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17.1
OBJECTIVES
468
17.2
DRAG FORCE
EQUATION
I:)
DRAG FORCE
FD
(17-1)
+ .!!.!. = P.~
2g
Stagnation point
469
Sepa ation point
Turbulent waKe
= PI + ')'vrl2g
+ pvrl2
(17-3)
The stagnation pressure i: greater than the static pressure in the free stream
by the magnitude of the cynamic pressure pvrl2. The kinetic energy of the
moving stream is transfoaned into a kind of potential energy in the form of
pressure.
The increase in pr~ sure at the stagnation point can be expected to
produce a force on the ::Jody opposing its motion, that is, a drag force .
However, the magnitude ::>fthe force is dependent not only on the stagnation
pressure but also on the pressure at the back side of the body. Since it is
difficult to predict the acklal variation in pressure on the back side, the drag
coefficient is typically us;;!d.
The total drag on a :Jody is due to two components. (For a lifting body
such as an airfoil , a fhid component exists as described in Section 17.8.)
Pressure drag (also calloo form drag) is due to the disturbance of the flow
stream as it passes th~ bDdy, creating a turbulent wake. The characteristics
of the disturbance an~ de;>endent on the form of the body and sometimes on
the ReYJ.il.o1c1snllmber of ow and the roughness of the surface. Friction drag
is due to Sihearjog stres~s in the thin layer of fluid near the surface of the
body caned the boundar: layer. These two types of drag are described in the
foDowiDg s:ec(iQns.
17.3
PRESSURE DRAG
As a uid stream flows a:-ound a body, it tends to adhere to the surface for a
portion of the llength of fle body. Then at a certain point, the thin boundary
layer separates from the:surface, causing a turbulent wake to be formed (see
Fig. 17.1). The pressun in the wake is significantly lower than that at the
stagnation point at the t-ont of the body. A net force is thus created which
acts in a direction oppo~ ite to that of the motion. This force is the pressure
drag.
If the point of seIBration can be caused to occur farther back on the
body, the size of the wake can be decreased and the pressure drag will be
lower. This is the reaso for streamlining. Figure 17.2 illustrates the change
470
FIGURE 17.2 Effec t of
streamlining on the wake.
Separation poi nt
in the wake caused by the elongation and tapering of the tail of the body.
Thus, the amount of pressure drag is dependent on the for:-n of the body, and
the term form drag is often used.
The pressure drag force is calculated from Eq. (17 -1) in which A is
taken to be the maximum cross-sectional area of the body perpendicular to
the flow. The coefficient CD is the pressure drag coefficient.
As an illustration of the importance of streamlining, Ihe value of CD for
the drag on a smooth sphere moving through air with a Re ynolds number of
approximately 105 is O.S . A highly streamlined shape like that used in most
airships (blimps) has a CD of approximately 0.04, a reduction by more than a
factor of 1O! (See Reference 2.)
17.3.1
Properties of Air
Drag on bodies moving in air is often the goal for drag afl alysis. In order to
use Eq. (17- 1) to calculate the drag forces, we need to k:1oW the density of
the air. As with all gases, the properties of air change dl:lstically with temperature. Also , as altitude above sea level increases, the -density decreases.
Appendix E presents the properties of air at various tem-peratures and altitudes.
17.4
DRAG COEFFICIENT
The magnitude of the drag coefficient for pressure drag depends on many
factors, most notably the shape of the body, the Reynolds number of the
flow, the surface roughness, and the influence of other bodies 9r surfaces in
the vicinity. Two of the simpler shapes, the sphere and the cylinder , are
discussed first.
17.4.1
Drag Coefficient for
Spheres and Cylinders
Data plotted in Fig. 17.3 give the value of the drag coefficient versus Reynolds number for smooth spheres and cylinders. For spheres and cylinders,
the Reynolds number is computed from l h~ familiar loo~ing relation
NR
= puD
g
vD
(17-4)
lJ
However, the,diameter, D, is the diameter ofth~ body itself, rather than the
diameter of a flow conduit, whi h fJ repres~nted earlrer_
Note the very high values of CD for low ey olds oumbers, over 100
for a smooth sph ~~ at NR = 0.10. This corresponds to motion through very
471
8
6
8
6 I\,
I\.
"
4
2
10
'""'"
Sfhere
r'\.
'\.
r\..
8
6
'\.
"
10
8
6
'"
"'
Cylinder
'\..
I"---.. I--....
-.....;::
i'--
-.;;;;;
t--- :--
8
6
..........
f':
8
6
4 68
10- 1 2
4 68
10
F.eynolds number, NR
10
8
6
8
6
4-
4
Squap- cylinder
8'
6
1'-..
=.
!--t-
-r-- :-
--=
Cyll@:er
8
.........
'"'"
1-
r--
- 6....
Sphere
2
I
1\
rT
1'-
1,.;:
4 68 3 2
10
4 68
2
104
Reynolds number, NR
472
For very small Reynolds numbers (N R < 1.0 approximately) , the drag
is almost entirely due to friction and will be discussed late r. At higher Reynolds numbers , the importance of flow separation and .he turbulent wake
behind the body make press ure drag predominant. The fo llowing discussion
relates only to pressure drag.
At a value of the Reynolds number of about 2 x 105 , the drag coefficient for spheres drops sharply from approximately 0.42 to 0.17. This is
caused by the abrupt change in the nature of the bcundary layer from
laminar to turbulent. Concurrently, the point on the sphe-e where separation
occurs moves farther back, decreasing the size of the wake . For cylinders, a
sirpilar phenomenon occurs at approximately NR = ~ X 105 where CD
changes from about 1.2 to 0.30.
Either roughening the surface or increasing the tUlbulence in the flow
stream can decrease the value of the Reynolds number at which the transition from a laminar to a turbulent boundary layer OCClrs, as illustrated in
Fig. 17.4. This graph is meant to show typical curve sha)es only and should
not be used for numerical values .
FIGURE 17.4 Effect of turbulence and roughness on CD for
spheres .
2\
~\
f-- "'
0.1
1\ !
f---- - =--= ~
Reynolds number, NR
Golf balls are dimpled to optimize the turbulence of the air as it flows
around the ball and to caUs.e the abrupt decrease in tte drag coefficient to
occur at a low velocity (low Reynolds number), resultillg in longer flights. A
perfectly smooth golf Ilall could be driven only about 100 yd by even the best
golfers, whereas the familiar dimpled design allows the average golfer to far
exceed this distance. Highly skilled professional golfers can make 300-yd
drives .(Reference ~).
17.4.2
Drag Coefficients
for Other Shapes
Also shown in Fig. 17.3 is the drag coefficient for a squcre cylinder with a flat
side perpendicular tothe flow for Reynolds numbers fiom 3.5 x 1()3 to 8 x
104 The values range from approximately 1.60 to 2. 1)5, somewhat higher
than for the circular cylinder. Significant reductions car. be obtained by small
473
1.4
\,4
1.3
\.3
1.2
1.1
1: 1 Cylinder ~~ 1.2
r--i-
J.l
1.0
\.0
0.9
0.9
~
v
'0
0.8
0.8
:Bv
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.6
01)
f!
0.5
C==>2:1 Ellipse
0.4
0.3
C=::::>4:1 Ellipse
0.2
0
10 4
1.5
srut
--
==
5 6 7 8 9
0.5
0.4
0.3
--
3:1Navy~
0.1
==
~~
==
==
==
0.1
5
10
1.5
56789
o
10
Reynolds number, NR
But even more ~eduction in drag coefficient can be made with the
familiar "teardrop" siape, also shown in Fig. 17.5. This is a standard shape
called a Navy slrul thet has values for CD in the range of 0.07 to 0.11. Figure
17.6 on p. 476 shows the strut geometry. (See Reference 1.)
Table 17.1 lists values of the drag coefficients for several simple
shapes. Note the orientation of the shape relativ~ to the direction of the
oncoming flow. The CD values for such shapes are nearly independent of
Reynolds numbers be::ause they have sharp edges that cause the boundary
layer to separate at tre same place. Most of the testing for these shapes was
done in the range of Reynolds numbers from 104 to 105
For the square cylinder, semitubular cylinders, and triangular cylinders, the data are fo) models that are long relative to the major thickness
Chapter 17
474
TABLE 17.1
cients
17.4 Drag
C o ~ffic i e n t
475
Note: Reynolds numbers are based on the length of the body parallel to the How direction
except for the semitubuJar cylinders, for which the characteristic length is the diameter.
Data adapted from EugeBe A. AvaIJone and Theodore Baumeister Ill, eds., Marks' standard
handbook for mechanicd engineers. 9th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill. 1987), Table 4, and
W. F. Lindsey, Drag ofcylinders of simple shapes, Report No. 619 (National Advisory
Committee for Aeronautcs, 1938).
dimension. For short cylinders of all shapes, the modified flow around the
ends will tend to decrease the values for CD below those listed in Table t 7.1.
the computation f the Reynolds nUliI1ber for the shapes shown in
Table 17.1 uses the renglh of the body paralfel to the flow as the characteristic dimension for the bqgy. The formula the becomes
NR = pvL = vL
p.,
(17-5)
476
----~+-rrr_-+--------r_------~------_+--~--~~-----D
Hr--------------------L------------------~~
Solution
xlL
0.00
.0125
.025
.040
.075
.100
.125
.200
riD
0.00
.260
.371
.525
.630
.720
.785
.911
xlL
.400
.600
.800
.900
1.00
riD
.995
.861
.562
.338
0.00
Compute the drag force on a 6.00-ft long square bar with a cress section of 4.00 in x
4.00 in when the bar is moving at 4.00 ft/s through water at 40'F. The long axis of the
bar and a flat face are placed perpendicular to the flow.
We can use Eq. (17-1) to compute the drag force:
FD
= C D (pv1./2)A
Figure 17 . ~ shows that the drag coefficient depends on the Reynolds number found
from Eq . (17-5).
vL
NR = - V
where L is the length of the bar parallel to the flow: 4.0 in or ) .333 ft. The kinematic
viscosity of the water at 40F is 1.67 x 10- 5 fe/so Then
= (4.00)(0.333) = 80
N
R
1.67
10- 5
104
X
Then, the drag coefficient CD = 2.05. The maximum area pelpendicular to the flow,
A, can now be computed. A can also be described as the pnjected area seen if you
look directly at the bar. In this case, then, the bar is a rectang e 0.333 ft high and 6.00
ft long. That is,
A
17.5
477
The density of the air is 1.9.1 slugsfft3. Equivalent units are 1.94 lb s2fft4. We can now
compute the drag force:
FD
17.5
FRICTION DRAG.
ON SPHERES IN
LAMINAR FLOW
63 .6 lb
FD
PD )
= CD ( 2
A
NR
vDp
F
D
24JL (PU )A
uDp 2
2
12JLvA
D
(17-6)
When computing friction drag, we use the surface area of the object. For a
sphere, the surface area is A = 7TD2. Then
FD
(17-7)
To correlate drag in the low Reynolds number range with that already
presented in Section !7 A dealing with pressure drag, we must redefine the
area to be the maximum cross-sectional area of the sphere, A = 7TD2/4.
Equation (17-6) then b~comes
ST()J(ES' S flAW
FD
= 12~VA
e~V)(7T~2)
= 37TJLvD
(17-8)
This form fOT tbe drag on a sphere in a viscous fluid is commonly called
Stokes's law. As shewn in Fig. 17.3, the relation CD = 241NR plots as a
. straight line fO-T the low Reynolds numbers.
478
17.6
VEHICLE DRAG
17.6.1
Automobiles
Solution
The overall drag coefficient, as defin~<iLn Eq. (17-1) ba:.ed on the maximum
projected frontal area, varies Widely fof passenger cars... Reference 5 lists a
nominal mean value of 0.4.5, with ~ range of 0.30 to 0.60. Experimental
shapes for cars have shown values as Iow as 0.175. An 2]Jproximate value of
0.25 is practical for a "low drag" design.
The basic principles of dra-g Feduction for automo:Jiles include providing rounded, smooth contoHrs for th forward part; elirrination or streamlining of appendages; blending of changes in contour (sJch as at the hood!
windshield interface); and rounding of rear corners.
A prototype automobile body has an overall drag coefficient of 0.35. Compute the
total drag as it moves at 25 mfs through still air at 20C. Tle maximum projected
frontal area is 2.50 m2
We will use the drag force equation:
FD = CD (p~2)A
From Appendix E, p
FD
= O.J$
17.6.2
Power Required to
Overcome Drag
479
PD
8230 N m/s
8230 W
8.23 kW
17.6.3
Trucks
The shapes commonly used for trucks fall into the category called bluff
bodies. Reference 5 indicates that the approximate contribution of various
parts of a truck to its btal drag are
70 percent-the design of the front
20 percent- the design of the rear
10 percent-friction drag on body surfaces
As with automotiles, rounded smooth contours offer large improvements. For trucks with box-shaped cargo containers, designing corners with
a large radius can assist in keeping the boundary layer from separating at the
corners, consequently reducing the size of the turbulent wake behind the
vehicle and reducing d ~ag. In theory, providing a long, -streamlined tail similar to the shape of an aircraft fuselage will reduce drag. However, such a
vehicle would be too long to be practical or useful. Newer large highway
trucks have drag coefficients in the range from 0.55 to 0.75 .
17.6.4
Trains
Early locomotives hac drag coefficients in the range of 0.80 to 1.05 (Reference 1). High-speed, itreamlined trains can have values of approximately
0.40. For long passenger and freight trains, skin friction can be significant.
17.6.5
Aircraft
As with automobiles, wide variations in the overall drag coefficients of aircraft are to be expected with changes in tfie size .and s ap~!Q aecomm<ldat~
different uses. For subsonic aircraft, the typj~al FOunded r fai rly blUDt-nos~d
design with smooth blends at wings and tail slruct ur~s ang a long-tapered tail
section results in dra~ coefficients f ~pl?rQximateJy 0.1 2 to O. ~ . At super
sonic speeds, the nose is usually snarp to diminish the effec of the shock
wave. Operating at mlch lower speed ~, the aiFsfiip (dirigible or b imp) ha~ a
drag coefficient in the range of 0:04.
17.6.6
Ships
The total res'staAce to troe moti0n of floating ships through water is due to
skin friction , presslJu,e 0r Fmm drag, and wave-making resistance . Wavemaking resistance, a Ja:rge contributor to the total resistance, makes analyzing drag on ps i:!e different from analyzing drag on ground vehides or
aircraft. RefereRce 1 die nes the total ship resistance, R1,f ' as the force required to overco e a l orms 0f drag. To normalize the values for different
480
sizes of ships within a given class, values are reported as the ratio R 1.J11 ,
where 11 is the displacement of the ship. Representative values of R,.J11 are
given in Table 17.2. The resistance values can be combined with the speed of
the ship (u) to compute the effective power required to propel it through the
water:
(17-9)
Solution
Assume that a tugboat has a displacement of 625 long tons (I long ton = 2240 lb) and
is moving through water at 35 ft/s. Compute the total ship resistance and the total
effective power required to drive the boat.
From Table 17.2, we find the specific resistance ratio to be R,,111
total ship resistance is
11
RIS
PE
Using 550 lb-ftls
= RlSv =
= 1.0 hp,
= 0.294
x 106lb-ft/s
we get
PE
17.6.7
. Submarines
= (0.294
x 106)/550
= 535 hp
17.8
481
17.7
COMPRESSIBILITY
EFFECTS AND
CAVITATION
The result s reported in )ection 17.4 are for conditions in which the compressibility of ihe fluid (~sually air) has little effect on the drag coefficient.
These data are valid if the velocity of flow is less than about one-half the
speed of sound in the flllid. Above that speed for air, the character of the
flow changes and the drag coefficient increases rapidly.
When the fluid is <- liquid such as water, we need not consider compressibility since liquids are very slightly compressible. However, we must
consider another phenomenon called cavitation. As the liquid flows past a
body, the static pressuredecreases. If the pressure becomes sufficiently low,
the liquid vaporizes, fo rming bubbles. Since the region of low pressure is
generally small, the bubbles burst when they leave that region. When the
collapsing of the vapor bubbles occurs near a surface of the body, rapid
erosion or pitting results. Cavitation has other adverse effects when it occurs
near control surfaces 0 : boats or on propellers. The bubbles in the water
decrease the forces ex~rted on rudders and control vanes and decrease
thrust and performance of propellers.
17.8
LIFf AND DRAG
ON AIRFOILS
LIFT FORCE
-4
(\
-3
Pressure on airfoil
Dynamic pressure '"
p
pu2
'\
-2
i'--.
'"
-1
o
+1
Upper surface
r--..
i""'--
r-
"'""< V
i""'-
i"'---,
~egative pressure)
~ Lower surface
t ~~t
I
t ~
C---t--
I
Flow
I-- ~
"-.
lift
(positive pressure)
482
The velocity u is the velocity of the free stream of fluid loelative to the airfoil.
In order to achieve uniformity in the comparison of one shape with another,
we usually define the area A as the product of the span of the wing and the
length of the airfoil section called the chord. In Fig. 17 8, the span is band
the chord length is c.
'----/
Span
b
.
Aspect raho = c
The value of the lift coefficient CL is dependent ::m the shape of the
airfoil and also on the angle of attack. Figure 17.9 sho.vs that the angle Qf
attack is the angle between the chord line of the airfoil.and the dir~ction .of
the fluid velocity. Other factors affecting lift are the R ynolds numher"'; the
surface roughness, the turbulence of the air stream, the ratio of th~ velPcity
of the fluid stream to the speed of sound, and the aspect -atio. Aspect ratio is
the name given to the ratio of the span b of the wing to Be chord kngth c. It
is important because the characteristics of the flow Lt the wing tips are
different from those toward the center of the span.
N~
(X
force on airfoil
=Angle of attack
FDi - inducd drag
Flow
483
The total drag on an airfoil has three components. Frictio"n drag and
pressure drag occur as described before. The third component is called
induced drag, which is a function of the lift produced by the airfoil. At a
particular angle of atta( k, the net resultant force on the airfoil acts essentially perpendicular to the chord line of the section, as shown in Fig. 17 .9.
Resolving this force inb vertical and horizontal components produces the
true lift force FL and th( induced drag Fm. Expressing the induced drag as a
function of a drag coeficient gives
Fm = C Di (pv 212)A
(17-11)
ci
CD; = 7T(b/c)
(17.... 12)
FD
= CrApv2 /2)A
(17-14)
As before, the area A :s the product of the span b and the chord length e_
We use two m~t ods to present the performance characteristics of
aiffoil profiles. In Fig. 17.10, the values of CL, CD, and the ratio of lift to drag
FIGURE 1'1.10 Ai
mance curves..
il P!ITfor-
CL
CD
FJFD
2.00 0.4"0
1 I. CD/
~~\~~t I
35
1.50 0.30 f-30
CLI /
j
25 I--FLIFl
1.00 0.20 -20
"
/"
rr--.. v/
I1
'\)<
15,
0.50 0.10 1-\
)/
/
V V-'
/
-,/ I
'{
----5
10
(X,
degrees
-i
'"
~
15
20
r---
25
3o
484
FL/FD are all plotted versus the angle of attack as the ab~cissa. Note that the
scale factors are different for each variable . The airfo I to which the data
apply has the design ation NACA 2409 according to a s) stem established by
the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics . NAC:A Technical Report
610 explains the code used to describe airfoil profiles. :~ACA Reports 586,
647, 669, 708, and 824 present the performance chara::teristics of several
airfoil sections.
The second method of presenting data for airfo Is is shown in Fig.
17 .11. This is called the polar diagram and is constrl cted by plotting CL
versus CD with the angle of attack indicated as points on the curve.
FIGURE 17.11 Airfoil polar
diagram.
19.60 =(1
1.50
1~7
1.00
0.50
It
112.3
r.---r---20.4 0
.............
r-.
124.40
8.20
t 4.10
t-20
0
o
_4 0
0.10
'---
0.20
0.30
o.40
CD
In both Fig. 17.10 and Fig. 17.11 it can be seen tlwlt the lift coefficient
increases with increasing angle of attack up to a poi.t where it abruptly
begins to decrease. This point of maximum lift is called ate stall point; at this
angle of attack, the boundary layer of the air stream separates from the
upper side of the airfoil. A large turbulent wake is creatoo, greatly increasing
drag and decreasing lift.
REFERENCES
1. Avallone, Eugene A., and Theodore Baumeister Ill,
Practice Problems
Truckin'. Mechanical Engineering Maga zine . 110
(8):30-33.
8. Stokes, George G . 1901. Mathema ti.cal and Physical;
Papers. Vot. 3. London: Camlbridge University
Press.
485
9. Streeter, V. L. 1985 . Fluid Mechanics. 8th ed. New
York : McGraw-Hill .
10. von Mises, R . 1959. Theory of Flight. New York:
Dover Publications . (First published in 1945 by the
McGraw-Hill Book Co. , New York.)
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
17.1M A cylinder 25 mm in diameter is placed pe rpendicular to a fluid stream with a velocity of 0.15 m/soIf
the cyclinder is I m long, calculate the total drag
force if the fluid is (a) water at 15C and (b) air at
10C and atmospheric pressure.
17.2M As part of an advertising sign on the top of a tall
building, a 2-m diameter sphere called a "weather
ball" glows different colors if the temperature is
predicted to drop, rise, or remain about the same .
Calculate the [or-ee on the weather ball due to
winds of 15, 30, 60, and 120 km/h if the air is at
Oc.
17.3M DeTermifig thlI terminal velocity (see Section
2.6.4) of q 7J-mm diameter sphere made of solid
aluminum ($pecijic weight = 26.6 kN/mJ ) in free
fall in (a) cas12r oil at 25C, (b) water at 25C, and
(c) air iil2(fC an d standard atmospheric pressure.
Consider the effect of buoyancy.
-1.~ Calculate the moment at the base of a flagpole
base of the cone has a diameter of 2.20 m, calculate the force in the cable to which the cone is
attached.
17.9M A highway sign is being designed to withstand
winds of 125 km/h. Calculate the total force on a
sign 4 m by 3 m if th(! wind is flowing perpendicular to the face of the sign. The air is at -100C.
Compare the force calculated far this prob(em
with that for Problem 16.4. Discuss the reasons
for the differences.
17.10M Assuming that a semitrailer behaves as a square
cylinder, calculate the force exerted if a wind of20
km/h strikes it broadside. The trailer is 2.5 m by
2.5 m by 12 m. The air is at OC and standarr;/
atmospheric pressure.
17.11M A type of level indicator incorporates four hemispherical cups with open fronts mounted as shown
in Fig. 17.12. Each cup is 25 mm in r;/iameter. A
motor drives the cups at a constant rotational
speed. Calculate the torque th(lt the ",otor must
produce to maintain the motion at 40 rlmin when
the cups are in (a) air at 300C and (b) gasoline at
25C.
17.UM Determine the wind velocity required to overturn
the mobile home sketched in Fig. 17.13 ifit is 10 m
long. Consider it to be a square cylinder. The air is
at ooc.
17.13M A bulk liquid transport truck incorporates a cylindrical tank 2 m in diameter and 8 m long. For the
tank alone, calculate the pressure drag when the
truck is traveling at 100 km/h in still air at 00(:.
(Note: For Problems 17.14 through 17.19, the air is at
- 20F and its density is 2.80 x 10- 3 slugs/ft3.
17.14E A wing on a race car is supported by two cylinqrical rods, as shown in fig. 17.14. Compute th!! cirag
.
forte exerted on the car due to these rods when
the car is traveling through still air at -20F at a
speed of 150 mph.
Chapter 17
486
FIGURE 17.12
Drag a nd Lift
Problem 17 .11 .
FIGURE 17.13
Problem 17.12.
_ .----
--y--
2.5 m
3m
75 mm tyP. - - - - - . j
Practice Problems
487
17.19E An antenna in the shape of a cyiindrical rod projects from the top of a locomotive . If the antenna is
42 in long and 0.200 in in diameter, compute the
drag force on it when the locomotive is traveling at
160 mph in still air at - 20F.
17,20E A ship tows an instrument package i~ the form ofa
hemisphere with an open back at a velocity of 25.0
ftls through seawater at 7rF. The diameter of the
hemisphere is 7.25 ft. Compute the force in the
cable to whic the package is attached .
17.21E A flat rectangular plate, 8.50 x 11.00 in in size, is
inserted into lake water at 60F from a boat moving at 30 mph . What force is required to hold the
plate steady relative to the boat with the flat face
toward the water?
1'i.22E The windshield on an antique Stutz Bearcat automobile is a flat circular disk approximately 28 in
in diameter. Compute the drag caused by the
windshield when the car travels at 60 mph in still
air at 50F. The density of the car is 2.42 x 10- 3
slugs/ft 3
11.23E Assume that curve 2 ~n Fig. 17.4 is a true representation of the performance of a golf ball with a diameter of 1.25 in. If the Reynolds number is 1.5 X
105 , compute the drag force on the golf ball and
compare '1 to the drag force on a smooth sphere of
the same diameter whose drag coefficient con-
488
FIGURE 17.15
Chapter 17
Problem 17.16.
: ,1.
Flow
";-"
9.00-in
square
Flow
(a)
(b)
Flow
(c)
"<
square
489
Practice Problems
FIGURE 17.16 Problem 17.18.
K - --
H-- -
56-in di ameter
typical
./""--
1~.28M
r .29M
r.30M
l'.31M
17.32M
4.50-in diameter
typical