The Politics of the Philippines take place in an organized framework of

apresidential, representative, and democratic republic whereby

the president is both the head of state and the head of government within
a pluriform multi-party system. This system revolves around three separate
and sovereign yet interdependent branches: the legislative branch, the
executive branch, and the judicial branch. Executive power is exercised by
the government under the leadership of the president. Legislative power is
vested in both the government and the two-chamber Congress:
the Senate (the upper chamber) and theHouse of Representatives (the lower
chamber). Judicial power is vested in the courts with the Supreme Court of
the Philippines as the highest judicial body.
Elections are administered by an independent Commission on
Elections every three years starting 1992. Held every second Monday of May,
the winners in the elections take office on the following June 30.
Local government is produced by local government units from the provinces,
cities, municipalities and barangays. While the most regions do not have
political power, and exist merely for administration purposes, autonomous
regions have expanded powers more than the other local government units.
While local government units enjoy autonomy, much of their budget is
derived from allocations from the national government, putting their true
autonomy in doubt.
Legislature[edit]

The Batasang Pambansa Complexis the seat of the House of Representatives.

The Senate shares its building with the Government Service Insurance
System.
Congress is a bicameral legislature. The upper house, the Senate, is
composed of 24 senators elected via the plurality-at-large voting with the
country as one at-large "district." The senators elect amongst themselves
a Senate President. The lower house is the House of Representatives,
currently composed of 292 representatives, with no more than 20% elected
via party-list system, with the rest elected fromlegislative districts. The
House of Representatives is headed by the Speaker.
Each bill needs the consent of both houses in order to be submitted to the
president for his signature. If the president vetoes the bill, Congress can
override the veto with a two-thirds supermajority. If either house voted down
on a bill or fails to act on it after an adjournment sine die, the bill is lost and
would have to be proposed to the next congress, with the process starting all
over again. Congress' decisions are mostly via majority vote, except for
voting on constitutional amendments and other matters. Each house has its

own inherent power, with the Senate given the power to vote on treaties,
while the House of Representatives can only introduce money bills. The
constitution provides Congress with impeachment powers, with the House of
Representatives having the power to impeach, and the Senate having the
power to try the impeached official.
The Liberal Party, Nationalist People's Coalition, the National Unity Party
(Philippines), the Nacionalista Party, the Lakas-CMD and the United
Nationalist Alliance are the parties with largest membership in Congress. The
party of the sitting president controls the House of Representatives, while the
Senate has been more independent. From 1907 to 1941, the Nacionalistas
operated under a dominant-party system, with factions within that party
becoming the primary political discouse. During World War II, the Japanesesponsored Second Philippine Republic forced all the existing parties to merge
into the KALIBAPI that controlled the party as a one-party state. From 1945 to
1972, the Philippines was under a two-party system, with the Nacionalistas
and their offshoots Liberals alternating power, until President Ferdinand
Marcos declared martial law. Political discourse was kept into a minimum,
until Marcos then merged the parties into the Kilusang Bagong
Lipunan (KBL), which dominated elections until 1986 when Marcos was
overthrown as a result of the People Power Revolution. The political climate
ushered in a multi-party system which persists into this day.
Executive[edit]
Main article: President of the Philippines

The Malacaang Palace, as viewed from the Pasig River, is the official
residence of the President.
Executive power is vested to the President; in practice however, the
president delegates his power to a cabinet. The president, who is both
the head of state andhead of government, is directly elected to a single sixyear term via first past the post. In case of death, resignation or
incapacitation, the Vice President acts as the president until the expiration of
the term. The Vice President is elected separately from the president, and
may be of differing political parties. While the vice president has no
constitutional powers aside from acting as president when the latter is
unable to do so, the president may give the former a cabinet office. The
cabinet is mostly composed of the heads of the executive departments,
which provide services to the people, and other cabinet-level officials.
The president is also the commander in chief of the Armed Forces of the
Philippines, thereby ensuring civilian supremacy over the military. The
president is also given several military powers, although once exercised,
Congress is able to prolong or end it. The president also proposes a national
budget, in which Congress may adopt in full, with amendments, or a
complete revision altogether. The president wields considerable political

power and may be able to influence other branches via the so-called Padrino
System.
Judiciary[edit]

The Supreme Court building in Manila.

The judiciary is composed of the Supreme Court and other lower courts. The
Supreme Court is the court of last resort, and decides on constitutionality of
laws viajudicial review. The president selects justices and judges from
nominees given by the Judicial and Bar Council. The Court of Appeals is the
second highest appellate court, the Court of Tax Appeals rules on tax
matters, and the Sandiganbayan(People's Advocate) is a special court for
alleged government irregularities. TheRegional Trial Courts (RTC) are the
main trial courts. The Regional Trial Courts are based on judicial regions,
which almost correspond to the administrative regions. Each RTC has at least
one branch in each province and handles most of the criminal and civil
cases; several branches of an RTC may be designated as family courts and
environmental courts. Metropolitan Trial Courts try lesser offenses.
The Ombudsman investigates and prosecutes government officials on crimes
while in dispensing powers given by the government. The Office of the
Solicitor General represents the government in legal cases.

Elections[edit]

Main article: Elections in the Philippines

Elections are administered by the Commission on Elections (COMELEC). The
elected officials are the president, vice president, members of Congress,
regional governors and assemblymen, provincial governors, vice governors
and board members, city and municipal mayors, vice mayors and councilors,
and barangay (village) chairmen and councilors. Elections are for fixed
terms. All elected officials have three-year terms, except for the president,
vice president and senators, which are six years. All terms begin and end on
June 30 of the election year.
Elections above the barangay level are held every three years since 1992 on
the second Monday of May, all positions are disputed except for president
and vice president; presidential and vice presidential elections are held every
six years since 1992. Single-winner elections are done via the plurality voting
system: the candidate with the highest number of votes is elected. Multiplewinner elections, except for representatives elected the party-list system, are
done via plurality-at-large voting. Each voter has x votes, with
the x candidates with the highest number of votes being elected. For
representatives elected the party-list system, a party that won at least 2% of
the national vote wins one seat, with additional seats, but not exceeding
three seats, depends on the number of votes it received. If the number of
sectoral representatives does not reach 20% of the membership of the House

of Representatives, parties with less than 2% of the vote are given a seat
each until the 20% membership is filled.
Local government[edit]

Main article: Local government in the Philippines

The Philippines is divided into provinces, which are grouped into several
regions.
The constitution mandates that local governments must have local
autonomy. The smallest local government unit, the barangay or village, is
descended from thebalangay of the Maragtas legend, where the
first Austronesian people reached the Philippines via the boat. The prehistoric
barangays were headed by datus. Currently, barangays are grouped
into municipalities or cities, while municipalities and cities may be further
grouped into provinces. Each barangay, municipality or city, and province is
headed by a barangay chairman, mayor, or governor, respectively, with its

legislatures being the Sangguniang Barangay (village council),Sangguniang

Bayan (municipal council) or Sangguniang Panlungsod (city council), and
the Sangguniang Panlalawigan (provincial board).
Regions are the highest administrative divisions but do not have powers
possessed under them; however, autonomous regions are given wider
powers than other local government units. While the constitution allows
autonomous regions in the Cordilleras and in Muslim Mindanao, only
the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) exists, with the
proposed autonomous region in Cordillera being defeated after two
plebiscites. The ARMM has a regional governor and a regional assembly.
While local government units have autonomy, most of their budget is derived
from the Internal Revenue Allotment, a disbursement from the national
government which is ultimately derived from taxes. This makes most local
government units ultimately dependent on the national government, unless
they have other sources of income, such as property taxes.
History[edit]

Main article: History of the Philippines

Pre-Spanish era[edit]

Before the arrival of Ferdinand Magellan, the Philippines was split into
numerous barangays, which were not unlike the Greek city-states. These
barangays warred, made peace, traded and had relations with each other.
In Mindanao, Islamic sultanates such as the Sultanate of

Sulu and Maguindanao, prospered. Ferdinand Magellan's death in 1521 can

be partly attributed to a dispute between Lapu-Lapu and Rajah Humabon for
control of Cebu. The Kingdom of Maynila was trading with China and other
nearby empires when Miguel Lopez de Legazpi conquered the kingdom in
1565 and assimilated it with the other kingdoms he had conquered nearby to
unite the Philippines under Spanish rule.
Spanish era[edit]

The Illustrados in Madrid.

Upon the subjugation of the local population in Manila and Cebu, the
Spaniards refused the locals any political participation. The old ruling class in
the pre-Spanish era were given essentially powerless government
posts. Several revolts eruptedagainst Spain but were all defeated. In 1808,
when Joseph Bonaparte became king of Spain, the liberal constitution of
Cadiz was adopted, giving the Philippines representation to the Spanish
Cortes. However, once the Spanish overthrew the Bonapartes, the Philippine,
and indeed colonial, representation in the Spanish Cortes was rescinded.
The restoration of Philippine representation to the Cortes was one of the
grievances of the Illustrados, the learned indigenous class during the late
1800s. The Illustrados mounted a campaign that would include indigenous
voices in running the government. However, the Katipunan advocated

complete Philippine independence, thereby starting thePhilippine

Revolution in 1896. After the execution of Jose Rizal in December 30, 1896,
the leader of the Illustrados who disapproved of the revolution, the rebellion
intensified. Cavite, Bulacan and Morong were the main areas of conflict; the
Katipunan in Cavite had won several battles against the Spaniards, but was
split into the Magdiwang and Magdalo factions. A conference was held in
1897 to unite the two factions, but instead caused further division that led to
the execution ofAndres Bonifacio, who was then the leader of the Katipunan;
Bonifacio's death passed the control of the Katipunan to Emilio Aguinaldo.
The death of Bonifacio also caused several of the revolutionaries to be
demoralized; Aguinaldo and his men retreated northward until reaching Biakna-Bato in San Miguel, Bulacan. The Spaniards and the revolutionaries signed
the Pact of Biak-na-Bato, that provided for Aguinaldo's surrender and exile to
Hong Kong, and amnesty and payment of indemnities by the Spaniards to
the revolutionaries. However, both sides eventually violated the agreement,
and this gave an opportunity for the United States admiral George
Dewey to lead his squadron to Manila Bay, defeating the Spanish navy.
Aguinaldo returned from exile, most of the Philippine revolutionaries rallying
to his cause, and negotiated with the Americans, while the Americans in
1898 defeated the Spaniards in what was called a mock battle in Manila, and
took control of the city. Aguinaldo then proclaimed the independence of the
Philippines on June 12, 1898 at his home in Cavite. A Congress was convened

in January 1899 in Barasoain Church and inaugurated the first Philippine

Republic.
The PhilippineAmerican War erupted in February in a skirmish in Manila; the
Filipinos lost the battle, and Aguinaldo again began a northward retreat.
Aguinaldo was captured on April 1, 1901 at Palanan, Isabela, while the
Americans had already started setting up civil governments in areas that had
already been pacified.
American era[edit]

William Howard Taft addressing the Philippine Assembly.

The Americans gave Filipinos limited self-government at the local level by
1901, and the Americans passed the Philippine Organic Act in 1902 to
introduce a national government; by 1907, an election to the Philippine
Assembly was held. Led bySergio Osmea, the assembly was held
predominantly by the Nacionalista Party, which advocated independence;
they were opposed by the Progresista Party, which advocated statehood
within the United States. The Americans controlled thePhilippine
Commission, the upper house of the Philippine Legislature. The Nacionalistadominated Philippine Assembly, and later the Philippine Senate, which was
created by the Jones Law and replaced the Philippine Commission, was often
at odds with the Governor-General. However, the Nacionalistas were split

into camps loyal to Osmea and Senate President Manuel L. Quezon. Several
independence missions were sent to Washington, D.C.; the OsRox
Mission resulted in the HareHawesCutting Act. However, the Senate
rejected this; a new law, the TydingsMcDuffie Act which was marginally
different, was approved and paved the way for the Commonwealth of the
Philippines.
Quezon and Osmea reconciled, and both were easily elected as president
and vice president respectively, in 1935. The Nacionalistas controlled the
now unicameral National Assembly for the entirety of the Commonwealth,
with the understanding that the Americans would grant independence in the
near future. Quezon pressed for constitutional amendments that would allow
him to obtain a second term, and the restoration of a bicameral legislature.
Quezon did obtain both amendments, with the newly restored Senate now
being elected at-large instead of per districts, as what was done during the
pre-Commonwealth era. Quezon, Osmea and the Nacionalista Party as a
whole both won the elections in 1941 in much larger margins.
The Japanese invasion of 1941 at the onset of World War II delayed this
granting of independence, forced the Commonwealth government to go into
exile, and subjected the country to a puppet government.
The KALIBAPI became the sole legal political party, and Jose P. Laurel was
declared president of the Second Philippine Republic. This nationalist
government espoused anti-American sentiment. However, the Americans
reconquered the country in 1944, and Osmea, who had succeeded Quezon

upon the latter's death, restored the Commonwealth government. The first
meeting of a bicameral Commonwealth Congress occurred.
The Nacionalistas were split anew in the 1946 presidential election,
with Manuel Roxas setting up what would later be theLiberal Party. Roxas
defeated Osmea, and became the last president of the Commonwealth; the
Americans agreed to grant independence on July 4, 1946.
Independent era[edit]

President Manuel Roxas' inauguration as the first president of an

independent Philippines.
Roxas succumbed to a heart attack in 1948, allowing Vice President Elpidio
Quirinoto rule the country for the next six years. Quirino's Liberal
government was widely seen as corrupt, and was easily beaten by his former
Defense secretary Ramon Magsaysay in the 1953 election. Magsaysay, who
oversaw the surrender of the long-running Hukbalahap rebellion would not
complete his term, dying in a plane crash in Cebu; Vice President Carlos P.
Garcia succeeded him, won the 1957 election, and implemented a "Filipino
First" policy and an austerity program. Garcia was defeated by his Vice
President, Diosdado Macapagal of the Liberal Party, in 1961. Macapagal
initiated a return to a system of free enterprise not seen since the Quirino
administration. However, Macapagal's policies faced a stiff opposition

inCongress, where the Nacionalistas hold the majority. Macapagal was

defeated in1965 by Senator Ferdinand Marcos.
Marcos' infrastructure projects was the feature policy of his term, he was the
first president to be reelected, in 1969, although the election was tainted by
violence and allegations that Marcos used the treasury to fund his campaign.
However, significant protests, such as the First Quarter Storm,
the communist and Moro insurgencies, and civil unrest, heightened. This
made Marcos in 1972 to declare martial law and suspend the constitution. A
new constitution calling for a semi-presidential government was approved in
1973, but Marcos still ruled by decree until 1978, when the Interim Batasang
Pambansa was elected. However, opposition groups, whose leaders mostly
had already left in exile, boycotted the election, and Marcos still allowed
martial law to continue. Marcos did end martial law in 1981, but opposition
groups still boycotted the 1981 presidential election, which Marcos easily
won.
Opposition leader Benigno Aquino, Jr. was slain upon his return to the country
in 1983. By this time, the government was marred by alleged rampant
corruption and allegations of human rights violations. The opposition
participated in the 1984 parliamentary election and won several seats, but
not enough to topple Marcos' KBL. To counter growing opposition, Marcos
called a snap election in 1986, the opposition nominated Benigno's widow
Corazon as their candidate. Marcos was declared the winner, but the
opposition refused to accept the result, alleging that the election was rigged.

The People Power Revolution drove Marcos from power, and Aquino became
president. Aquino ruled by decree in 1987 when a new constitution restoring
the presidential system was approved. In the ensuing legislative election, the
administration parties won most of the seats in Congress.

Corazon Aquino was inaugurated president on February 25, 1986; it was one
of two presidential inaugurations that day.
Aquino's government was mired by coup attempts, high inflation and
unemployment, and natural calamities, but introduced land reform and
market liberalization. Aquino's administration also saw the pullout of the U.S.
bases in Subic Bay and Clark. As the 1992 election grew closer, Aquino
declined to run even though she could do so, and instead supported Ramon
Mitra; she later backtracked and later threw her support to Fidel V. Ramos,
who later won albeit under controversial circumstances. Ramos had to face
an ongoing energy crisis which had started during the Aquino administration
which was resolved when Ramos issued contracts favorable to power
producers. The Ramos administration hosted the 1996 APEC summit,
reinstated the death penalty, signed a peace agreement with the Moro
National Liberation Front, and bore the brunt of the 1997 Asian financial
crisis. He wanted to amend the constitution, but Aquino and other sectors
opposed the measure and backed off. Ramos' vice president Joseph

Estrada defeated the former's partymate Jose de Venecia and several others
in the 1998 election in a comfortable margin; meanwhile de Venecia's
running mate Gloria Macapagal Arroyo was elected vice president.
Estrada expanded the land reform program and the death penalty, and
refused to sign contracts with sovereign guarantees on public projects.
Estrada also wanted to amend the constitution but was again rebuffed by
Aquino, the Catholic Church and the left. The administration launched an "allout war" against the Moro Islamic Liberation Front that saw the government
retaking Camp Abubakar, the main rebel encampment. However, the
administration was embroiled in charges of cronyism and corruption; the
Juetengate scandal led to his impeachment by the House of Representatives.
In the impeachment trial, Estrada's allies in the Senate successfully
prevented evidence to be presented; this triggered massive protests. Days
later, in what would be called the 2001 EDSA Revolution, the Armed Forces of
the Philippines withdrew their support to Estrada and transferred their
allegiance to Vice President Arroyo; the Supreme Court later ruled the
presidency as vacant, and Estrada left Malacaang Palace.
Arroyo was sworn in as president on January 20, 2001. Four months later,
Estrada's supporters lay siege to the presidential palace but were later
expelled; Arroyo's People Power Coalition won a majority of seats in the 2001
elections and therefore consolidated power. In 2003, Arroyo put down a coup
attempt in the central business district. Arroyo faced Fernando Poe, Jr., a
friend of Estrada, along with three others in 2004, and won on a slim

plurality; months after Poe died on December, it was exposed, via

wiretapped conversations, that Arroyo rigged the election. On a national
address, Arroyo said that she was "sorry on a lapse of judgment." The
opposition did not let up, and she had to put down two more coup attempts.
The opposition united in the 2007 Senate elections and won easily, but
Arroyo's allies still held the House of Representatives. At the end of her
presidency, Arroyo became the most unpopular president on record, with
increases on taxes, attempts to amend the constitution, and the alleged
illegitimacy of her administration as the reasons.
On the 2010 election, Arroyo's party nominated Gilberto Teodoro for
president; however, some quarters suggested that Arroyo was secretly
supporting Manny Villar, who was the frontrunner. However, former president
Aquino died, and her son,Benigno Aquino III, overtook Villar in the polls.
Estrada overtook Villar in the polls, but still lost to Aquino. Aquino embarked
on anti-corruption drive, saw the economy grew and maintain high
popularity. However, with natural calamities, and scams on the use of pork
barrel and other discretionary funds coming into light, the Aquino
administration had to contend with rising opposition.