiples of the line input frequency, a filter
can be devised with a cut-off just above the line frequency to give sufficient attenuation of
the harmonics to return the waveform to an acceptable form.

Load type: This form of power factor correction is used with non-linear loads which
might be electronic power supplies. The scheme only removes the harmonics of the

signal to return it to a sine wave format.

Performance: This form of power factor improvement is easier to achieve than
other forms of non-linear load power factor correction, but it is not as effective as

active power factor improvement.

Size: As frequencies are low, and line input voltages often high, component sizes are

large.
Cost: The inductors and capacitors needed for a low frequency filter are large and

hence costly
Worldwide operation: A filter to provide power factor improvement for worldwide
operation si difficult to configure because line frequency varies between 50 and 60 Hz
and also voltages may change.

1.6.4.Active boost power factor improvement

This form of power factor correction or improvement uses active circuitry in the form of a
switch mode power supply boost circuit. By controlling the times when charge can be applied
to a reservoir capacitor, the input current can be maintained in synchronisation with the
voltage.

Load type: This form of power factor correction is used with non-linear loads.
Application: This scheme can be accommodated relatively easily within the power
supplies of small computers. As circuitry is already present for a switch mode power
supply, the power factor improvement circuitry can be incorporated relatively easily

and without an unacceptable cost increase.

Performance: This form of power factor improvement is accepted as being the most
effective for non-linear loads.

Each type of power factor improvement or correction has its own advantages and
disadvantages. These factors must be taken into account when choosing the optimum form of
load factor improvement.
1.7.POWER FACTOR CORRECTION
Power factor correction is a technique used to increase the power factor of a system.
Increasing the power factor of an electrical system is desirable because it reduces the reactive
current and thus increases efficiency. The major hurdle in creating a higher power factor is
cancelling out the reactive power of a system. There are two main methods for power factor
correction: passive power factor correction and active power factor correction. Passive PFC is
the simpler route of the two. It is generally done by introducing an inductance to a system to

counteract the reactive current due to capacitance. Recall that inductors introduce positive
reactive power while capacitors introduce negative reactive power (Figure 3-4). So if there is
a large capacitive value associate with a system, there will be large amount of negative
reactive power.
Introducing an inductance to the system will counteract this effect by bringing the
negative reactive power back towards zero. Think of this like a tug of war battle. On one side
of the rope is Mr. Bodybuilder (capacitance). On the other side is your Mr. Average Joe
(resistance). Obviously, there is no contest and the Mr. Bodybuilder will easy pull Mr.
Average Joe to the middle. This is akin to the reactive component overcoming the resistive
elements and phase shifting the current in a system (lowering the power factor). Now picture
that six Mr. Average Joes team up against the Mr. Bodybuilder. Now Mr. Average Joes side
starts to pull Mr. Bodybuilder until there is almost an even match between the two sides. This
is a very similar concept to how introducing a large inductor pulls the reactive current
component back towards the middle

Fig. 1.14: Corrected Apparent Power

As a result, the power factor increases and the system becomes more efficient because
reactive losses have been minimized. Active PFC involves using complex circuitry to
counteract the effects of the reactive components. Such a discussion is beyond the scope of
this paper but the concept is similar to the tug of war reference. Most power sources and
systems manufactured presently utilize active power factor correction. The reason is because
once a source or system reaches a certain size (over about 200-250VA), the inductor
necessary for passive PFC becomes too large for a feasible design.
PFC is rapidly becoming a mandatory feature in AC power sources because IEC
6100-3-2 requires the use of PFC circuits. Active and passive PFC circuits are designed to
bring the PF of a system closer to unity (PF = 1.0). While no system is 100% efficient, most
PFC technology makes the power factor of a system greater than 0.95. Highly efficient
electrical systems have the advantage of supplying less current to drive a load. This is
beneficial to customers that have low power factor problems because utilities sometimes
charge penalties for low power factor. While cost savings from PFC on small AC sources

isnt nearly as noticeable as money saved from PFC on large systems, in the long run PFC
will provide reduced costs for high energy consumers.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 ACTIVE POWER FILTER

APF not only mitigates harmonics from voltage and current waveforms but also
improves power factor, reduces neutral current of three phase AC supply, compensates the
reactive power, adapts itself to different load and source conditions and reduces the impact of
voltage sag, swell and flicker. All these simultaneous work can be possible only due to closed
loop switching control application of APF.
APF is a power electric equipment connected either in series or in parallel or
combination of both in between source and load. Depending on its connection it is classified
into three categories, namely: 1) series APF; 2) shunt APF; 3) universal APF or unified power
line conditioner. Series APF is used to compensate voltage harmonics, while shunt APF is
used to compensate current harmonics. Universal APF is used to compensate voltage
harmonics as well as current harmonics. Sometimes a combination of both APF and passive
filter is used for better result. This type of filter is known as hybrid active power filter. Due to
requirement of current harmonic compensation in most of the industrial applications,
performance improvement of shunt active power filter has become the choice of many
researchers.
2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF ACTIVE POWER FILTERS
An un favourable but inseparable feature of APF is the necessity of fast switching of
high currents in the power circuit of the APF. This results in a high frequency noise that may
cause an electromagnetic interference (EMI) in the power distribution systems. APF can be
connected in several power circuit configurations as illustrated in the block diagram shown in
Figure2.1In general, they are divided into three main categories, namely shunt APF, series
APF and hybrid APF.

Fig 2.1classification of active power filters

2.2.1 SHUNT ACTIVE POWER FILTER

Fig.2.2 Block diagram of shunt active power filter

Shunt APF is connected in parallel at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC) in
between source and nonlinear load. Main focus of shunt APF design is to compensate current
harmonics caused by nonlinear load by supplying equal amount of harmonics at PCC but
with opposite polarity. Block diagram of shunt APF is shown in Fig.2.2. APF is an inverter
with some controllable switches. A voltage source inverter (VSI) or a current source inverter
(CSI) can be used as an APF.

In CSI based APF, a CSI is connected at PCC through second order low pass filter
made up of LF and CF as shown in Fig.2.3 Current source of the inverter is replaced by a
high DC side inductor. In CSI all the semiconductor switches must support unipolar current
and bipolar voltage. Earlier researchers were using Gate Turn-Off (GTO) thyristor with
reverse blocking capabilities. But now a days to enhance research on CSI, Insulated Gate
Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) with a series diode are available in market.

Fig.2.3 Block diagram of VSI based shunt active power filter

Fig.2.4 Block diagram of CSI based shunt active power filter

In VSI, the AC side of the inverter is connected at PCC through a coupling inductor.
In the DC side of VSI, DC source of inverter can be replaced by a large capacitor as there is
no resistive element used in the AC side of the inverter. As all the circuit elements are not

ideal, some steps should be taken to overcome the internal resistance of the circuit elements
while using VSI as APF. This is discussed in latter parts of the thesis. All switches must
support bipolar current and unipolar voltage. So semiconductor switches with anti-parallel
diode are generally used. Block diagram of VSI based shunt APF is shown in Fig.2.4.
Coming into the benefits and drawbacks of both VSI and CSI based shunt APF, CSI
fed APF is very efficient in low power conditions. But it is comparatively heavier than the
VSI fed APF. Also CSI fed APF has high DC link losses due to use of large inductor in the
DC side of CSI. The major drawback associated with VSI fed APF is that there is switching
ripple in the source current after compensation. There is no such significant difference in
harmonic compensation characteristics of both VSI and CSI fed APF.
Depending on the AC source and load, APF configuration is also changed. For a
single phase source, single phase shunt APF is used and for a three phase source a three phase
APF is used. Generally for household and office applications such as: computers, fax
machines, printers, etc, single phase supply is used. So single phase shunt APFs are widely
used to eliminate current harmonics in this field. A single phase shunt APF is shown in
Fig.2.5. As shown in Fig.2.5, the variable I II S O L, and are used to present the source
current, output current and inductor current respectively. VS and VC presents the source
voltage and capacitor voltage respectively. Resistance R is used to demonstrate all the
internal resistances of the circuit elements. In and this resistance R is considered in the
analysis of control strategy of APF, whereas in this resistance is neglected. A single phase
diode bridge rectifier with RC load used as a nonlinear load as shown in Fig.2.5

Fig.2.5 Typical structure single phase of shunt active power filter

Similarly for industry applications to eliminate current harmonics three phase shunt APF is
required. A typical structure of three phase shunt APF is shown in Fig2.5 as per. Three phase
bridge rectifier with RCL load used as nonlinear load. A three phase VSI with large DC
capacitor, coupled to the AC mains through coupling inductors acts as a three phase APF.
Circuit elements are named as in Fig.2.5 and Fig.2.6.

Fig. 2.6Typical structure three phase of shunt active power filter

2.3 DESIGN OF THE CIRCUIT OF APF
The design of the APF circuit mainly includes the following factors:

Choosing controlled switches

Selecting the Value of DC link filter capacitor
Choosing the value(s) of coupling inductor (s)
Taking a reference DC capacitor voltage.
Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) or IGBT switches

with a anti parallel diode across it can be used as switches in shunt APF. The voltage and
current rating of the switches must be higher than peak DC link Filter capacitor voltage and
peak coupling inductor current respectively. The peak of coupling inductor current can be
determined easily by knowing nonlinear load model.
2.3.1CURRENT CONTROL OF APF
Although most of the research on APF is based on reference current extraction
method and switching schemes, current control of APF also plays a significant part in
analyzing stability of the complete system, providing robustness under external disturbances
and reducing THD of the source current. Current of APF can be controlled directly or

indirectly. Indirect current control method, the sensed coupling inductor current used directly
in the controller of APF. In indirect current control method sensed source current is used in
the controller to generate switching pulses. In an indirect current controller is implemented,
whereas based on direct current controller.
Mostly indirect current control techniques are applied as it is easier to implement. A
resonant current controller is presented in. A Lyapunov stability based current control strategy
is presented in. The concept of equilibrium points and linearization of single phase shunt APF
is explained in literature. Both model reference adaptive current controller, Lyapunov based
current controller are very good method for analyzing stability of the system. It is noticed that
transient response of the system is significantly improved in. The sliding mode (SM) control
is applied to three phase shunt APF. SM current control strategy is applied to single phase
shunt APF. SM controller via feedback linearization is applied to shunt APF. Coming into the
SM current control strategy and feedback linearization based current control strategy, it is
found that these two control strategies are frequently applied to improve the performance of
other power electronics devices.
To avoid the drawbacks of variable switching frequency, a PWM based constant
switching frequency SM controller of DC-DC converter is reported in. Similarly fixed
switched frequency SM controller for single phase VSI is developed in. To make the boost
converter robust under variation of input voltage and load, an adaptive SM controller is
presented in. A variable sliding surface based position control of DC motor is presented in.
Maximum power point tracking method of photovoltaic system using SM controller is
analyzed in. In this paper instead of sensing voltage of the capacitor connected across the
photovoltaic system, current flowing through the capacitor is used in the SM controller. In
dynamic stability of the photovoltaic system connected to grid is analyzed using zero
dynamic of the system. This process is nothing but the feedback linearization of grid
connected photovoltaic system.
2.3.2 SLIDING MODE CONTROL
SM control is one of the nonlinear control strategy. It is mostly applied to variable
structure system. The basic principle for applying SM control strategy is to design a sliding
surface or switching function. Then the switches of power electronic device are controlled in
such a way that the system trajectory will be directed towards the sliding surface, slides along
the surface and eventually reach the equilibrium point. More detail about equilibrium point is
given. The system performance depends on the design of sliding surface. The sliding surface
taken is given by

(1.1)
Where 1 2 3 are positive constant and p1 p2 p3 , , are state variable of the DC-DC converter.
The sliding surface taken is given by

(1.2)
Where is a positive constant and x- xd is the error between state variable to be controlled
and desired reference variable. After designing of the sliding surface, the next step is to
define a control law based on three conditions. These conditions are given as follows:
Reaching condition or hitting condition
Existence condition
Stability condition
The aim of reaching condition is that regard less of initial position, the trajectory of
the system will be directed toward the sliding surface. Once it reaches the sliding surface, to
maintain the trajectory on the surface is the objective of existence condition. The existence
condition can be treated as local reach ability condition. As shown in Fig.2.7 (E) the
trajectory reaches the sliding regime at point (a), slides along the surface (existence
condition) and finally settles at the equilibrium point. The inequality which makes the system
satisfy the reaching and existence condition is given as follows:

Fig. 2.7 Sliding conditions (E) stable system (F) unstable system

2.3.3 SLIDING MODE CONTROLLER FOR SINGLE PHASE SHUNT ACTIVE

POWER FILTER

From the literature review made on active power filter, it is clear that a lot of active
power filtering methods have been proposed in the literatures to reduce THD of source
current and to improve the power factor on the electrical network. But most of the control
strategies are based on some advance technologies such as fuzzy logic, neural network and
genetic algorithm. These control strategies gives high performance and flexible designs. But
the cost of implementation of these control algorithms is very high.
To reduce the cost of implementation some analog control implementations have also
been evaluated in the literature. These controllers provide good performance at nominal
source conditions. However, in distorted sources, additional analog circuitry is required to
fulfil the expected features. Considering these problems, this chapter reports a SM controlled
active filter, which is applicable under both nominal source and distorted source.
2.4 DEVELOPMENT OF THE CONTROL ALGORITHM
This basic approach consists of two control loops. Outer voltage loop regulates the
capacitor voltage and inner current loop tracks the reference current signal. PI controller is
used
2.4.1SLIDING MODE CURRENT CONTROL OF APF
In order to improve the performance of the controller, in this chapter a control mode is
proposed based on sliding surface which involves source current ( I S ). Let (VDC, I*S ) be the
reference values of filter capacitor voltage and source current. These reference values of filter
capacitor voltage and source current are also known as equilibrium points of the system. The
error function e1 =Is-I*r represents the sliding surface.
The proposed sliding surface can be written as follows:
(1.3)
Where is a control parameter known as sliding coefficient. Positive value sliding surface
coefficients ensures the stability of the APF. As explained before the existence condition.
Table1.1 Switching scheme used in analog SM controller

Fig.2.8 Analog sliding mode controller for shunt APF

1.9.2THREE-WIRE APFS
Three-phase three wire non-linear loads, such as ASDs, are major applications of
solid-state power converters and, lately, many ASDs, etc., incorporate APFs in their front-end
design. A large number of publications have appeared on three-wire APFs with different
configurations. Active shunt APFs are developed in the current-fed type or voltage fed type
with single stage or multistep/multilevel and multi series configurations. Active shunt APFs
are also designed with three single-phase APFs with isolation transformers for proper voltage
matching, independent phase control, and reliable compensation with un-balanced systems.
Active series filters are developed for stand-alone mode or hybrid mode with passive shunt
filters.

Fig.2.9 -phase three-wire APF

1.9.3 FOUR-WIRE APFS

A large number of single-phase loads may be supplied from three-phase mains with
neutral conductor. They cause excessive neutral current, harmonic and reactive power burden,
and unbalance. To reduce these problems, four-wire APFs have been attempted. They have
been developed as active shunt mode with current fed and voltage fed, active series mode and
hybrid form with active series and passive shunt mode.

Fig.2.10 Three-phase four-wire four-pole Shunt APF

Three-phase four-wire, four-pole Shunt APF is a four-leg structure, where a fourth leg
is provided exclusively for neutral current compensation (Fig.2.10) and three-phase four-wire
capacitor midpoint Shunt APF is a three-leg structure with the neutral conductor being
connected to midpoint of dc-link capacitor . The four-leg eight-switch APF topology is
preferred to be implemented as many researchers have appointed this configuration as the
most proficient alternative to be used in shunt APF.

CHAPTER 3
PROPOSED CONCEPT
3.1.INTRODUCTION
Recent power electronics technologies have enabled variable speed motor drives to be
penetrated into the electrical home appliances, such as air-conditioners, washing machines,
refrigerators, and so on. Although the variable speed drives have improved energy efficiency
of electric appliances, the increasing use of power electronic devices has greatly increased the
stress caused by harmonic currents on low-voltage ac grid [1]. For that reason, all electrical
equipment that is connected to the grid and has an input current of up to 16A per phase must
comply with the regulations regarding harmonic current emission of IEC 61000-3-2. Since it
is not possible for some electric appliances with diode rectifier front end to meet the
regulation, a passive input filter composed of inductors is often inserted between the grid and
the system input. However, it is only applicable to relatively small-power appliances since the
size of the input filter becomes larger as the power increases. Another conventional remedy
for the harmonic current emission is to add an active power factor

Figure 3.1. Single-phase diode rectifier front end, power factor corrector,
and PWM inverter for motor drive.
corrector. The power factor corrector depicted in Fig. 3.1 consists of power switches and
reactor, and it makes the grid current sinusoidal by filtering the harmonic currents. However,
the PFC may result in increased cost and bulky size of the system. Thus, there have been
many researches for the high power factor motor drive system producing less harmonic
currents without PFC and reactive components. In conventional single-phase motor drive
systems equipped with diode rectifier, an energy reservoir, i.e., large dc-link capacitor to
supply constant energy has been taken for granted since the mechanical load is supposed to
require constant power. However, the utilization of large dc-link capacitor leads to
discontinuous conduction of diode rectifier, so the grid current contains much harmonics.
Moreover, many mechanical loads in electrical appliances do not necessarily require constant
torque because the mechanical inertia is so large that the speed of the load may not change

seriously. Thus, the dc-link capacitance of the inverter is extremely reduced to prevent the
discontinuous conduction of diode rectifier in [2, 3]. As a result, even though the dc-link
voltage and the output power to the motor periodically drops to almost zero due to absence of
the energy storage, a quasi-sinusoidal grid current can be achieved by manipulating the
torque-producing current reference. However, the input power cannot be controlled
immediately by changing the torque-producing current reference due to the dynamics in the
motor current control.

Figure 3.2. Conventional motor drive system employing a single-phase

Diode rectifier front end.
Consequently, the input current is distorted especially while the dc-link voltage is near
zero due to loss of controllability of motor currents. Moreover, since it does not consider
other electric loads connected to the same grid and producing harmonic currents, the total
input current of the system may not meet the harmonic current limits even though the input
current of the controlled drive itself can meet the limits. In this paper, a novel grid current
control method of the motor drive for reducing harmonic currents of the entire system is
presented. The grid current control can be applied to the conventional motor drive systems
with diode rectifier front end, and is incorporated with the conventional controllers for motor
drive. The principle of grid current control is introduced, and then the extension to the active
power filter function utilizing the input current control capability of the system is also
proposed. Finally, the operation and effectiveness of the proposed algorithms are validated by
experiments with a prototype motor drive system.
3.2. INPUT CURRENT CONTROL OF MOTOR DRIVE SYSTEM
In this chapter, a novel input current control method is presented as a prerequisite for
the active power filter function. Fig. 3.2 shows the conventional motor drive system
employing a single-phase diode rectifier front end. In the proposed motor drive system, the

dc-link capacitance is significantly reduced to keep the diodes conducting currents alternately
during a half of grid cycle. Thus, a small metalized film capacitor can be used instead of
bulky electrolytic capacitor. Since the input power to the inverter equals to the output power
to the motor neglecting power losses in the power semiconductor switches, the average
inverter current flowing into the inverter can be defined by

(3.1)
where Vdc is the dc-link voltage, and Vdq, Idq are voltage and current vectors of the motor in
arbitrary d-q reference frame, respectively. On the other hands, the current flowing through
the dc-link capacitor can be simply calculated using the measured dc-link voltage as
(3.2)
Where Cdc is the dc-link capacitance. Since the absolute value of the grid current (|I g|) in Fig.
3.2 equals to the sum of Iinv and Icap, the average inverter current in (3.1) yields

(3.3)
The absolute value of the grid current reference ( |I G|* ) is determined from the torque
reference and motor speed based on the fact that the average input power over a half of the
grid cycle can be approximated to the mechanical output power. In other words, the speed
controller generates a torque reference T * , and the RMS value of sinusoidal grid current
references is calculated as

(3.4)
Where Ig* is RMS (Root Mean Square) value of the grid current reference, Vg is RMS value
of the grid voltage, and m is rotating speed of the motor, respectively. Then, The continuous
grid current reference IG* is generated using the phase angle of the grid voltage from phaselocked loop and the RMS value of the grid current reference by

(3.5)

In order to make the grid current be equal to the reference, the inverter voltage output
Vdq

should meet (3.2) since it is the only control variable. However, in the case of

conventional motor drive algorithm, the inverter voltage output is determined by the motor
current controller. Thus, it is necessary for the input current control to compromise with the
motor current control on making the output voltage reference. In the proposed algorithm, the
input current control has higher priority than the motor current control since the grid current
should be immediately controlled while the motor current does not change rapidly due to the
motor inductances. Thus, the voltage reference from the motor current controller is modified
by the input current controller in order to meet the input current equation in (3.2). Since the
input current equation of (3.2) is a two-dimensional vector equation, there can be a lot of
modification rules. The modification process proposed in this paper is as follows. First, a d-q
voltage reference vector Vdq is calculated from the motor current controller similarly with
conventional motor drives. Then, the average inverter current while the voltage vector is
applied to the motor is predicted using (3.1) with the measured motor current vector and dclink voltage, i.e.

(3.6)
After that, the difference between the desired input current I inv* and the predicted input
current is fed back to the input current controller. Finally, the input current controller
calculates the minimum voltage modification needed for compensating the difference. The
reason to find the minimum voltage modification is to alleviate the problems due to the
voltage modification. Actually, even though the inverter voltage is modified as little as
possible, distortions in the motor current are inevitable.

Figure 3.3. Vector diagram of the voltage modification for input current control where
(a)

* Iinv > * Iinv _ pred and (b) * Iinv < Iinv _ pred

However, it does not matter since the average motor current over a half of grid cycle
can be still controlled by the motor current controller, so the average torque is still
maintained. The minimum voltage modification can be simply obtained using the motor
current vector and the predicted input current by

(3.7)
where Vmod is the voltage modification vector. Fig. 3.3 shows the vector diagram of voltage
modification in the stationary reference frame for the previously mentioned grid current
control. It can be noted in the vector diagram that the voltage modification vector Vmod is
parallel to the motor current vector I dq since it is the minimum voltage modification vector.
The modified voltage vector Vdq** = Vdq* + Vmod is finally applied to the motor.

Figure 3.4. Non-linear loads in the motor drive system: (a) Non-linear load with a seperated
diode rectifier,

3.4(b)Non-linear load connected to the common dc-link.

3.3. ACTIVE POWER FILTER FUNCTION
Electric appliances generally consist of not only electric motor but also other electric
devices such as actuators, controllers, power supplies, and so on. All of these devices can be
sources of harmonic currents, especially if those are supplied by a diode-rectifier without
PFC circuit as shown in Fig. 3.4. In Fig. 3.4(a), the auxiliary load is fed by an extra diode
rectifier, whereas in Fig 3.4(b) the load is attached to the dcbus via a diode which isolates the
load from the dc-bus whenever the dc-bus voltage is dipped. In this chapter, a power factor
correction method for all non-linear electric loads belong to the system is presented. If there
is at least one active PFC in the system, it is possible for the PFC to suppress harmonic
currents from other loads [5-8].

Figure 3.5. Block diagram of the input current control and the active power filter
function.
Since the input current of the motor drive system can be controlled using the input
current control method previously described, the motor drive system itself can be thought as

an active PFC. The simplest method to suppresses the harmonic currents due to other loads is
subtracting the measured load currents from the sinusoidal grid current reference of the
motor drive system. Then, the input current to the motor drive actively changes according to
the load currents to make the grid current sinusoidal. However, the modified grid current
reference cannot be below zero since the diode-rectifier in the motor drive system blocks
reverse current. Thus, the modified input current reference of the motor drive system should
be above zero as

(3.8)
Although the modified input current reference leads to a mismatch between the input
power and the mechanical output power, the speed controller naturally makes up for it by
changing the RMS value of grid current reference I g*. A detailed block diagram of the input
current control and the active power filter function are depicted in Fig. 3.5

CHAPTER 4
MATLAB / SIMULINK RESULTS
4.1 INTRODUCTION TO MATLAB:
The name MATLAB stands for Matrix Laboratory. MATLAB was written originally
to provide easy access to matrix software developed by the LINPACK (linear system
package) and EISPACK (Eigen system package) projects.
MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates
computation, visualization, and programming environment. Furthermore, MATLAB is a
modern programming language environment: it has sophisticated data structures, contains
built-in editing and debugging tools, and supports object-oriented programming. These
factors make MATLAB an excellent tool for teaching and research.
MATLAB has many advantages compared to conventional computer languages (e.g.,
C, FORTRAN) for solving technical problems. MATLAB is an interactive system whose
basic data element is an array that does not require dimensioning. The software package has
been commercially available since 1984 and is now considered as a standard tool at most
universities and industries worldwide.
It has powerful built-in routines that enable a very wide variety of computations. It
also has easy to use graphics commands that make the visualization of results immediately
available. Specific applications are collected in packages referred to as toolbox. There are
toolboxes for signal processing, symbolic computation, control theory, simulation,
optimization, and several
other fields of applied science and engineering.

4.2 MATLAB AND SIMULATION RESULTS:

CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION
In motor drive systems supplied by a single-phase grid, the problems of input
harmonic currents have been mitigated using a PFC, which makes the system bulk and
expensive. In this paper, a power factor correction method for motor drive systems without
PFC has been proposed. In the proposed system, the dc-link capacitor is reduced for
continuous conduction of diode rectifier front end. And, the input current is controlled by
directly manipulating the inverter output voltage according to the motor currents and the
input current reference. Since the input current can be shaped into any waveforms using the
proposed input current control method, it is also possible to eliminate the harmonics in the
grid current that other electric loads generate by injecting the opposite harmonics. It was
validated by experiments that the input current can be controlled using the proposed
algorithm and the harmonic currents from other non-linear loads can be actively suppressed.
5.1 FUTURE SCOPE:

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