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PHILIP
P. WIENER
mechanism,organicism,continuity,gradation,plenitude,etc. One of
* Thispaperwas presented
beforetheFirstMeetingoftheInternational
Society
fortheHistoryof Ideas,heldat Peterhouse,
Cambridge
University,
Aug.31, 1960.
t Quotedby Miss Lore Metzgerin her "Coleridge'sVindicationof Spinoza"
[J.H.I.,XXI, 2 (April1960),280] fromColeridge's
Notebook25, fol.120 (British
MuseumAdd.MS. 47,523): Treatiseon Method.
1 A. 0. Lovejoy,"Reflections
on theHistoryof Ideas,"J.H.l.,I (1940), 3-20.
531
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532
PHILIP
P. WIENER
is simplya convenient
Now an atomistic
methodology
logicalwayof
its modifications
in culturalspace and time.
tracingan idea through
Curiouslyenough,atomismin thehumanor behavioralscienceshas
whereasthe organicist
debeen accusedof excessiveindividualism
fenders
ofthewholeness
oftheindividual
havebeenchargedwiththe
totalitarian
tendency
to subordinate
theindividualto a greater
whole,
suchas thestateor theworldspiritor a classlesssociety.
the originalformand meaningof
The problemof distinguishing
sourcesfromlateraccretionsaftertheyare editedor
documentary
is the perpetualproblemof all
or distilledby historians
interpreted
criticalhistoricalresearch.Now,the historianof ideas is subjectto
historianwhosefootnotes
are
the same disciplineas the responsible
thefacts of his science.Yet we cannotin our subjectseparatefacts
ofideas.The textwhichinterprets
thefootnotes
frominterpretations
Ourinterpretations
aretherefore
givesthemtheirmeaning.
subjectto
as are neededto communiand philosophical
suchliterary
principles
cate and explicatethe factsin thispeculiarinterdisciplinary
study.
in thehistoriography
ofideas,I meanthestyle
By literary
principles
ofavoidingtoo technicala jargonor
thenecessity
ofcommunication,
specializedvocabularyused in only one fieldof science,art, philosophy,or theology.An interdisciplinary
studycannotrelyon a
used and recognizable
terminology
exclusively
onlyby a smallnumAn essentialpartof the taskof interrelating
berof specialists.
ideas
is the effort
to translateor to comparecritically
historically
varied
of the sameidea or misleading
linguistic
expressions
identicalwords
fordifferent
ideas.2Lovejoy'spenetrating
on
Essays
the History of
Ideas and his classicalstudyoftheidea oftheGreatChainof Being
amplyillustratebothpoints.His parallelbetweendeismand classicismin XVIIIth-century
literature
and philosophy
showshowwriters
in different
fieldswereusingdifferent
wordsto expressthe same or
similarideasof "order"and "simplicity"
whether
in naturaltheology
or poetry.On theotherhand,Lovejoyhas madehis greatestcontributionin callingattentionto the need fordiscriminating
the many
meaningsof the same word,e.g. "nature,""romanticism,"
"pragmatism,"evenat thecostofdepriving
themofemotionalhalos.
The veryword"idea" has manymeaningsand each of theseits
ownhistory.
Failureto distinguish
thesemeaningscan easilylead to
methodological
confusion.
"Ideas" mean:
(a) whateveris seen by the mindin the originalGreeksense of
"idein,"(cf.video in Latin); so Platohad Socratescontemplating
the
ideas of friendship,
courage,temperance,
justice,and beauty,as one
transfixed
by a vision;
2 Cf. G.
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PROBLEMS
AND METHODS
533
confronts
(b) whatever
themindwhenit perceives
or thinks-sensations of qualities,feelings,impressions,
memoryimages,or compoundsof these-the meaningof "ideas" in Britishterminism
or
nominalism.
The "plainhistoricalmethod"forLockemeanttaking
stockintrospectively
of thevariouskindsof suchideas "ofsensation
andreflection,
simpleandcomplex,
etc.";
(c) "ideal"-the questionin the Parmenideswhetherdirt,hair,etc.
have ideas suggeststhatthedistinction
betweena logicallycoherent
"idea" and a humanly
in Platonism;
desirable"ideal"oftendisappears
(d) beliefsor judgments-e.g.the idea of the primitive
goodnessof
manbeforehe was spoiledbycivilization,
theidea thatprogress
is inevitable,orthatall history
is classstruggle.
Senses(c) and (d) of "idea" as ideal and as beliefare opposedto
senses(a) and (b) of ideas epistemologically,
because(a) and (b),
intuitions
and images,referto immediate
whereas(c) and
experience
(d), the desiredideal and the hypothetical
belief,are moremediatedby abstractsymbolsor concepts.The historian
ofideas can find
and mustseeknotonlywritten
documents
fortheidealsand beliefs
ofan age butwillseekalso theiconographic
evidenceofthearts.For
example,paintings
of consumptives
in theXIXth century
showhow
menand the publicforwhomtheywerewriting
literary
reactedto
medicaltheoriesof Pasteurand Koch, undoubtedly
withoutunderstandingthem.
Now thehistory
ofideasis nota pureor originaldiscipline
but a
compositive
or derivative
one,becauseit is dependent
on otherdisciplineswhosebordersit penetrates.
We assumethatmenfirst
have to
thinkandtalkabouttheworldin whichtheyhaveto surviveand find
waysof creatingor modifying
thesocialand artisticformstheypass
on to thenextgeneration.
So faras recorded
historygoes,thereare
always symbols(whethergestural,pictorial,verbal, or abstract
forms)expressing
the life of ideas beforemen take noticeof the
changesin theseideas as worthy
ofseparatetelling.
Aristotle's
firstbookof his so-calledMetaphysics
is a classicexampleof the historyof philosophic
ideas. It is not onlythe richest
sourceof ourknowledge
of pre-Socratic
cosmologies-man's
firstscientific
guessesat theriddleof theuniverse-butis also an excellent
illustration
of the derivative
natureand of someof the problemsof
the historyof ideas.3We all knowthat Aristotle,
like his teacher
Plato,tracedthegeneticgrowth
ofthemoregeneralideas thatenter
intoknowledge
fromtheindividual's
sense-experiences
andmemories,
fusedin techneand episteme,so that knowledgeof the universal
comesafterknowing
howindividualthingsbehavein ourexperience.
3Cf. H. Cherniss,"The History of Ideas and Ancient Greek Philosophy" in
Studies in IntellectualHistory (Baltimore,1953), 39-42.
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534
PHILIP
P. WIENER
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PROBLEMS
AND METHODS
535
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536
PHILIP
P. WIENER
The discoveriesin the historyof scienceof once unobservableentitieslike microbes,electricalcharges,Neptune,or Mendeleyev'spredicted elements(gallium and germanium)are undeniablywonderful
evidence of the powers of the mind and its cumulativegrowth,attractingmorepeople everyyear to the sciences.Derek Price has calculated that the rate of growthof the scientific
populationis so much
greaterthan that of the world's population, that extrapolationof
these growth-curves
would yieldthe startlingresultof morescientists
in the worldthan people aftera certaintime! The causes forthe acceleratedtempoof scientificprogressneed investigation,and the historyof ideas can heremake use of statisticaland othersuch methods
of sociological and historicalinquiry without sacrificingits fundamental insightsinto the humanisticaspects of scientificinterestand
developments;I mean the aesthetic,speculative,and moral aspects
of scienceand the historicalrelationsof scienceto literatureand the
arts,religion,education,and politics.
As wonderfulas the scientificexplorationof the atom and of
galaxies,moreremotefromus in space and timethan our imagination
can picture,is the explorationof the minutefacts of the historyof
the mind and the reconstruction
of its aspirations,motivations,failures, and achievements.The recaptureof the vision of the world as
seen by minds long gone is the marvellousfeat of the historianof
ideas. What the EmperorConstantineprobablythoughtand feltlike,
as he surveyedthe site of the futurecity he wished to build as the
Rome of the Eastern Empire, Gibbon has depicted so convincingly
that we feelin readingGibbon as if we weretransportedto the IVth
centuryand relivingthe Emperor'sfeelingsand thoughts.The unique
irrecoverableindividualevent,particularfeelings,and peculiarassociations of ideas that surgedthroughthe Emperor'smind we cannot
know,but theiruniversalfeatureswe can know,and if we have the
magical literarygiftsof a Gibbon,we can almostreenactthe experiThe history
ence,alwaysvicariously,as in any dramaticperformance.
of ideas can and shouldbe dramaticand its methodof presentingthe
findingscan look to the drama fora model: unityof plot or structure
in an idea, its transformations
under the stress and strain of conwhen the idea conflictingcircumstances,and its happy fulfillment
tributesto futureprogressor its tragicdeath when the idea fails to
meet the intellectualneeds of a changingworld,and passes into oblivion,perhapsdeservedly,shouldwe not pointout?
We don't know whetherGalileo mutteredunderhis breath "Eppur se muove" but we do know that those are exactlythe wordshe
could and should have utteredand must have feltlike uttering,and
some day theremay be absolutedocumentaryproofof it, thoughthat
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PROBLEMS
AND METHODS
537
of the
seems unlikelyat present.Also Ernst Mach's reconstruction
sortof experimentGalileo mighthave done in arrivingat his law of
but so convincingis it, that the hisinertiais a Gedankexperiment,
torianof otherthan scientificideas can well profitmethodologically
fromMach's example. Galileo himselfused a thoughtexperimentin
refutingAristotle'slaw of fallingbodies. I recall Galileo's argument
because my pointis that the methodof the thoughtexperimentis indispensable for the historianof ideas. By asking whetherNewton
could have discovered the law of universal gravitation without
Kepler's and Galileo's laws, we learn how scientificthought historicallydepends on a cumulative continuityof mental effortand
criticismthroughthe ages. The story of the apple is not merely
legendarybut misleadingwhen it gives people the idea that science
occurs to an emptymind by a sudden intuitionunrelatedto traditional thoughtson the same problem.
The problemof "influences"in the historyof ideas is anotherperpetual problem."Actionat a distance"seems to be admissiblein the
fieldof intellectualinfluences.The ideas of Plato still have theirinfluenceon studentsseparated by more than two millenia fromhis
writings.Direct contactwitheven the writingsof a thinkeris not always necessaryforit is possible to findthat thereare otherpersons
whosemindsand talk or writingsforma chain of influencetraceable,
however,by somehistorianor recorderof the ideas. Mersenne"was in
fact an influentialexponentof mechanism"4 because he served as
"the letter-box"("la poste") of scientificand philosophicXVIIthcenturyEurope. On the negative side, not all pupils are disciples:
Aristotlewas not merely a pupil of Plato. The great individual
thinkersnot onlyshowgreatcapacityforlearningfromtheirteachers
and predecessors,but also the originalpower to supersedethem by
criticaldissatisfactionwith theirideas. What are the climactericconditionsmost favorableto new ideas, and in what sense is a mind influencedby "the climate of opinion"? More precise definitionsand
of causal conditionsare needed. It will not do to say "X
specification
Y
influenced because what is true of X is true of Y, and X preceded
Y." The fallacyof post hoc, ergopropterhoc and the possibilitythat
X and Y have a commonsourcein Z or derivefroma commontradition must not be forgotten.5
4 C. C. Gillispie,The Edge of Objectivity,
an Essay in theHistoryof Scientific
Ideas (Princeton,
1960),111.
5 R. Mondolfo,
"Nota sobrelos 'Antecedentes'
en la Historiade la Filosofia,"
22 (1959), 5-9; Mondolfoproperlysuggeststhat influences
Philosophia,
depend
on theintellectual
tradition
negatively
againstwhichan idea reacts.
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538
PHILIP
P. WIENER
II
No discussionof problemsand methodscan mean much apart
fromthe subject-matter,
interests,and generalbasic assumptions
of the investigators.
A distinctive
featureof our subject-matter
is
its breadthwithrespectto the regionaland temporalspan of ideas
whichpermeateculturesas wellas disciplines.
We notethelocal and
epochaltingegivento ideas but onlyto compareor contrastsuch
withotherappearancesof the
regionaland temporalcharacteristics
historical
conditions.
ideasunderdifferent
Or we notehowan idea in
a poem like Pope's Essay on Man expressedan old philosophical
problem,
theidea ofthegreatchainofbeing.We leaveto thespecialist thedetailsofa singlethinker's
butwe are interested
biography
in
theinfluence
ofthatthinker's
ideas on his and latergenerations.
For thesake of discussion
we presentverybriefly
someproblems
of methodin each of the following
typesof intellectual
historiograand
biographical
phy:-(1)
autobiographical;
(2) sociological;(3)
philological;(4) metaphysicaland theological;(5) scientific.
Of
course,theyoverlapconsiderably.
(1) The biographical
and autobiographical
method,e.g. Plato's
Socraticdialogues,Plutarch'sLives, Augustine'sConfessions,
Descartes'DiscourseonMethod,is especiallyvaluableforthehistorian
of
ideaswhenaccompanied
the
by
impersonal
analysesofabstractideas
and contemporary
philosophical
writings.
Thoughwe learnmuchof
theindividualSocratesand his ideas in the Apology,Crito,Phaedo,
and the laterdialogues,especiallywhenXenophon'saccountagrees
withPlato's, Socratesmuststill be distinguished
fromPlato's admiring
portrayal.
Plato'ssilenceaboutDemocritus
speakswellforthe
laughingphilosopher;what is not said by X of a contemporary
thinker
Y knownto X has itshistorical
significance
and suggests
conflictsofideasat thebasisof conflicts
of strongpersonalities.
Proclus'
Introduction
to Euclid'sElementsgivesus ourknowledge
ofPythagoreanideaswhichmadegeometry
an essentialpartoftheliberaleducationof Westernman. Diogenes'Lives of the Philosophers
is notoriously
gossipyandunreliable.
SaintAugustine's
Confessions
setthe
model forPascal and Rousseau and the wholetraditionof soulsearchinganalysesin Christianethics.Descartes'Discours de la
Methodeand Spinoza'sDe emendatione
intellectucontainautobiographical
pageswhichthrowan essentiallighton theideas of their
times.The Selbst-Darstellung
seriesof Germanphilosophers
and the
SchilppLibraryofLivingPhilosophers
havemadeexcellent
use ofthe
methodofstarting
withan intellectual
autobiography,
and thenhavingthewriter
facehiscontemporary
critics.By contrast,
Hegel'sHistoryof Philosophyscarcelymentionsindividualphilosophers:
they
are merelychipsofhisAbsolute,and expressits "cunning."
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PROBLEMS
AND METHODS
539
Certainproblems
methodarisefromthe
posedbythebiographical
factthatPeter'sopinionsofPaul veryoftentellus moreaboutPeter
than about Paul. Leibniz'smonadology
woulddeducethis psychological fact fromhis metaphysicaldoctrineof internalrelations.
BertrandRussell'sworkson Leibnizand on theHistoryof Western
Philosophytell us moreabout Russellthan about Leibnizand the
But thenwe have a methodsuggested
of philosophy.
hereof
history
abouta person'sideas,namely,findoutwhathisopinionsare
learning
ofotherpersons'ideas!
The methodofcomparative
wasinstituted
biography
byPlutarch's
parallelLivesand corresponding
intothecomparative
merits
insights
ofGreekandRomancivilizations.
Yet evenhereas thediscipleofthe
neoplatonist
Plutarchin hisaccountofArchimedes
Ammonius,
seems
to be exhibiting
his neoplatoniccommitment
to the superiority
of
in underscoring
the allegedcontemptof
theoryto sense-experience
the greatSyracusanmathematician
for experiment.
The question
hereis whether
Plutarchis notsimplystereotyping
Archimedes'
own
utterances
intendedforaristocratic
ears about the menialityof experiments.The fact is that Archimedes
was the greatestapplied
mathematician
and experimental
physicistof antiquity,so that he
was eitherfarahead of his speculativeaudienceor unawarehimself
of his owntruepowers.To whatextenta greatmindknowsor does
not knowits ownpowersis a nice questionforpsychology.
In any
case,the intellectual
historian
is facedwiththe problemof comparing the statements
of a thinkerabouthimselfand his methodswith
hisactualattainments
andmethods.
The historian
ofthemindis in a
betterposition,fromthe standpoint
of his abilityto tracean individual'sinfluence
on laterages,to judgethe attainments
of an individualthantheindividual's
ownautobiographical
claims.Ipse dixit
is notan indubitable
criterion
oftruthin intellectual
autobiography.
A case in pointis Newton'smethodand his professed
indebtedness
to
histeacherHenryMoreandtheideasoftheCambridge
neo-Platonists.
We havean interesting
methodological
problemhere,viz. to whatextenteven greatthinkers
fail to understand
theirown methodsand
sources,but in so failingrevealsomething
of theZeitgeistas wellas
of themselves.Croce'sand Collingwood's
curiousmonadisticview
thattheultimateaimofall historiography
is increasedself-awareness
on thepartofthehistorian,
also restson thequestionable
assumption
thatthehistorian's
subject-matter
mustultimately
be autobiographical. A moreprudentview wouldregardthe historian'sstatements
aboutthepast or abouthimselfas hypotheses
requiring
documentationto testintrospective
methodsofverification.
Anotherproblematic
featureof the biographical
methodis the
vexatiousquestionof judgingthe evidentialweightof unpublished
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540
PHILIP
P. WIENER
R.
Cohen,The MeaningofHumanHistory(La Salle,Ill., 1950),Ch. 7. Minorfigures
reflectpopularideas of theirtime,whereasthe majorones represent
new pathmovements
ofthought.
breaking
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PROBLEMS
AND METHODS
541
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542
PHILIP
P. WIENER
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PROBLEMS
AND METHODS
543
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544
PHILIP
P.
WIENER
analyticalmind,1'esprit
de geometre
froml'espritde finesse.12
Duhem
erredby introducing
extra-scientific
nationalisticand nominalistic
conceptsto explaindifferences
of theoriesand stylesof thoughtinternalto thehistory
of a scienceor of literature.
The philological
of criticism.
methodcan serveas an instrument
As an example,an articlein Isis (Dec. 1959),p. 459f.,"On the PresumedDarwinism
ofAlberuniEightHundredYearsBeforeDarwin"
by Jan Z. Wilczynski
(Beirut,LebaneseState University)properly
criticizes
whatI taketo be a typicalSovietnationalistic
articleby a
Turkestan
authorT. I. Rainowon "The GreatScholarsofUzbekistan
13
(IXth to XIth centuries)."
Rainow'spaperclaimedto see in Alberunia precursor
ofDarwin:
Thus,in modernlanguagewe couldexpressthisthought
of Alberunias
follows:Natureperforms
naturalselectionof the most adequate,welladaptedbeingsthroughthe extermination
of others,and in this case, it
proceedsin the same way as farmersand gardeners.
We see, therefore,
thatDarwin'sgreatidea of naturalselectionthrough
the struggle
forlife
and survivalof thefittest
was alreadyreachedby Alberuniapproximately
800 yearsbeforeDarwin.It is truethat he seizedit in the mostgeneral
outlinesonly,butcuriously
enough,eventheverymeaningand theway in
whichhe came to it werethe same as Darwin's.The latter,as we know,
discoverednaturalselectionby observationof the methodsof artificial
as appliedby animalbreeders.
selection,
466).
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PROBLEMS
AND METHODS
545
and culturalhistory.14
philologyto literarycriticism
However,I do
knowthattheeditorsof theJournalof the Historyof Ideas do not
of literaryor artisticworksincomfindthe aestheticappreciation
patiblewiththehistorical
analysisofideasembodiedin theseworks.
of ideas aimsto reduce
It is a mistaketo believethatthe historian
and artto mereanthropological
worksofliterature
documents
or obI shouldagreewithJohnDewey (Artas
jectsofhistorical
curiosity.
of thehistorical
Experience) thatknowledge
contextof a literary
or
artisticworkmaywellenhanceone'sappreciation
of it. Someliteraturesand arts becomeextinctand can be enjoyedonly through
andhistorical
philological
MSS.
research,
e.g.Old Englishilluminated
(4) By the metaphysicaland theologicalapproachto thehistory
ofideasI meanthemethodoffitting
all ideasand history
intoan allegedlyeternalframework
or philosophy
ofhistory
whichdetermines
not onlythe structure
but also the occasionsforthe appearanceof
ideasand theircareers.So Plato in Timaeus regarded
thecreationof
the cosmosas predetermined
moral
causesas muchas the cycliby
cal successionof formsof government
are. Aristotle'steleological
metaphysics
ofhistory
predetermined
thegovernance
ofphysicaland
biologicalchangesby purposiveor finalcauses,and so politicalconstitutions
also wouldnecessarily
reflectthe almostbiologically
predetermined
character
ofpeople.The Hebrew-Christian
of
philosophy
historycontinued
to emphasizethe moralfactorat firstin dramatic
mythology
and thenin metaphysical
rationalizations
likeAugustine's
theodicy,
revivedby Bossuet'sDiscours universellein the XVIIth
WhenVoltairewishedto attackthe scholasticmetaphysics
century.
of history,
he attackedthe Hebrewsas the originalsponsorsof the
mythicalidea of heavenand hell,of the Gardenof Eden, of man's
disobedience
and necessary
fall,oftheMessianiccomingand redemption of man. The influenceof this theodicicmethodof historical
thinking
appearsin Butterfield's
viewthatsincewe areall sinnerswe
shouldabstainfrompassingmoraljudgmenton historicalfigures,
evenwhendealingwithHitler.But theproblemstillremainswhether
it is feasibleor desirableforhistorians
to remainor tryto be morally
aloofin theirprofessional
workas historians.
In any case,historians
of thoughthave alwaysbeenmoralpartisansof someideas and condemnedotherideason variously
professed
grounds:theloveof truth
and beauty,of countryand God, of one's own people or culture
againstbarbarians
and Gentiles,
offreedom
versustyranny,
ofdemocraticleadersversusdictators,
etc.It is seriously
questionable
whether
14 Cf. Erich Auerbach,Mimesis: the Representation
of Realityin Western
Literature(Princeton,1953) and otherwritings
reviewedby CharlesF. Breslin
in "Philosophy
or Philology:Auerbachand Aesthetic
Historicism,"
J.H.I.,XXII,
3 (July-Sept.1961),369-81.
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546
PHILIP
P. WIENER
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PROBLEMS
AND METHODS
547
said to "determine"
thought-geography,
climate,Buckle's"aspectof
nature,"racialism,Malthusianism,
Social Darwinism,correlation
of
skeletalstructure
and waysof life,etc.; (b) the subsumption
of all
intellectual
and culturalchangesunder"patternofevents"or "laws"
ofhistory-Auguste
Comte'sthreestages,Hegel'sdialecticunfolding
of the Weltgeist
theVolksgeist
in thedeedsand thoughts
through
of
the "world-historical"
individualor "great-man,"Marxian classstruggle
theory,
HenryAdams"phase-rule"
appliedto history,
Spengler'sand Toynbee'sorganicistic
determinism,
etc.; (c) the searchfor
probablecausesand empiricalcorrelations
of culturally
concomitant
in thehistory
ofarts,languagesandliteratures,
developments
natural
and socialsciences,
and philosophies.
religions
The basicconceptor problemin all threeofthesediverseconceptionsofthescientific
wayto studythehistory
of ideas is thenature
ofcausation.'6
Can we notproceedto investigate
probablecausesforintellectual
developments
withoutcommitting
ourselvesto a philosophy
of "historicalinevitability"?
David Humewasableto writegoodhistory
and
assignpsychological
causesto England'spoliticallifewithoutabandoninghisscepticism
aboutthedemonstrability
of"necessary
connection"in causality.An interesting
linguisticfacthereis that Hume
usedeveryday
wordsto expresscausalrelations
in history.'7
Marxistsdo notconfine
themselves
to dialecticsor economicfactorswhentheyinterpret
historyforpoliticalpurposes,so thatthere
is the problemof the difference
betweenprofessedtheoriesof historicalcausationand thebeliefsimplicitin theMarxists'intellectual
activities.
Ourproblemis to be as empirical
as anynaturalscientist
and yet
do justiceto the organicinter-relatedness
of the variousaspectsof
culturalhistory.
It doesnotseemto me necessary
to resortto a transempiricalor privateintuitionist
methodsimplybecausewe are dealing with the humanmind and its complexhistoricalpatternsof
thought.
I concludetheseverybriefremarkson methodology
withsome
further
questionsfordiscussion
and research.
1. To whatextentmustthe internalhistoryof ideas in the Arts
and Sciencesbe studiedapartfromexternalcauses?
16Cf."Symposium
on Causation,"M. R. Cohenand F. J. E. Teggart,J.H.I.
(1942).
17 Humesays,forexample,
thatJuliusCaesar,afterinvadingGreatBritainin
55 B.C., "was constrained,
by the necessityof his affairsand the approachof
winter,
to withdraw
his forcesintoGaul." Historyof England,vol. I, ch. 1, p. 4.
Or,thebaronswhoopposedKingJohn(in 1215) easilysaw fromPope Innocent's
letters"thattheymustreckonon havingthe Pope, as wellas the king,fortheir
adversary."
Ibid.,p. 426.
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548
PHILIP
P. WIENER
CityUniversity,
New York.
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