Mechanics of Solids 2

Table of Contents
1.

Symmetric Bending: .............................................................................................................................. 5

a.

Introduction: ..................................................................................................................................... 5

b.

2nd order Differential equation: ........................................................................................................ 6

Singular Functions: ................................................................................................................................ 6
Example 1: singular functions ............................................................................................................... 6
Example 2: variable distributed force ................................................................................................... 8
Example 3: point moment..................................................................................................................... 9

c.

4th order differential equation: ....................................................................................................... 10

Example 1: simple distributed force ................................................................................................... 10
Example 2: simple distributed force and point moment .................................................................... 11
Example 3: variable force functions .................................................................................................... 12
Example 4: cantilever B.C. distributed Force ...................................................................................... 12
Diracs Delta function.......................................................................................................................... 13
Heavy side step function:.................................................................................................................... 13
Example 5.1: point force ..................................................................................................................... 14
Example 5.2: point Moment ............................................................................................................... 14
Example 5: point forces or moments .................................................................................................. 14

d.

Statically indeterminate: ................................................................................................................. 15

Redundant reactions: .......................................................................................................................... 17
Example 6: redundant reactions ......................................................................................................... 18
Example 7: Super-position: ................................................................................................................. 20
Example 8: Spring:............................................................................................................................... 20

2.

Beam Buckling: .................................................................................................................................... 22

a.

Ordinary Differential Equations: ..................................................................................................... 22

b.

Stability: .......................................................................................................................................... 23

c.

Linear equation: .............................................................................................................................. 28

d.

Buckling loading: ............................................................................................................................. 30

Example 1: one degree of freedom .................................................................................................... 30
Example 2: two degrees of freedom ................................................................................................... 30
1

e.

Elastic beam buckling: ..................................................................................................................... 32

Example 1: cantilever beam axial loading........................................................................................... 35
Example 2: statically indeterminate ................................................................................................... 36
Example 3: Redundant support .......................................................................................................... 38

f.

Axial and radial force application: .................................................................................................. 41

Single degree of freedom:................................................................................................................... 41
Example 1: Elastic Bar ......................................................................................................................... 42

3.

Torsion ................................................................................................................................................ 45
a.

Symmetric ....................................................................................................................................... 45

b.

General cross section ...................................................................................................................... 46

Stress function .................................................................................................................................... 47
Torsion ODE: ....................................................................................................................................... 47
No bending forces proof: .................................................................................................................... 47

C 0 proof: ..................................................................................................................................... 49
Example 1: ellipse cross section torsion: ............................................................................................ 53
Warping function: ............................................................................................................................... 55
c.

Membrane analysis: ........................................................................................................................ 56

Stress function, membrane analysis analagy: ..................................................................................... 56

d.

Square cross section torsion ........................................................................................................... 59

e.

Torsion in prismatic bar: thin arc .................................................................................................... 61

f.

General open cross section ............................................................................................................. 62

Example:.............................................................................................................................................. 64

g.

general closed figures sections: thin wall, variable thickness ........................................................ 65

Example: rectangular profile ............................................................................................................... 68

h.

General closed figure: Bredts formula ........................................................................................... 70

Example 1: rectangular box ................................................................................................................ 71
Example 2: L beam .............................................................................................................................. 72
Example three: open, closed............................................................................................................... 74

4.

General Beam bending ....................................................................................................................... 75

a.

Review of symmetric beam bending............................................................................................... 75

Pure bending assumptions.................................................................................................................. 75
Deflection equation development ...................................................................................................... 75
Two directional bending: .................................................................................................................... 75
2

b.

Pure bending of a general cross section: theoretical backround ................................................... 76

Center of area: .................................................................................................................................... 76
Moment of Inertia Area: ..................................................................................................................... 77
Parallel axis theorem: (Steiner)........................................................................................................... 77
Mixed inertia: ...................................................................................................................................... 77
Coordinate transformation: ................................................................................................................ 78
Sign convention:.................................................................................................................................. 78

c.

General Bending Equations............................................................................................................. 79

Example: principle cross section ......................................................................................................... 82
Example 2: ........................................................................................................................................... 82
Example 3: angled force ...................................................................................................................... 83
Example 4: z beam .............................................................................................................................. 84

d.

Shear stress distribution as a result of bending.............................................................................. 87

Example 1: ........................................................................................................................................... 88
Example 2: c channel .......................................................................................................................... 89
e.

f.

Shear stress solution algorithem: ................................................................................................ 90

Shear center .................................................................................................................................... 91

Example 2: z cross section .................................................................................................................. 92

Example 2: L beam .............................................................................................................................. 96
Example 3: half shell ........................................................................................................................... 98
4.

Energy ................................................................................................................................................. 99
a.

Elastic deformation energy ............................................................................................................. 99

Example:............................................................................................................................................ 100

b.

Strain energy density .................................................................................................................... 100

strain energy density for linear, elastic, homogeneous, isotropic material ..................................... 100
3 dimensional energy density including shear stress: ...................................................................... 101
Example 1: Prismatic beam: axial loading ......................................................................................... 101
Example 2: Prismatic beam bending moment: ................................................................................. 102

c.

Clapeyron theorem: ...................................................................................................................... 102

Example: using energy to solve for deflection: ................................................................................. 103

d.

Betti Law: ...................................................................................................................................... 104

e.

Maxwells inverse relation: ........................................................................................................... 105

f.

Castiglianos second law: .............................................................................................................. 106

3

Example 1: ......................................................................................................................................... 108

Example 2: ......................................................................................................................................... 108
Example three: .................................................................................................................................. 110
g.

Complimentary strain energy, a geometrical display ................................................................... 112

h.

Virtual work principal:................................................................................................................... 113

Example 1: ......................................................................................................................................... 116
Example 2: ......................................................................................................................................... 117

i.

The principle of complimentary virtual work: principle of virtual forces ..................................... 119
Example 1: ......................................................................................................................................... 120
Example 2: ......................................................................................................................................... 121

1. Symmetric Bending:
a. Introduction:

We introduce the symmetric beam model and the following assumptions:

The z axis is considered the neutral axis

the y axis is considered the symmetric axis
The characteristic length of the cross-section is less than the body length.
Forces pass through the y axis
Moments about the z axis

The lateral distance of bending from the center axis is called deflection. The deflected beam line is
called the elastic line.

The agreed direction of Bending

b. 2nd order Differential equation:

EI u '' x M x

I y 2 dA
Singular Functions:
x k n

x k n
0

General definition:

xk

integral

First order:
1

x k
x k 1

x k

x k

Example 1: singular functions

dx

x k

x k

1
x k n 1
n 1

We want to use the second order differential

equation:

PLx 5PL
P

x L 1 x L 2
8
8
2
B.C. v 0 0 v L 0
EI u '' x

Determine the deflection using singular

functions:

We must determine the internal moment

We add the Reaction Forces Ra, Rb solve for static
solution:

L
: Ra Rb P 0
2
L L
M b : Ra L P 2
0
4

Ra

PL
5PL
, Rb
8
8

PLx

M x

PLx
5
PL
P
2
M x

x L x L

8
8
2

0 x L

3L
Lx
2

We convert the piecewise function to a single

expression to ease the calculation:

M x

PLx 5 PL
P

x L 1 x L 2
8
8
2

Now we solve the original equation:

PLx 5PL
P

x L 1 x L 2
8
8
2
B.C. v 0 0 v L 0
EI u '' x

Solution:
PLx 2 5PL
P

x L 2 x L 3 C1
16
16
3
3
PLx 5PL
P
I 2 : EI u x

x L 3
x L 4 C1 x C2
48
48
24
I1 : EI u ' x

At this point we split into domains and solve using the boundary conditions:

v x

P Lx 2
5L
1
3
4
L x2
xL
xL

EI 48
48
24

Example 2: variable distributed force

Determine the deflection:

EI u '' x M x
Boundary conditions:

v 0 0
v '0 0
We find the reactions to find the internal Moment:

RA Pa
a
M * A Pa
2

x
M x M A* Ra x Px 0
2
Pa 2
Px 2
M x
Pax
0
2
2
P
2
M x x a
2
2
P

xa
P
P
2
x a ,
M x 2
xa
x a
2
2

0,
a x L

EI u '' x M x
EI u '' x

P
P
2
x a x a
2
2

Example 3: point moment

Determine the deflection

EI u '' x M x
L

C , 0 x 2
L
M x
C C x
2
0, L x L

L
EI u '' x C C x
2

Cx 2 C
L
EI u x

x
2
2
2
EI u x

L
EI u ' x Cx C x
2

C1
2

Cx 2 C
L

x
2
2
2

4
P
x a a3 4 x a , 0 x a

24 EI

v x

3
Pa

a x L
4x a ,

24 EI

C1 x C2
2

c. 4th order differential equation:

d 2v
M x

2
dx
2
d 2M
d d 2v
dM

V x 2
2 EI 2 2 P x
dx dx
dx
d M
dx
2 P x

dV
dx
P x

dx

EI

If I is constant in the x direction than:

EI

d 4v
P x
dx 4

Boundary conditions: v,v,v,v

Example 1: simple distributed force

Determine the deflection with a fourth order ODE:

EIv '''' x P
EIv ''' x Px C1
Px 2
EIv '' x
C1 x C2
2
Px 3 C1 x 2
EIv ' x

C2 x C3
6
2
Px 4 C1 x3 C2 x 2
EIv x

C3 x C4
24
6
2
Boundary conditions:

10

v 0 0
v L 0
v '' 0 0
v '' L 0
Example 2: simple distributed force and point moment

Determine the deflection given P and M.

We use the fourth order equation

EI

d 4v
P x
dx 4

Kinematic conditions:

v 0 0
v L 0
Static Conditions:

M O
EI
v '' L 0
v '' 0

11

Example 3: variable force functions

P x P0 sin

x
L

We choose the fourth order equation to avoid finding reactions and internal moment:

EI

d 4v
P x
dx 4

Kinematic conditions:

v 0 0
v L 0
Kinetic conditions:

v '' 0 0
v '' L 0

Example 4: cantilever B.C. distributed Force

12

Using the fourth order equation we pose boundary conditions:

Kinematic:

v 0 0
v '0 0
Kinetic:

EIv '' L 0 v '' L 0

EIv ''' L V L 0 v ''' L 0

Diracs Delta function

0, x xa 2
x xa

0, x x
a

x d 1
a

x d x x
a

Heavy side step function:

d
x xa 1 x xa 0
dx
d
x xa 0 x xa
dx

f x d f x
a

13

Example 5.1: point force

P x P0 x xa
Example 5.2: point Moment

M x C ' x xb
Example 5: point forces or moments

We solve fourth order bending:

EIv '''' x P x P x xa C ' x xb

Kinematic boundary conditions:

v 0 0
v L 0
Kinetic boundary conditions:

14

v '' 0 0
v '' L 0
Solution:

I1 : EIv ''' x P x xa

C x xb C1

I 2 : EIv '' x P x xa C x xb
1

C1 x C2

C1 x 2
C2 x C3
2
C x3 C x 2
3
2
I 4 : EIv x P x xa C x xb 1 2 C3 x C4
6
2
I 3 : EIv ' x P x xa

C x xb
1

We input the boundary conditions and solve

d. Statically indeterminate:

Determine the reactions at A, B and the deflection: RA , RB , M A , v x

We start using second order analysis: EIv '' x M x

We start with static equations:

0 RA Rb PL
B

L
0 M A RA L PL 0
2

Such we have three variables and only two equations.

We want to find the internal moment function:

We want to solve the same problem using the fourth order deflection equation:
15

Px 2
M 0 0 M x M A RA x 2 0
Px 2
M x M A RA x
2
We sub in the internal moment equation into the second order deflection equation:

EIv '' x M A RA x

Px 2
2

We want boundary conditions:

Kinematic:

v 0 0
v '0 0
v L 0
We have 5 unknowns : RA , RB , M A , C1 , C2 including two integration constants
We have three boundary conditions as well as two static equations.
We integrate twice, sub in the boundary conditions, apply the static equations and solve.

To solve using the fourth order deflection equation

EI

d 4v
P x
dx 4

Boundary conditions:

16

Kinematic conditions:

v 0 0
v '0 0
v L 0
Kinetic conditions:

v '' L 0
We integrate 4 times, apply boundary conditions and solve.

If we want to solve the reactions for the fourth order deflection, we can simply solve the internal
moment and shear stress, and derive the deflection 2,3 times to get the moment and shear
distribution. Then we can evaluate the shear and moment distribution at points 0,L to get the
reactions.

EIv '' x M x
EIv ''' x V x
M 0 EIv '' 0 M A
V 0 EIv ''' 0 RA
V L EIv ''' L RB
Redundant reactions:

This problem can be shown in equilibrium in the following orientations:

Orientation 1: RB is redundant

17

Orientation 2: M A is redundant

Orientation 3: RA is redundant

Example 6: redundant reactions

18

We see that one of the reactions is redundant, such we choose to ignore RB and will solve for it after.
Such we display the equivalent problem.

We added the redundant reaction as an external point force and relate to it as an exterior force.
We use the fourth order deflection equation:

EIv '''' x P RB x
2

Boundary conditions:
Kinematic: v 0 v L 0
Kinetic: v '' 0 v '' L 0
We can integrate four times, and apply the boundary conditions.

19

Example 7: Super-position:

We can solve the same problem using super-position as shown below:

v x vP x vRB x
Example 8: Spring:
20

vP L vRB L vK L
PL4
8 EI
RB L3
vRB L
3EI
R
vK L b
k
vP L

We can solve for Rb

21

2. Beam Buckling:
a. Ordinary Differential Equations:

22

b. Stability:

We show three balls in equilibrium, Ball A is stable equilibrium, Ball B is non-stable equilibrium, ball C
is neutral equilibrium.
We start the discussion with a rigid beam on a torsion spring M and displace by a small angle

, we show the free body diagram:

Static equilibrium equations on the free body diagram:

0 M P sin L 0

PL sin
P

L sin

23

We will discuss for branches AB, BC, BD the type of stability that can be achieved.
B is called the bifurcation point.
We start with branches AB,BC for all P where P 0
If we take a small displacement of epsilon:

We call the moment acting on this free body diagram the reacting moment: M react .
We define the active moment: M active PL sin
We define the total moment: M tot M react M active

24

stable
M tot 0

M tot 0 non stable

Stability condition:
Using Taylor series:

(1) n 2 n 1
3 5

3! 5!
n 0 (2n 1)!

sin

(1) n 2 n
2 4
1
2! 4!
n 0 (2n)!

cos

We recalculate the second order total moment approximation:

M tot PL sin

3
M tot PL
3!

PL 3
M tot PL

3!

stable
PL 0

PL 0 non stable

First order term stability condition:

Such we have achieved stability on the AB branch: P

For the bifurcation point P

we refer to the second order total moment term to confirm stability.

L

For branch BC we have shown non-stability using the first order term stability.

We now discus Branch BD: we provide a small perturbation from the angle

25

We define the total moment: M tot M react M active

stable
M tot 0

M tot 0 non stable

Stability condition:

M tot 0 PL sin 0
sin 0 sin 0 cos sin cos 0
(1) n 2 n 1
3 5

3! 5!
n 0 (2n 1)!

sin

(1) n 2 n
2 4
1
2! 4!
n 0 (2n) !

cos

2
3
sin 0 sin 0 1 cos 0
3!
2!

2
3
M tot 0 PL sin 0 1 cos 0
3!
2!

PL sin 0 2 PL cos 0 3
M tot 0 PL sin 0 PL cos 0

2!
3!

We evaluate the stability condition:

First order:

P
stable
0 PL sin 0 0

0 PL sin 0 0 non stable P

0
L sin 0
0
L sin 0
26

non stable

stable

Second order:

L cos 0
stable
PL cos 0 0

PL cos 0 0 non stable P

L cos 0

non stable

stable

We can combine terms by expressing PL in first order terms and subbing into the second order
stability condition:

O1: 0 PL sin 0

0

cos 0 1 0

O 2 : PL cos 0
sin 0

tan 0
Such we can test to see if both the first and second order terms are stable:

We examine the Tayler expansion of the tangent function:

tan
n 1

B2 n (4)n (1 4n ) 2 n 1
3 2 5

(2n)!
3 15

for | |

So for the expression:

0
0
1

3
0
tan 0

0
3

0 0 0 for all | |
3
2

We plotted the functions visually to check that

27

 = /
=1

Such we have achieved stability.

c. Linear equation:
Model

Free body diagram

Stability equation: PL sin 0

M tot M react M active :

M tot M react M active :

M tot M react M active :

PL (stable)

PL (stable)

PL (non-stable)

28

Slope:

dM tot
d

PL
0

On branch AB we linearize around 0

Linearize

PL sin 0 PL 0
Pcrit

29

d. Buckling loading:
Example 1: one degree of freedom

Determine the buckling loading or critical P.

We make a displaced free body diagram:
We show the moment around point A:

ccw

MA 0

Fa cos PL sin 0 2
ka sin cos PL sin 0
F ka sin

Linearization : ka 2 PL 0 ka 2 PL 0
0

Pcrit

ka 2
L

This problem is considered one degree of freedom.

Example 2: two degrees of freedom

30

Determine the buckling loading or critical P.

Static:

PL sin sin 0
0

PL sin 0

Linearize around 0 :

PL 0
PL 0

Matrix notation:

PL PL 0

PL 0

We demand that Det A 0

PL PL
2
PL PL 0

PL
P1,2

3 5

2 L

31

We can show the geometric modes by writing out the displacement ratio, and subbing in the critical
point ratio.

PL 0

1

PL 0 PL
P1,2

3 5
2


2 L PL 1,2 3 5

1
1

0.62, 1.61

2

1,2
1
1

PL 3 5
We can show this illustrated below:

e. Elastic beam buckling:

We want to determine the critical loading for the following elastic beam under axial loading:

We show the free body diagram and internal Moment diagram:

32

We find the internal moment:

M x Pv x

EI

M x

Bernoulli Euler:

Radius of gyration:

v '' x

1 v ' x

2 3/2

We sub the internal moment and elastic relation into Bernoulli Euler:

EI

v '' x

1 v ' x

2 3/2

Pv x

We simplify: 1 v ' x

Simplified equation:

EI v '' x P v x 0
EI v '' x M x 0

Standard form:

v '' x 2 v x 0

EI
P

Solution: v x A cos x B sin x

By applying simply supported boundary conditions we can show:

33

v x B sin L 0

L n
n

L
P
2
EI

n
Pcrit
EI
L
2

Buckling Modes

P1 EI
L
2

2
P2
EI
L
2

34

 3
P3 EI
L
2

Example 1: cantilever beam axial loading

M a Pv L

We want to determine the internal moment distribution

M x M A Pv x 0
M x Pv L Pv x

We want to use the second order ODE

35

EI v '' x M x 0
Such our second order ODE for axial bending can be given

EI v '' x Pv L Pv x 0
EI v '' x Pv x Pv L
v '' x 2 v x 2v L

P
EI

Solution:

v x v x homo v x Spec
v x A cos x B sin x 1 cos L
B.C.
v 0 0
v ' 0 0

v L
We check at the free end:

1 cos L
cos L 0

L 2n 1

2n 1
L

2n 1

EI
2
L
2

Pcrit

Example 2: statically indeterminate

We determine the buckling loading

36

We show the reactions and internal moment:

Pv x RB x M x 0
M x RB x Pv x

We now can solve for bending:

v '' x 2 x

RB x
EI

Boundary conditions:

v 0 0
v L 0
v '0 0

37

Solution:

v x v x homo v x Spec
v x A cos x B sin x C1 x C2
RA
x
P
R
v L A sin L A L 0
P
R
sin L A L
AP
v x A sin x

tan L L
He solves this numerically such that

L =4.94
2

4.94
Pcrit
2
EI

L

So
Pcrit
EI
0.7 L

4.94

0.7

Example 3: Redundant support

Static equations:

RA Rc RB 0

CW

MC 0

RA a RB L a 0
38

We check in both domains:

M x RA x Pv x ,
xa

M x RA x R c x a Pv x , a x L

We use a second order ODE to solve:

R x

v1 '' x 2 x A ,
xa

EI

v '' x 2 x RA x R c x a , a x L
2
EI
EI

v1 x A1 sin x B1 cos x RA x
xa

v2 x A2 sin x B2 cos x RA x RC x a a x L

Boundary conditions:
Kinematic

39

v1 0 0
v1 a 0
v2 a 0
v2 L 0
Continuity:

v1 ' a v2 ' a
We apply Boundary conditions:

B1 0

A1 sin a RA a 0
A2 sin a B2 cos a RA a 0
A2 sin L B2 cos L RA L RC L a 0
A1 cos a RA A2 cos a B2 sin a RA Rc

We add static conditions:

RA Rc RB 0

RA a RB L a 0

System:
We can solve this system by representing it in matrix form:

sin a

cos a

0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
a L a
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
a
0
sin a
cos a
0
a
0
sin L
cos L
0
L
0
0 cos a sin a 1
0

0
0

0
0

L a
1

We demand the determinant be equal to zero to verify a single solution:

He shows the characteristic equation as:

40

A1 0

B1 0
A2 0

B2 0
RA 0

RB 0
R 0
C

 L 1 sin L sin L sin 1 L 0

a
L

If we take

1
2

We can show the characteristic equation:

L L
L
sin
tan

0
2 2
2
Such we can show two solutions: we want to find the lowest buckling load because that will affect the
beam first

2
L
2
sin
Pcrit
0
EI
L
2
L
2

L
2
L
2
2 tan 2 0 0.7 L Pcrit 0.7 L EI

Such we can see that the critical load represents the second mode of buckling of a simply supported
system.

f. Axial and radial force application:

Single degree of freedom:

We want to show a single degree of freedom rigid bar we add additional bending moment to signify
the radial forces acting on the beam. We show the FBD:

41

PL sin M 0

M
Pcrit

L sin L sin
Such we have demonstrated that radial force contribution to axial loaded beam reduce the critical
loading force.

Example 1: Elastic Bar

Static equations to find the reactions:

F RA RB 0

CW M A 0
Fa RB L 0
RB

Fa
a
, RA F 1
L
L

We determine the internal moment:

42

CW M o 0

M x RA x Pv x

CW M o 0

M x RA x Pv x F x a
RA x Pv x ,
0 x a

M x

RA x Pv x F x a , a x L

We show second order deflection:

EIv '' x M x
EIv1 '' x RA x Pv x ,
0 xa
EIv2 '' x RA x Pv x F x a , a x L
F a
x
0 xa
L EI
F a

v2 '' x 2v x
x 1 a , a x L

EI L

v1 '' x 2v x

Boundary conditions:

kinematic :
v1 0 0
v2 L 0
Continuity :
v1 a v2 a
v1 ' a v2 ' a
Static:

v1 ' 0 RA
v2 ' L RB
Solution:

43

v1,h x A1 sin x B1 cos x 0 0 x a

v2,h x A2 sin x B2 cos x 0 a x L
v1,h x

RA

sin x

0 xa

v2,h x B cos L sin x B sin L cos x a x L

We guess the following Particular solution:

v1,P x C1 x
0 xa
v2,P x C2 x D a x L

We compose our general solution:

v1 x

RA

sin x C1 x

0 xa

v2 x B cos L sin x B sin L cos x C2 x D a x L

We sub in our general solution to the equation and solve for the specific particular solution:

F a
x
0 xa
L EI
F a

v2 '' x 2 v x
x 1 a , a x L

EI L

v1 '' x 2 v x

F a
F a
0 xa
1 sin x
x
L L
P L
Fa
F a
F
v2 x
sin x L 1 x a a x L
L
P L
P
v1 x

We can apply the continuity equation and solve for critical buckling

44

3. Torsion
a. Symmetric

x rotation at any section x.

x 2 x 1 x

We examine infinitesimal section

x Q x x P x

P x 0
PQ PQ*

x QPQ* x x r x
x
d
r

x 0
x
dx

x Lim r

Shear stress: x

1
1 d
x r
2
2 dx

Hookes Law: x 2G x Gr

We examine an area segment in a given cross section:

T r x dA
T Gr 2
T G

d
dx

d
dA
dx
d

r dA G dx J
2

J r 2 dA J solid
rod

d T

dx GJ

45

3
d r dr

R4
2

d
dx

We define:
the unit angle of twist:

T
d

GJ
dx

x r Gr
Shear stress distribution:

Tr
J

Torsional rigidity: GJ

x ,max

Relative rotation:

d
2

T
dx
GJ

1 2
T x dx
GJ x1
x

1 2
2,1
T x dx
GJ x1
1 0 TL
L

x2 L GJ

Results:

T
GJ

x
b. General cross section

46

Tr
J

TR
J

Stress function: y, z
Internal stress:

xy

d
dz

xz

d
dy

Internal stress tensor:

xy

xz

xy xz
0
0

0
0

Torsion ODE:
2 2G
2

2
x 2
y

B.C.

C 0
Torsion stress relation:

T 2 dA
A

No bending forces proof:

The internal stress acts on the body with moment around the x direction and force in the y and z
directions.
We show the stresss below:

47

Fz xz dA

dA 0
dy

Fy xy dA

dA 0
dz

Greens theorem:

Given two functions L y, z ,

M y, z

M L
( Ldy M dz )
dydz
C
D
y z

We must choose L,M functions that will fit our case:

We chose L as the stress function y, z and M as 0.

( dy ) dydz
D
z

dy 0
C

dydz 0
z

Fc 0
We test forces on the y axis and show that the forces in the y direction are zero.
Such we have shown that because there is no force in every cross section, there is no bending.

Now we will calculate the moment in the cross section:

48

T xy z xz y dA
A

T 2 dA
A

Torsion stresss:

xy

d
dz

xz

d
dy

C 0 proof:
Traction:

Tx xx xy

Ty yx yy
T
z zx zy

xz nx

yz ny
zz nz

We define the normal:

We write out the traction vector for torsion:

Tx 0 xy xz 0 xy ny xz nz

0 ny
0
Ty xy 0

T
n

0
0
0
z xz
z

We show the normal components:

49

n y cos
nz sin

z z

s s
y
y
sin

s
s
cos

Such we can find the normal of the edge:

z
s
y
nz
s
ny

We look at the traction vector:

50

Tx xy n y xz nz
z y
Tx
z s y s

Tx
s

We want to transform the stress components into the normal, tangential coordinate system:

xn xy cos xz sin
xs xy sin xz cos
z y
xn
Tx
z s y s s
y z
xs
y s z s s
Because the torsion doesnt affect the outer layer, we know that Tx 0 located on the outer shell of
the pipe. Thus both

0 and xn =0 such we see that C const.

C

Such we prove that there is no torsional stress on the outer perimeter C, of all cross sections implying
that the outer cylindrical shell, of any generally shaped beam is devoid of torsional stress. this is
because at the outer perimeter C of any cross section we know that

Tx

xn
s

We also know that given symmetry in tensors xn nx so the traction on the perimeter of any cross
section C is equal to the stress on the normal face in the x direction which by definition, there is no

51

force in the x direction such we have shown that there is no stress in the normal direction and such no
traction on the perimeter of any cross section and such no torsion on the outer surface.

We can define the shear stress as the resultant stress on the infatesimal point in the cross section , we
show the shear resultant in stress function terms:

r xy 2 xz 2

r
z y
2

We can show the cross section in terms of normal and tangential coordinates and represent the shear
resultant of both the stress components that we treat as vectors. We display the shear resultant in
terms of stress function.

r xs 2 xn 2

r
n s
2

We show the radial lines in the cross section:

52

xs
n

xn

Example 1: ellipse cross section torsion:

y2 z2
1
a 2 b2
y2 z2
1 0
a 2 b2
We want to find the stress function to solve the following equation:

xy

xz

2 2G

C 0
She picks the stress function such that:

y2 z2
k 2 2 1
a b

Which we know satisfies the boundary condition above,

53

We can find k by solving the above differential equation:

2 2G
2
y
z
1 1
2k 2 2 2G
2
2
y

z
a b
k 2 2 1

a b

G
1 1
2 2
a b

Now we show the stress function which we know satisfies both the boundary condition and the
differential equation:

G y 2 z 2
y, z
1
1 1 a 2 b2
2 2
a b

We solve for theta using: T 2 dA

A

y2 z2
T 2k 2 2 1 dA
a b

A
y2 z2
1
1
2
2
A a 2 b2 1 dA a 2 A y dA b2 A z dA A dA
1
1
1 a 3b 1 ab3
2 I ZZ 2 IYY A 2

ab
a
b
a 4 b2 4
T k ab
T a 2 b2
a 3b3
T 2
G 3 3
a b2
a b G
Such we can display the stress function in full:

T a 2 b2

a3b3 y 2 z 2

y, z
1
1 1 a 2 b2
2 2
a b
We can represent the torsional rigidity in general terms:

54

T CG
T
CG

To find the internal stress we must derive the stress function:

xy

xz

y2 z2
2 1
2

a b
G
k
1 1
2 2
a b

T a 2 b2

xy

a 3b3 G
2ky 2Ty
2kz 2Tz
xz 2 3

3
2
a b
a
ab
b

R xy xz
2

2T z 2 y 2

ab b 4 a 4

2T z 2 y 2

R
ab b 4 a 4

Warping function:
u u y, x

u
2T

z
3
y ab G

u 2T

3
z ab G

We integrate to find the warping function:

u y, z

T
a 2 b 2 yz

abG

55

c. Membrane analysis:
We took a solid square body and cut a hole in the
middle, and stretched a membrane across the hole,
F is the force per length.

We blow from the other side with a force of P, and

the membrane expands upward to a height of
w(y,z). the membrane doesnt resist shear force
only tensile force

We examine an infinitesimal section of the

membrane to show the equilibrium equation:
up

F sin F sin P cos 0

We can linearize this equation using small angle

approximation:
up

F F P 0

F Py 0
dw

dy
dw

dy
dw
P
d 2w
P

F
Py
2
dy
y
F
dy
F
2w 2w
P
2
2
y
z
F

Stress function, membrane analysis analagy:

2w 2w
P
2 , wc 0
2
y
z
F

Membrane analysis PDE

Boundary condition

56

 2 2

2G , c 0
y 2 z 2

Stress function PDE

Boundary condition

We use the membrane analysis as an analogy to the stress function, such we can think of the stress
function as a membrane. Such if we solve for w, than we can use the solution to solve for the stress
function.
Reminder:

T 2 dA
A

2Vmemb 2 w dA
A

In order to solve this problem for a general cross section, we must find a membrane or solid member
with a hole covered by a membrane of the same geometry.
Such we can imagine that the stress function is sort of a thin shell over the cross section.

Given a membrane
Lets say we are walking on a height line in the s
direction. We know that :

n
0
s

0
s
We also know that on a height line

x,n

0
s

So

R x2,n x2,s x,s

We know that

x,s

n
n

57

The question is, where will the maximum stress in the s direction on the cross section, this is analogues
to asking, where is the slope greatest on the membrane, we can look at the ellipse and notice that since
direction b is the smallest direction from the center to the edge of the ellipse than that must be the
steepest slope, and such at the very edge of the ellipse in the direction of y, we know that the
membrane slope is greatest such the axial stress in the normal direction of the cross section must be
greatest.

58

d. Square cross section torsion

We want to show the altitude lines of the membrane, and mark the maximum points with black dots.
The height lines are circular because the membrane is stretchy. On a height line we know that x , s is
constant and x,n 0 .

We can only find an exact solution for 4 specific cases: circular, ellipse, rectangular, and triangular
(equilateral). We can also solve cross sectional areas with bores that we wont solve. Using these basic
shapes, we will be able to solve for compound shapes like T, I, L, and thin wall cross sections.
We will solve a thin rectangle for a<<b:

We can approximate:

59

2w
0
z 2
2w

y 2
Such using the stress membrane analogy we can write

d 2
2G
dy 2
We give boundary conditions, we do a trick because we know that the derivative of w at y=0 as shown in
the above picture is zero

' y 0 0

y 0
2

We solve:

d
2Gy c1
dy

' 0 0 c1 0
y Gy 2 c2
2

t
t
G c2 0
2
2
t 2

y G y 2
2

We can find the torsion rigidity:

b
2

t
2

t 2

Gbt 3
T 2 y dA 2 G y 2 dydz
2

3
b t
A

T Gbt

We define the rigidity constant C as a function of the unit angle of twist

T
GC

bt 3
3

We can find the internal stresss using the stress function

60


0
z

2Gy
y

x, y
x, z

Stress distribution:

Such, in the z,y cross section, the shear distribution in torsion looks like this
The maximum shear stress is thus

x, z Gt
e. Torsion in prismatic bar: thin arc

Assumptions:

t
1
r

We can use the thin rectangular cross section as an analogy to show the torsional rigidity:
Given the analogy b r or the rectangular length as equal to the arc length
We show the torsional rigidity:

61

T G r t

We found that the max shear stress in the rectangular cross section

max Gt
We use the twist angle to express the rigidity constant C which holds the geometrical information and
are able to apply our analogy.

max Gt squere

T
GC

bt 3
3

3T
r t 2

squere

r t 3
3

analagy

Such we are able to apply the analogy to the shear distribution display: its the same as the squere just a
bit bent

We apply the prismatic bar analogy to a cut pipe

We show the rigidity constant and maximum shear stress and apply the prismatic bar analagy

1
C r t 3
3
1
Ccutpipe r 2 t 3
3
3T
max
2 rt 2
f. General open cross section
Examples of open and closed cross sections: simply connected

62

Examples of closed figures: multiply connected

If you can put any closed loop in a figure, and close it until infinity it is open, but if you try in a closed
figure, it would bump up against the bubble, get stuck and not be able to close until infinity.

General open figure:

Of n thin rectangles
We will take the ith thin rectangle,
We know that

63

Ti
GCi
n

T Ti
i 1

C Ci
i 1

1
Ci bi ti 3 Ti ?
3
We assume that there is no plastic deformation in the yz plane such we can assume that

i so from here we can write

T
T
T1
T
2 ... i n
C1G C2G
CiG CnG
Ti
T
... n
Ci
Cn
Ci
C
Ti ti Tti

Ci
C

Ti T

max

Example:

Lbeam 75x75x6 mm
T 200 N m
L 1.2 m
G 79 GPa
Free for deformation, not held against a wall
Determine the torsion angle for x=L, the maximum shear stress,
We review symbols:
64

 stress function
torsion angle per unit length
torsion angle
L 0
To find the torsion angle, we want to find the torsion angle per unit length
We know that

T
GC
2
1
3
1
C bt 3 2 72 6 1.037 108 m4
3
i 1 3

dx L
0

T
200
1.2 0.293 rad 16 deg

L
79 109 1.037 108
G C

To find the maximum shear

max

Tt 200 0.006

115.7 MPa
C 1.037 108

g. general closed figures sections: thin wall, variable thickness

Assuming that its so thin t<<R

We can see that the stress should be constant for every thickness section S in every cross section.
We want to find the shear stress as a function of s.
We define the shear flow q

q x,s s t s
We use infinitesimal equilibrium to find the shear flow q,

65

We take a volume element, and show the forces on the element, as the stress times the area. Since the
stress and the thickness changes as a function of s, we use the Taylor expansion, to show the
approximated force step after a delta s in the picture.
We take the equilibrium equations

s t s x s t s s t s ds x 0
ds

d
s t s dsx 0
ds
d
s t s 0 q const
ds
And we reach a type of Bernoulli flow. And such we understand that the thinner the material, the more
shear stress it will feel. She went through and proved that there are no forces felt in the y, z direction.
The relation between the shear stress and the torsion:

66

We define the following unit vectors:

ir , in , is
We define the following angle

ir is
We are able to write that

Torque: dT r F
Forces: F s x , s t s ds
A

Infinitesimal torque: dT r s ir x , s t s dsis

Scalar infinitesimal torque:

dT s x , s t s r s sin ds

Triangle height definition:

h r cos
Triangle area definition: dA

1
ds h s
2

Infinitesimal torque expression in terms of area

and shear flow

dT s x , s t s h s ds
dT s 2 x , s t s dA
dT s 2 q dA
Integrate over the area

dT s 2 q dA
A

Shear flow as a function of Torsion

T
2A

Closed figure shear stress:

67

 x,s

T
2 At s

Note:
The area is a swept out area of the entire closed figure, not hollow until the mid line of the cross section
material

We will try to apply this solution to a hollow circle:

x,s

T
2 r 2 t

Example: rectangular profile

T 80 103 in lb
G 3.8 106 Psi
Determine the stress distribution in the cross section

68

 x,s

T
2 At s

A 200 inch 2

x,s

80 103 in lb

2 200 inch 2 t s

200
lb / inch 2
t s

200
400 Psi
1

2
200

200 Psi
1

x,s
ab

x,s

bc

200
400 Psi
1

2
200

800 Psi
1

4

x,s
cd

We know that

x,s

da

We want to find the torsion angle per unit length

Radial displacement:

Hooks law: x ,

u r
u xr

x ,
2G

Internal shear stress substitution: x ,

Polar transformation hooks law:

1 1 u x u

2 r
x
1 u x
1 u
x polar
2r
2 x

polar

warping

T
1
r
2
4 Gr t 2
T

2 Gr 3t
0

69

T
4 Gr 2t

h. General closed figure: Bredts formula

Bredt formula:

T
4 A2G

ds

t s

We define the radial displacement:

V ir
V r xr unin usis
cos

u
h
hV
s us
r ABC V
r

We sub in V

us h x
Partial derivatives of shear strain in s direction

x,s

ux us x, s

s x
G

We derive the displacement:

70

ux x , s us

s
G
x
ux x , s

h
s
G
We integrate around C

u x 1

x , s ds h s ds
s G C
C

1
ds h
2
1
0 x , s ds 2dA
GC
A
dA

1
x , s ds
2 AG C

x,s

Example 1: rectangular box

We want to find the twist angle per unit length

71

T
2 At s

T
4 A2 G

ds

t s

G 3.8 106 psi

Given T 80 103 in lb

A 200 inch 2
Using bredts formula:

80 10 20 10 20 10 1.7 10 rad / inch

T
ds

4 A G t s 4 200 3.8 10 1 1 1 1


3

Example 2: L beam

Lbeam 75x75x6 mm
T 200 N m
L 1.2 m
G 79 GPa

x , s 115.7 MPa
L 16.8 deg
This solution that we found earlier, is questionable because theta is bigger than 1, and the result is too
large for our small deformation approximation.
We will alter the shape by closing the figure and adding a cross plate brace and we check if the stress
and deformation is better.

72

We will determine shear stress, show the stress distribution, and the twist angle per unit length,

x,s

T
200

6.43 MPa
2 At s 2 2.6 103 6 103

1
1
A bh 72 72 mm
2
2
We use Brets formula to find the twist angle per unit length

T
4 A2 G

ds

t s 4A G t
2

s length c
L 1.2 m

72 72 72 2 10
200 1.2
L
2
5 103
4 2.59 106 79 109
We display the stress distribution in the cross section

73

4.63 103 rad

Example three: open, closed

Determine the shear stress, stress distribution

Using superposition: T T1 T2
Assuming that the body is rigid:

T1
T
2
GC1 GC2

T1 GC1
T2 GC2
1
C2 bt 3
3
Using bredt formula for the closed figure:

T
4 A2G

ds

T1

t s 4A G
2

2 r
t

T1
2 A2Gt
C1

r
Such we are able to solve for stress

x,s

closed

x,s

open

74

T1
2 At
Tt
2
C2

4. General Beam bending

a. Review of symmetric beam bending

Pure bending assumptions:

1. Kirchhoff, assumptions: all the planes dont deform, they just are displaced around the neutral
axis
2. The only internal stress is xx
3. The tensile force is zero
4. The z direction is the neutral plane

Deflection equation development

xx

1 Mz

R EI z

Mz y
Iz

I z y 2 dA

R 1 u '2

xx

d 2u
dx 2

Mz y
EI z

3/2

d 2u M z

dx 2 EI z

Two directional bending:

To find the neutral axis, you just calculate the bending stress in the length direction and equate to zero.
Using super-position on a beam that is bent on both the y, and z axis the bending stress in the lateral
direction can be shown:

xx

Mz y Myz

Iz
Iy

75

To determine the neutral axis, the total bending stress can be equated to zero:

M z
Mz y
y
Iz
Iy
M I
y
y z
z
Mz Iy
tan

y
z

The total moment vector can be shown as an absolute value and phase angle

M M y j M z k
M M y2 M z2
tan

M y
Mz

The phase angle will only be equal to the neutral axis when Iz=Iy
Or given a symmetric cross section. The deflection will be perpendicular to the neutral axis.

b. Pure bending of a general cross section: theoretical backround

Center of area:
1
zc zdA
A A

yc

1
ydA
A
A

While solving all cross section problems, its important to set the axis at the area center

76

zc

1
zdA 0
A
A

yc

1
ydA 0
A
A

yc , zc 0, 0

Moment of Inertia Area:

I zz y 2 dA
A

I yy z 2 dA
A

Parallel axis theorem: (Steiner)

I zz I zz b 2 A
I y ' y ' I yy a 2 A
Such the minimum moment of inertia is located
at the center of area.

Polar moment of inertia

J r 2 dA z 2 dA y 2 dA I zz I yy
A

Mixed inertia:

I zy zydA
A

Can be positive or negative

Parallel axis theorem for mixed inertia:

I z ' y ' I zy abA

77

Coordinate transformation:
I z ' z ' y ' dA sin 2 I yy cos 2 I zz sin 2 I zy
2

I yy cos 2 I yy sin 2 I zz sin 2 I zy

1
1
I zy sin 2 I zz sin 2 I yy cos 2 I xy
2
2
I z ' z ' I yy I zz I yy
We want to find the maximum moment inertia:

2 I xy
dI xx
0 tan 2 xx,max
d
I yy I xx

I xy 0

The moment of inertia is maximum while the axis is the

principle axis.

Sign convention:

78

c. General Bending Equations

We take a differential length and use equilibrium:

Vy Vy Vy q y xc x 0
x xc x x
Vy
x

q y xc
Vy

dVy

q y x
x
dx
M O 0 M z M z M Z Vy x q xc x x
lim

x 0

0 1
dM z
Vy
dx
d 2M z
q y x
dx 2
Analysis results:

79

dVy

q y x

dx
dM z
Vy
dx
d 2M z
q y x
dx 2

dVz
qz x
dx
dM y
Vz
dx
d 2M y
qz x
dx 2

General bending: pure bending on a non-symmetric prismatic beam:

M y xx z dA
A

M z xx y dA
A

Fx xx dA 0
A

Using the general hooks law process:

We determine the displacement as a result of external loading:

u x, y, z C1 x C2 x y C3 x z

Then the deformation is calculated by

xx C1 ' x C2 ' x y C3 ' x z

Hooks law:

xx

1
xx yy zz xx E xx
E

Such the general solution for solving the internal axial stress will be:

xx a x b x y c x z
Only for pure bending is the solution accurate.
To solve for A,B,C we solve the above equations:
80

 xx a x b x y c x z
M y xx zdA a x b x y c x z dydz
A

M y a x zdA b x yzdA c x z 2 dA
A

zc 0

(1) : M y b x I yz c x I yy
We analyze the moment equation around z:

xx a x b x y c x z
M z xx y dA a x y b x y 2 c x yz dydz
A

M y a x ydA b x y 2 dA c x yzdA
A

yc 0

(2) : M z b x I zz c x I zy
From here we have to equations with two variables. To solve for A, we can use the following analysis.

xx a x b x y c x z

Fx 0 xx dA a x b x y c x z dA a x A a x 0

A
A
yc 0
zc 0

The beam doesnt move forward, it just bends.

Such we can solve the system using Kramers rule:

81

M y b x I yz c x I yy
M z b x I zz c x I zy
b x

c x

My
Mz

I yy
I zy

I zy
I zz

I yy
I zy

M y I zy M z I yy
I zy 2 I yy I zz

M z I zy M y I zz
I zy 2 I yy I zz

M z I yy M y I zy
I I I 2
yy zz zy

xx

M y I zz M z I zy
y
2

I yy I zz I zy

D I yy I zz I zy 2 0
Example: principle cross section
Given a cross section with principle axis, z,y such Iyz=0
We can show that

My
Mz
y
I zz
I yy

xx

Similar to our previous example:

Example 2:
Vz 0, Vy 0
M z 0, M y 0

xx

M z I yy

I yy I zz I zy

M z I zy
I y I zy z
z yy
M
y
2

I I I 2 z
I
I

I
yy
zz
zy
yy
zz
zy

We can find the neutral axis by canceling the internal stress

I yy y I zy z
I
M z 0 y zy z

2
I I I

I yy
yy zz zy

xx

We can define the neutral axis angle beta

tan

y I zy

z I yy

The neutral axis always passes through the center of mass of every cross section.

82

We use the Bernoulli Euler beam:

M z x I yy
M x I zy
y z
z
2

I I I 2
I
I

I
yy
zz
zy
yy
zz
z
y

xx

Given loads at an angle we break it up into components and solve.

Example 3: angled force

Given d=5b
Determine the neutral axis:
We are given a force offset of 1, and principle axis such that I yz 0
According to the previous development:

tan

I zz
tan
I yy

We find Iz and Iy in the book:

83

1
125 4
bd 3
b
12
12
1
5
I yy db3 b 4
12
12
I zz
25
I yy
I zz

tan 25 tan 1 0.44

23.6 deg
Example 4: z beam

1.
2.
3.
4.

We find the center of area: given symmetry we can say that its in the middle
We determine the moment of inertia:
We find the neutral axis
We find the internal stress at the wall x=0 using

M z I yy M y I zy
I I I 2
yy zz zy

xx

M y I zz M z I zy
y
2

I yy I zz I zy

We can show the bending moments:

My 0
M z PL
We can determine the moment of inertia:

84

I zz I zz I zz I zz

I yy I yy I yy I yy
1

3
2

I yy
1

1 3
a
a t at I yy
12
A 2
3
yc ,1 yc

I yy
2

1
2a t 3
12

2
1 3
a 1
I yy 2 a t at 2a t 3
12
2 12
a t

t 3 0

I yy

1
2
I zz a t 3 at a I zz
12
1
3
a t
A
y y
t 3 0

c ,1

1
2
3
2a t ta 3
12
3
8
I zz a 3t
3
I zz
2

2 3
at
3

We want to find the mixed moment of inertia:

I yz I yz I yz I yz
1

1
a
I yz 0 at a a 3t
2
A 2 zc ,1 zc
1
yc ,1 yc

1
a
I yz 0 at a a 3t
2
A 2
3
z z
yc ,1 yc

c ,1

I yz 0
2

I yz a 3t

We find the internal stress distribution

M I M y I zy
xx z yy
I I I 2
yy zz zy

xx

M y I zz M z I zy
y
2

I yy I zz I zy

3
PL a3t

PL

a
t

3
y
z
z
2
2
2
8
2
8

3
3
3

3
3
3

3 a t 3 a t a t
3 a t 3 a t a t

PL 6
9
y z
3
ta 7
7

We want to show the stress distrubtion in points A, B

We show the coordinates of point A, with respect to the center point:

85

t t

A a
,

2 2

a t
t 0

PL 6
9 t 6 PL
xx A 3

a
ta 7
7 2 7 ta 2

a t
t 0

t
B a, a

a t
t 0

PL 6
9
3 PL
xx B 3 a a
2
ta 7
7
7 ta
Such we see that a is in tension, and b is in compression.
Note: the stress is in the x direction, into and out of the page

We can find the neutral axis by canceling the tensile stress.

xx

PL 6
9
3
y z 0 y z
3
ta 7
7
2

To find the rest of the points, its possible to determine the coordinates of each point, and sub into
the tensile stress expression.

86

d. Shear stress distribution as a result of bending

We take out an element of delta x from the beam, and cut the cross section, to analyze section A1:
In order to achieve equilibrium we must add another stress to the left side to balance out the right side.
We know from the symmetrical quality of tensors that if we add a shear stress on the z face such that
z , x , than there must exist a shear force on the x face in the z direction, such we display the shear
stress, on our general cross section.

We show equilibrium:

0 bx xx dA xx xx dA 0
A1

A1

1
1
xx dA xx dA
b A1 x
b A1 x
M z I yy M y I zy
M I M z I zy
y y zz
z
I I I 2
I I I 2
yy zz zy
yy zz zy

M I
M I
x M y I zz x M z I zy
xx x z yy x y zy

y
x
I yy I zz I zy 2
I yy I zz I zy 2

V
I

V
I
V
I

V
I
xx
y zy
z zy
z yy
y y zz
z
2
2

x
I yy I zz I zy
I yy I zz I zy
1 V I V I
1 V I V I
z yy y zy2 ydA y zz z zy2 zdA

b I yy I zz I zy A1
b I yy I zz I zy A1
1 V I V I
1 V I V I
z yy y zy2 Qy ,1 y zz z zy2 Qz,1

b I yy I zz I zy
b I yy I zz I zy
Qy ,1 yc A1

xx

Qz,1 zc A1

87

Example 1:

Vy 0
Vz P

1 Vz I yy Vy I zy
b I yy I zz I zy 2

1 Vy I zz Vz I zy
Qy ,1
b I yy I zz I zy 2

PI yy
1
1 PI zy
Qy ,1
Q
Qz,1
2

I I I 2 z,1
b
I
I

I
b
yy
zz
zy
yy
zz
zy

Qy ,1 yc A1
Qz,1 zc A1
We calculate the center of area, and move the coordinate system to the center point.
We calculate the Area moment of inertia:

I yy I zz 1.8 106 mm4

We calculate the mixed area moment of inertia:

I yz I yz I yz 1.07 107 mm 4
1

I yz 0 A yc ,1 yc zc ,1 zc 5.05 105 mm4

1

I yz 0 A yc ,2 yc zc ,2 zc 5.6 105 mm4

2

P 100,000 N
b 10

100, 000 1.07 107

100, 000 1.8 106
1
1

y ,1
z,1
10 1.8 106 1.8 106 1.07 107 2
10 1.8 106 1.8 106 1.07 107 2

To find the Q values:

88

Qy z1 A1 11.85 103 mm3

A1 500 mm 2
z1 zc1 zc
Qz y1 A1 23.15 103 mm3
y1 yc ,1 yc

100, 000 1.07 107

100, 000 1.8 106
1
1
3

23.15 103 16.4 N

11.85

10

2
2
6
6
7
6
6
7
10 1.8 10 1.8 10 1.07 10
10 1.8 10 1.8 10 1.07 10
mm2

Qy z1 A1
z1 zc1 zc
Qz y1 A1
y1 yc ,1 yc

Example 2: c channel
Given a C cross section of the following type, we can simplify the shear stress calculation given that the
mixed inertia term cancels, because of the symmetry around the z axis. such the solution is given as:

89

Vy Qz
bI zz

When asked to show the stress distribution, the proper sketch should look like this:

We pick the aa cross section at a distance from a1 from the edge, because the thickness b is small.

Qy zc ,1 zc A1
Qz yc ,1 yc A1
e. Shear stress solution algorithem:
1. Find the center of area:

zc
yc

Z A
A
y A

1
zdA
A
A

zc

1
ydA
A
A

yc

2. Find the moment of inertia, and mixed moment of inertia:

I zz y 2 dA I
zz
A

I yy z 2 dA I yy
A

I zy zydA I zy
A

z ,i
about common axis

y,i
about common axis

xy ,i
about common axis

I zz I zz yc ,i yc ,b Ai
2

I y ' y ' I yy zc ,i zc ,b Ai
2

I z ' y ' I zy yc ,i yc ,b zc ,i zc ,b Ai
I bar shows the principal moment of inertia, and I tag shows the displaced moment of inertia. Sub i
shows the component characteristic, and sub b shows the body characteristic.
90

3. Find the shear stress using the formula

1 Vz I yy Vy I zy
b I yy I zz I zy 2

Qy ,1 yci yc A1

1 Vy I zz Vz I zy
Qy ,1
b I yy I zz I zy 2

Qz,1

Qz,1 zc ,i zc A1
To sketch the internal shear profile, its important to pick the thinnest segment, and insert a
section with a parameter of distance. Use the parameter of distance as a function variable, and
show the linear relationship. Repeat the process until, I have covered all the face components
of the cross section. If its positive, than the shear stress goes into toward the area chosen, if its
negative, than the shear stress leads out of the area chosen.

f. Shear center
we want to transform the shear stress to resultant shear stress

RH ab tdu
0

Rv BC tdu
0

While t, is the thickness of the arm, of the beam, u is the distance variable, and c is the distance of the
arm, h is the height.
To find the center of shear stress we must use equilibrium analysis on the cross section about the x axis.
we randomly place the loading in the y direction outside of the cross section, and show moment
equilibrium about the x axis direction. The equilibrium point shows the center of shear stress such that,
a shear vertical load passing through the center of stress will not twist the member.

91

Pe RH h 0
Phtc 2 h
h 2tc 2
Pe
e
I zz
4 I zz
The y coordinate of the shear center is obviously at the origin, because of the symmetry about the z axis.
as a general procedure: to find the shear center, force must be applied in both the z, and y directions,
the shear stress distribution is determined, the resultant shear force is determined by integrating the
shear stress distribution functions, a free body diagram is drawn, the distance parameters describing the
placement of the applied force is given, and using moment equilibrium equations, the shear center is
defined.

Example 2: z cross section

Determine the stress distribution and shear center

We know that since the body is anti-symmetric that the mixed moment of inertia is canceled, we know
that the vertical internal shear force Vy is equal to the external shear force p, and the horizontal shear
force is canceled. We sub into the shear stress expression:

1 Vz I yy Vy I zy
b I yy I zz I zy 2

Qz,1 zc ,i zc A1

1 Vy I zz Vz I zy
Qy ,1
b I yy I zz I zy 2

2
8
I yy ta 3 I zz ta 3
3
3
Vy P Vz 0

I yz ta 3

P Qz,1I zz Qy ,1I zy
Qz,1
b I yy I zz I zy 2

7
I yy I zz I zy 2 t 2 a 6
9

To find the stress distribution in the figure, we must find the shear flow coefficients, for paths BA,AD,DE
We show graphically:

92

QZ , BA A1 u yc ,1 yc u1ta
a u1
Qy , BA A1 u zc ,1 zc u1t

2
a u2
QZ , AD A2 u yc ,2 yc at u2t yc ,2 a at
u 2t
2
a u2
a at
u2t
yci Ai
2

yc ,2

at u2t
Ai
a
Qy , AD A2 u zc ,2 zc at
2
a
at 0
zci Ai 2

zc ,2

at u2t
Ai
QZ ED A3 u y3 yc u3ta

a u3
Qy , ED A3 u z3 zc u3t

2
Note: we gauge the direction according to if the direction of the distance variable is in the direction of
the general coordinates
We sub in the moments of inertia, the shear flow coefficients, and the internal shear stress into the
shear stress equation, and order all the variables

3 P

BA
14 ta 3 u1 2a 2u1

3 P

2
2

2u2 4au2 a AD
3
14 ta

3 P

DE
14 ta3 u1 2a 2u3

To display the shear stress distribution in the cross section, we are asked to analyze the function for zero
points, positive and negative regions, and maximum. This is done using basic calculus analysis.
93

3 P
u1 2a 2u1 k u1 2a 3u1
14 ta 3
2
BA u1 0 0, a
3
2
2
0 BA a
a BA a
3
3
1
1 P
3 P
BAmax a
BAmin a
3
14 ta
14 ta

BA

3 P
2u2 2 4au2 a 2 k 2u2 2 4au2 a 2
3
14 ta
1
BA u1 0 a
4a 2 2a
2

AD

We checked if it reaches the zero points in the

domain 0,2a and found that it never reaches the
zero point. We checked if the maximum point is in
the domain and it is,

BA a
min

94

6 P
14 ta

3 P
u1 2a 2u3 k u1 2a 3u1
14 ta 3
2
BA u1 0 0, a
3
2
2
0 BA a
a BA a
3
3
1
1 P
3 P
BAmin a
BAmax a
3
14 ta
14 ta

BA

Now we want to find the center of shear. To find the shear center we first find the resulting shear
forces, by integrating the shear stress profile using line integrals from B to A, from A to D, and from D to
E.

We integrate the shear stress profile:

F P
0

R BA H

R ADV
R DE H

Such using an equilibrium equation, we know that the shear center must be at the z origin. To find the y
value of the shear center we solve the conjugate problem by assigning Vz P Vy 0 , and solving the
shear stress profile, and integrating to find the resultant shear force on the cross section. Since the RV
resultant force is zero, in this particular case, we know that the shear center must be at the origin.
95

Example 2: L beam

I yz 0
Vy P
Vz 0
Determine the shear stress distribution and the shear center.

Vy Qz
bI z

I z y 2 dA
A

To find the moment of inertia around the z direction, she takes an area element S, and measures

s y s sin 45 s

2
2

dA t ds
0sb
2 2
I zz 2 y t ds 2 s
t ds
0
0
2

1
I zz tb3
3
b

96

 2
s
Qz y1 A1
b st
2
2
A1 st
2
s
y1
b
2
2

1 P 2
s
3 2 Ps 2b s

b

st

b 1 tb3 2
2
4
tb3
3
We analyze the function to find the maximum:
We find that s=b is maximum and the function is negative in the domain, such we can sketch out the
stress distribution:

To find the resultant force, we can integrate over the area as a function of length
b
b 3 2 Ps 2b s
F tds
tds
3
0
0
4
tb

3 2 P b
s 2b s ds
4b3 0

We can immediately see that since the figure is symmetric, the shear center can be placed directly in the
middle. Also since the resultant shear force passes through a single point, it is evident that there is no
torsion at that point.
Furthermore, at any point in which all the resultant forces pass through, the shear center must be at
that point. also all symmetric and anti-symmetric figures have a shear center at their origin.

97

Example 3: half shell

We can determine the shear center

We know that the figure is symmetric around the z axis, such we are interested in the vertical force P in
the y direction to figure out where to place the shear center on the z axis.
We know that the mixed inertia is canceled since the figure is symmetric
Such we can state the shear stress distribution

Vy Qz
bI z

We start with the moment of inertia around the z axis

Iz

R cos

tRd
tR 3
2

I z tR 3 cos d
2

Qz ydA R cos tRd tR 2 sin

0

PtR sin 2 P

sin
tR
tR 3
b

2
2

We want to find the resultant force:

2 PR

FR tRd
FR

4 PR

Pe

4 PR

sin d

4R

98

4. Energy
a. Elastic deformation energy

Such the only stress given is xx , we take a volume element, and apply axial force

We want to calculate the work done on the body to pull from P to P plus delta P
We know that W F dr

d w xx d xx A d xx x xx xx d xx Ax

d xx 0
dr

xx xx d xx Ax

such w

f
xx

W xx xx xx d xx dV
0

V
f

99

the work is equal to the internal energy U. we define the internal energy as the deformation energy
density.
the deformation energy density U 0
internal energy: U

xx

xx xx d xx

U dV
0

geometrical representation of the deformation energy density

Example:
xx k x2x
Determine the deformation energy density
f

U 0 xx xx xx d xx
0

U0

xx

k xx2 d xx

k f

3 xx

b. Strain energy density

strain energy density for linear, elastic, homogeneous, isotropic material
xx E xx
f

U 0 xx xx xx d xx
0

U0

xx

1
1
2
E xx d xx E xx xx xx xx
2
2E
2
2

100

3 dimensional energy density including shear stress:

By applying a shear stress to an area element, the
shear deformation is shown by xy 2 xy
Such we can show the work

w 2 xy xy xy xy

U0

1
xx xx yy yy zz zz 2 xy xy xz xz yz yz
2

Example 1: Prismatic beam: axial loading

P 2

2
A
U U 0 dV xx dV dV
2E
2E
V
V
V

2
1 P
U
L
2E A

101

Example 2: Prismatic beam bending moment:

xx

M z x y
given that z is the principle axis
Iz x

2
U U 0 dV xx dV
2E
V
V
M x y 2
z

Iz x
U
dV
2E
V

2
1 L M z x
U
dx y 2 dA
2 E 0 I 2 z x
A
Iz x

1 L M z x
dx
2 E 0 I z x
2

c. Clapeyron theorem:
A proof that the work of a bending beam is equal to the internal energy as a result of stress application:

W U
Given a beam with applied external force distribution

We know the following equations:

102

dM z
Vy
dx
dVz
qy
dx
d 2M z
q y
dx 2
EIv '' x M x
We want to calculate the work associated with the applied external force distribution. Using integration
by parts

1 L
q y x dx v x
2 0
r
F

1 L
M '' x v x dx
2 0
L

L
1

W M ' x v x M ' x v ' x dx

0
2

v L v 00
0

L
L
1 L
1
W M ' x v ' x dx
M x v ' x 0 M x v '' x dx
0
2 0
2
W

M L M 00

1 L

M x v '' x dx
1

0
2
W
2 EI

EIv '' x M x

M 2 x dx

Such using the result with the prismatic beam bending:

1 L M z x
dx
2 E 0 I z x
2

We can see that W=U

Example: using energy to solve for deflection:

1 L 2
M x dx
2 EI 0
M x Px

P2
2 EI

0 x
L

dx

P 2 L3
6 EI

Now we can use clapryon to find the deflection at

point A.

103

Pv A
PL3

2
v A
3EI
P 2 L3
U
6 EI
W

d. Betti Law:
We define a linear body:
1. The material is elastic and linear
2. The load and displacement relation is linear
3. Small deformation
Using superposition

We can show that the deformation due to forces can be displayed in superposition.
Such the displacement sub-note shows: Dij such that i is the point moved and j is the force which
moved that point.
We calculate the work that P1 force does on the body and then after we activate force P2 while P1 is
still active:

1
P1 D11
2
1
W P2 P2 D22 P1 D12
2
1
1
Wtot P1 D11 P2 D22 P1 D12
2
2
W P1

Lets say we activate first force P2 and then while P2 is active we active P1: we can show the
following forces:

104

1
P2 D22
2
1
W P1 P1 D11 P2 D21
2
1
1
Wtot P1 D11 P2 D22 P2 D21
2
2
W P2

Using Clapeyron we know that the two work equations must be equal, such we reach the following
equality:

P2 D21 PD
1 12
Bettis law:
Given two loads acting on a linear body in equilibrium, the work that the first force P1 does through the
displacement caused by the second force P2 is equal to the work that the 2nd force P2 does through the
displacement cause by the first force P1.

e. Maxwells inverse relation:

We define flexibility coefficient

f ij - the displacement of point i in the direction of Pi as a result from the point force at point j
D11 P1 f11
D12 P2 f12
D21 P1 f 21
D2 P2 f 22
Such we can write that Dij Pj fij
Using bettis law:

D12 P2 f12

D21 P1 f 21 f12 f 21

P2 D21 PD
1 12
fij f ji
A displacement at point i in the direction of force Pi as a result of a point force at point j is equal to a
displacement at point j in the direction of force Pj as a result of a point force at point i.
We take a beam and explain:

105

Given three different bending profiles with the displacments shown above
We can show fij, given i, the point where the displacement is measured, and the point where the force
Pi is applied, and j the point where the activation force is applied, we show fij
We can investigate Maxwells inverse relation by taking an example: we can show that f13=f31 although
the units dont equate, the values do.

Taking a linear body at equilibrium.

We can show the displacement at point i as a result of the all the forces:

i Di1 Di 2 ... Din

We write as functions of flexibility coefficients

i P1 fi1 P2 f i 2 ... Pn fin

n

i Pj fij
j 1

f. Castiglianos second law:

At point j we can determine the displacement as a function of forces and flexibility coefficients like
before
n

j Pk f jk
k 1

We determine the net work on the system

106

1
1
1
P11 P2 2 ... Pn n
2
2
2
n
1
W Pj j
2 j 1
W

1 n n
Pj Pk f jk
2 j 1 k 1

1 n n
Pj Pk f jk
2 j 1 k 1

P
U 1 n n Pj
1 n n

Pk f jk Pj k f jk
Pi 2 j 1 k 1 Pi
2 j 1 k 1 Pi
Pj

1 i j Pk 1 k i

Pi 0 i j Pi 0 k i
U 1 n
1 n
Pk fij Pj f ji
Pi 2 k 1
2 j 1
n
U
Pk fij i
Pi k 1

U
Pi

1 L 2
M x dx
2 EI 0
1 L 2
i
M x dx
2 EI Pi 0

1
2 EI

1
EI

1
EI

M 2 x dx

Pi

M x

M x

M x
dx
Pi

M x
dx
M i

107

Example 1:

Find the displacement using castigliano:

U PL

Pi EA

P2 L
U
2 EA

Example 2:

We can determine the angle theta achieved by bending. We use castigliano:

1
EI

M x

M x
dx
M i

We use a free body diagram to determine the internal moment.

108

RA L M 0 0

M 0
L
M 0
L

0 x
M 1 x L x,
2
M x

M x M 0 L x , L x L
2

L
2

RA

We will derive now to prepare for castigliano:

M1 x 1
L

x,
0 x

M 0
L
2
M x

M 0
M 2 x 1 L x , L x L
M

L
2
0

Note: we derived by the moment constant, and not by the length parameter x

L
L /2 M
M 1 x
L
1
0
x x dx ,
0 x
0 M 1 x
dx 0
M 0
2
L L
1

EI L
L M
M 2 x
L
1

0
0 M 2 x M dx L /2 L L x L L x dx, 2 x L
0

1 L /2 M 0 1
1 L M0
1
c
x x dx
L x L x dx

EI 0 L L
EI L /2 L
L
M L M L 1 M0L
c 0 0
24 EI 24 EI 12 EI

We can solve this problem using anti-symmetrical properties of the problem by only solving half and
multiplying by two.

109

Example three:

Determine the vertical displacement at point A, and the angle of deflection at point A

U
Pi

1 L 2
M x dx
2 EI 0
M x
1 L
A
M x
dx

EI 0
Pi

1
EI

M x

M x
dx
M i

We determine the internal moment using internal static analysis, we then use castiglianos second law
to find the displacement, and angle.

wx 2
2
M x
1 L
1
A
M
x
dx

0
EI
P
EI
M x c Px

wx 2
L2 c PL wL2
c

Px

x
dx

0
2
EI 2 3
8
M x
1 L
1 L
wx 2
L
PL wL2
A
M
x
dx

Px

dx

EI 0
C
EI 0
2
EI
2
6
L

Using Maxwells inverse relation, we can show the flection coefficient for each force contribution:

110

L2 c PL wL2

EI 2 3
8

L
PL wL2
c

EI
2
6

A cP01

L2 L
f11
EI 3

A cP10

L2
f12 D12 Cf12
2 EI

w 0

w 0

P 1
A c 0
w 0

L2

f 21 D21 P1 f 21
2 EI
rad

A cP10
w 0

L
f 22
EI

Point 1 is assigned to the point force P, point 2 is assigned to the moment C.

We want to find the deflection at point x=L/2, since we have no force there, we add a fictitious force
called force F, shown below at point D:

We introduce F into the internal moment equation

111


wx 2
L
c

Px

0 x

2
2

M x

2
c Px wx F x L L x L

2
2 2

M x
1 L
1 L2
1
D
M x
dx
M x 0 dx

0
0
EI
F
EI
EI

wx 2
L L

L2 c Px 2 FF0 x 2 2 x dx
1 L
wx 2
L
L2 C 5PL 17 wL2
D
c

Px

dx

EI 2
2
2
EI 8
48
384
L

g. Complimentary strain energy, a geometrical display

P P
w P d
U * p dp
c

dU Pd P

dU

d
dU *
*
dU dP
dP
P U U *
Another way to show Castiglianos law instead of using Bettis law based off of super-position, this is
based off of linearity properties.

112

h. Virtual work principal:

We write a general equilibrium equation:

d 2M
q x 0
dx 2
dM
V x
dx
We define a virtual displacement:

v x

Must be continuous or continuous in

parts
Must be geometrically possible
We can release anchors, and apply
virtual displacements and radial
displacements

We multiply the equilibrium equation by virtual displacement

d 2M

q x v x 0

2
dx

We integrate over the length of the beam

d 2M

2 q x v x dx 0
dx

L
d 2M

v
x
dx

0 q x v x dx
dx 2
internal virtual work

external virtual work

We solve the internal virtual work integral using integration by parts

L dM d
L
d 2M
dM

v
x
dx

v
x

0 dx dx v x dx
0
dx 2
dx

We integrate by parts again

L
d v x
d 2 v x
L
d 2M
dM
v x dx
v x 0 M
M
dx
dx 0 0
dx 2
dx 2
L

L
d v x
d 2 v x
L
d 2M
v x dx V x v x 0 M x
M x
dx 0 0
dx 2
dx 2
L

We use the linearity of the virtual operator to reorder the virtual displacement derivative:
113

d v x

dv x

dx
dx
d 2v x
d 2 v x

2
dx 2
dx
d 2v x
1
v '' x
x EIv '' x M x
2
R x
dx

v '' x x
We return to the internal virtual work integration:
L
d v x
L
d 2M
v x dx V x v x 0 M x
M x x dx
2
0
dx 0
dx
L

We plug in the internal virtual work expression into the virtual work equality

L
d 2M
v x dx q x v x dx
2
0
dx
external virtual work

internal virtual work

V x v x 0 M x
L

V x v x 0 M x
L

d v x
dx

M x x dx q x v x dx
L

d v x
dx

q x v x dx M x x dx
L

We evaluate the equation:

d v L

dx

V L v L V 0 v 0 M L

M 0

L
L
d v 0
0 q x v x dx 0 M x x dx
dx
W
internal

Wexternal

This shows the virtual work principle: that the external virtual work is equal to the internal virtual work,
We will show which values are taken from the physical problem in bold and the virtual values are made
up.

d v L

dx

V L v L V 0 v 0 M L

M 0

114

L
L
d v 0
0 q x v x dx 0 M x x dx
dx

We introduce an alternative sign convention and transform the virtual work equation using the
alternative sign convention.

C 0 M 0 P 0 V 0
C L M L P L V L
We sub in the alternative sign convention into the virtual work equation

L
d v L
d v 0

M x x dx q x v x dx V L v L V 0 v 0 M L
M 0

0
dx
dx

M x x dx q x v x dx Pi vi Ci v 'i
L

0, L

0, L

We can show the virtual work principle in a form that is easy to apply given the beam with forces and
moments

i 1

j 1

M x x dx q x v x dx Pi vi C j k

115

Example 1:

Determine the reaction at B

We use a free force diagram and virtual work

i 1

j 1

M x x dx q x v x dx Pi vi C j k
x 0

The internal virtual work cancels because there is no bending radius, since there is no bending.

116

i 1

j 1

q x v x dx Pi vi C j k
L

wexternal Rb L Pa wL 0
2
F

Rb

wL Pa

2
L

The virtual work is defined by the force times the virtual distance,

Example 2:

Determine the internal moment and shear force at point B.

We can determine the internal moment

117

We can break the bar at point B and show the internal moment and shear stresses at point B. we also
want to show the continuity at point B with the following continuity equation

b1 L b 2
We are assuming that the bodies are rigid, and there is no bending, such the internal work is zero

wext Pa1 Vbb1 Vb L b 2 M b1 M b 2 0

wext Pa1 Vb L 2 b 1 2 M b 1 2 0
1

b
2
L b
bL

b
b
b 1

b
1

L b 0
L b
L b

wext Pa1 Vb1

wext Pa1 M b1 1
Mb

Pa L b
L

b
0
L b

Now we break in a different direction to show the shear force:

118

 wext pa M b M b Vbb Vb L b
Vb

Pa
L

i. The principle of complimentary virtual work: principle of virtual forces

Using the virtual forces principle, the following virtual forces can be applied.
We demand equilibrium:

d 2 M x
dx 2

V x

q x 0

d
M x
dx

d 2 M x

q
x

v x 0

d
x

This process is the same as before. We take equilibrium, multiply by the real displacement, integrate
over the length of the beam, integrate by parts twice, and isolate the external virtual work and the
internal virtual work, the solution is shown below:

119

j 1

k 1

M x x dx q x v x dx p j v ckk
The principal is the same as before
We can rewrite the internal complimentary virtual work such that

M x
dx
EI

wint * M x x dx M x
x

M x
EI

Example 1:

Find the displacement at point A using complimentary virtual work

We put a virtual force at point A.

Using the complimentary virtual work principal, we can show:

120

 w*int w*ext
w*ext P A Pv L L Pv ' L
v L 0

v ' L 0

w ext P A
*

M x
dx
EI

w*int M x
L

We calculate the real internal moment using a static analysis on the real problem

M x

wx
2

We calculate the virtual internal moment using a static analysis on the virtual problem

M x Px

M x
dx
EI

w*int M x
L

L
wx Px
PwL4
w*int
dx

0
8EI
2 EI
w*int w*ext

PwL4
8EI

P A A

wL4
8EI

Example 2:

Find the bending angle at point B

We display the virtual problem

121

 w*ext c b
M x
dx
wx 2
EI

L
*
2 dx

int
L /2 EI

w*int M x
L

M x c
wx 2
M x
2

*
int

w c L 2
wx 3

x
dx

c
2 EI L /2
6 EI

w*ext w*int b

c
L /2

wL3 7
EI 48

7 wL
48 EI

122