Schools of Psychology

When psychology splitted off from its parental sciences Physiology & Philosophy and
emerged as independent science a contradiction aroused between the psychologists
regarding the sc ope, area & subject matter of psychology.
From the late 1800s unit the 1950s psychologists were divided about what they should
study? And how they should study it. As a result, it gave birth to different ideologies.
These different ideologies are regarded schools
School is a group of individuals who share certain fundamentals, methodology or
theoretical points of view

Schools of Psychology
Early Schools Of Psychology

Modern Schools OF Psychology

Early Schools of Psychology

1. Structuralism
2. Functionalism

Modern Schools of Psychology

1.Behaviourism
2.Psychoanalysis
3.Gestalt Psychology
4.Humanistic Psychology
Structuralism
When psychology was first established as a science separate from biology and
philosophy, the debate over how to describe and explain the human mind and behaviour
began.
Structuralism emerged as the first school of thought and some of the ideas associated
with the structuralist school were advocated by the founder of the first psychology
lab, Wilhelm Wundt. One of Wundt's students, a man named Edward B.Tichener, would
later go on to formally establish and name structuralism, although he broke away from
many of Wundt's ideas
These Psychologists believed the chief purpose of psychology was to find the units or the
elements which make up the mind like the way chemists broken down elements into a
periodic table.. The main focus of this approach was breaking down the mental processes

into their most basic components and furthermore to understand how they interact with
each other and how they correlate with physical events.
Conscious experience then is the subject matter of Psychology. But the conscious
experience which takes place within the individual can only be observed by the
experiencing person.
Consequently a special technique called introspection was introduced to observe this
psychological experience. Introspection is a process of having a person "look inward",
focus on, and try to understand the emotion or thought they are experiencing at that
moment.

Its a highly personalised form of self observation in which a psychologist attempts to

study his own conscious experience scientifically, not in the haphazard & dreamy manner
of everyday reflections, but in a detached, objective & systematic manner.

Accordingly Titchner & his associates stated that every conscious experience constituted
of elements called sensations, images and feelings.
The structuralists investigations were restricted only to the conscious experience of
normal adult human beings. Structuralism was criticised for the unreliable nature of
introspection in terms of scientific validity.
Eventually this pitfall caused this way of studying the mind to give way to other
approaches
.

Structuralism
Structuralism was the first school of psychology and focused on breaking down mental
processes into the most basic components.
Researchers tried to understand the basic elements of consciousness using a method
known as introspection. Wilhelm Wundt, founder of the first psychology lab, is often
associated with this school of thought despite the fact that it was his student Edward B.
Titchener who first coined the term to describe this school of thought .
While Wundt's work helped to establish psychology as a separate science and
contributed methods to experimental psychology, Wundt himself referred to his view of
psychology as volunteerism and his theories tended to be much more holistic than the
ideas that Titchener later introduced in the United States. Titchener's development of
structuralism helped establish the very first "school" of psychology, but structuralism
itself did not last long beyond Titchener's death.

Major Structuralist Thinkers

Wilhelm Wundt

Edward B. Titchener
Criticisms of Structuralism

The structuralists investigations were restricted only to the conscious experience

of normal adult human beings.

Structuralism was criticised for the unreliable nature of introspection in terms of

scientific validity.

Strengths of Structuralism

Structuralism is important because it is the first major school of thought in

psychology.
Structuralism also influenced experimental psychology.

Functionalism

Structuralism was soon challenged by William James, and some other psychologist who
felt that their new field shouldn't focus on the structure of consciousness, but on its
Functions.
James was interested to understand the mental process of "Adaptation", the process that
helped the humans (and animals also) adapt to their environment. James said that
psychology should concern with not only what the mind is made of but also how and why
it works as it does. Because of his practical emphasis on the functional- practical nature
of mind the concept of psychology became Functionalism
Functionalism formed as a reaction to the structuralism and was heavily influenced by
the work of William James and the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin.

Functionalists sought to explain the mental processes in a more systematic and accurate
manner. Rather than focusing on the elements of consciousness, functionalists focused
on the purpose of consciousness and behaviour. Functionalism also emphasized
individual differences, which had a profound impact on education.

Functionalism also used the method of Introspection as a tool. Functionalism covered

some mental processes like - Learning, Perceiving, Memory, Thinking, and Personality.

Major Functionalist Thinkers

William James

John Dewey

Harvey Carr

John Angell

Criticisms of Functionalism

"It is literature. It is beautiful, but it is not psychology," said Wilhelm Wundt of

functionalist William James The Principles of Psychology.

Strengths of Functionalism

Influenced behaviorism and applied psychology.

Influenced the educational system, especially with regards to John Deweys belief
that children should learn at the level for which they are developmentally prepared
Structuralism and functionalism had contrasting methodologies, but they were similar in
that they both explore and explain elements of consciousness. They eventually faded,
but these two schools of thought heavily influenced psychology as a science by
pioneering new research methods and alternative lenses through which to view the
human mind and behavior. The ideas presented in these early approaches formed the
foundation for behaviorism, applied psychology, and experimental psychology.

Behaviourism
The term behaviourism refers to the school of psychology founded by John B. Watson
based on the belief that behaviours can be measured, trained, and changed.
He said that Psychologist should study only observable behaviour rather than states of
consciousness or thought process( as the Functionalists & Structuralists were doing in
the previous schools of psychology).
Behaviourism also known as behavioural psychology is a theory of learning based upon
the idea that all behaviours are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs
through interaction with the environment. Behaviourists believe that our responses to
environmental stimuli shape our behaviours

According to Watson, Behaviour is directly affected by stimuli in the environment, and

the major goal of psychology is to identify stimulus-response relationship
Watsons approach to Behaviourism was strongly influenced by the research of the
Russian Psychologist Ivan P. Pavlov.
Watson and the other behaviourists realised that human behaviour could also be
changed by conditioning.
During the mid 1900s, the American behavioural psychologist B.F.Skinner became
known for his studies on how rewards & punishment can influence behaviour. He believed
that rewards or positive reinforcement is more effective in teaching new and better
behaviour
According to this school of thought behaviour can be studied in a systematic and
observable manner with no consideration of internal mental states. It suggests that only
observable behaviours should be studied, since internal states such as cognitions,
emotions, and moods are too subjective.
Strict behaviourists believe that any person could potentially be trained to perform any
task, regardless of things like genetic background, personality traits, and internal
thoughts

Major Thinkers Who Influenced Behaviorism

There are a number of important theorists and psychologists who left an indelible mark on behaviorism, including:

Ivan Pavlov

B. F. Skinner

Edward Thorndike

John B. Watson

Clark Hull

Criticisms of Behaviourism

Many critics argue that behaviourism is a one-dimensional approach to

understanding human behaviour and that behavioural theories do not account for
free will and internal influences such as moods, thoughts, and feelings.

Behaviourism does not account for other types of learning, especially learning
that occurs without the use of reinforcement and punishment.

People and animals are able to adapt their behaviour when new information is
introduced, even if a previous behaviour pattern has been established through
reinforcement.

Strengths of Behaviourism

Behaviourism is based upon observable behaviours, so it is easier to quantify and collect data and information when
conducting research.

Effective therapeutic techniques such as intensive behavioural intervention, behaviour analysis. These approaches are often
very useful in changing maladaptive or harmful behaviors in both children and adults.

Final Thoughts
While behaviourism is not as dominant today as it was during the middle of the 20th-century, it still remains an influential force in
psychology. Outside of psychology, animal trainers, parents, teachers, and many others make use of basic behavioral principles to help
teach new behaviours and discourage unwanted ones.

Psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis was founded by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Freud believed that people
could be cured by making conscious of their unconscious thoughts and motivations, thus
gaining insight.

According to Freud and other psychoanalysts, from early childhood people repress (force
out of conscious awareness) any desires or needs that are unacceptable to themselves or
to society. The repressed feelings can cause personality disturbances, self-destructive
behaviour, or even physical symptoms. Freud said that unconscious conflicts, usually
related to sex or aggression, were prime motivators of human behaviour
He was the first person who includes the unconscious mind in a formal psychological
theory. Freud believed that all behaviours -whether normal or abnormal -is influenced by
psychological motives, often unconscious one. Freud's "Theory of Unconscious Mind" has
a great value to understand the behaviour especially abnormal behaviour.
The aim of psychoanalysis therapy is to release repressed emotions and experiences, i.e.
make the unconscious conscious. Psychoanalysis is commonly used to treat depression
and anxiety disorders. It is only having a cathartic (i.e. healing) experience can the
person be helped and "cured".

Psychoanalysis is a method of treatment that helps people understand themselves, their

relationships, and how they behave in the world. Psychoanalytic treatment is based on
the idea that we are frequently motivated to act by impulses that we dont recognize
because they originate in our unconscious. These unconscious conflicts can create
negative feelings emotions such as unhappiness, anxiety, or depression which can be
expressed in many ways, including self-destructive behaviour, or difficulties with personal
relationships or work.
Psychoanalysis is sometimes called the talking cure because during treatment the
patient is encouraged to talk about everything that comes to mind: their childhood, the
present, fears, thoughts and dreams. Nothing is off limits. Talking like this, with a
psychoanalyst helping to identify patterns and recurring themes, helps people learn how
they came to be who they are and why they do and feel the things they do. It is this
understanding of oneself that paves the way toward the emotional freedom necessary to
make substantive, lasting changes.
The key to psychoanalytic treatment is in the relationship the patient develops with the
analyst. Typically, psychoanalysis involves the patient coming several times a week, lying
on a couch, and communicating as openly and freely as possible.
Psychoanalysis is a collaboration in which the patient and analyst work together to
explore unconscious feelings, thoughts and conflicts through talk.

Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt psychology is a school of thought that looks at the human mind and behaviour as
a whole.
This school took birth in 1912 at Germany by efforts of Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang
Kohler and Kurt Koffka. Gestalt means wholeness. The word Gestalt is German and can
be translated as 'seeing the whole picture all at once. '

Gestalt view of the whole as more than the sum of its parts. Gestalt psychology proposes
a unique perspective on human perception. Essentially, you could say Gestalt
psychologists propose that we don't just see the world as it is; we see it as we are

Have you ever noticed how a series of flashing lights often appears to be moving, such as
neon signs or strands of Christmas lights? According to Gestalt psychology, this apparent
movement happens because our minds fill in missing information. This belief that the
whole is greater than the sum of the individual parts led to the discovery of several
different phenomena that occur during perception. Based upon this belief, Gestalt
psychologists developed a set of principles to explain perceptual organization, or how
smaller objects are grouped to form larger ones. These principles are often referred to as
the laws of perceptual organization.

What are the Gestalt Laws of Perceptual Organization?

The Law of Similarity
The Law of Pragnanz
The Law of Proximity
The Law of Continuity
The Law of Closure
Humanistic Approach
Humanistic Psychology is a psychological perspective which rose to prominence in the
mid-20th century in response to the limitations of Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic
theory and Watsons behaviourism.
Humanistic psychology was instead focused on each individual's potential and stressed
the importance of growth and self-actualization. Humanistic psychology because of its
focus on consciousness and self awareness, is also labelled as phenomenological

The fundamental belief of humanistic psychology is that people are innately

good and that mental and social problems result from deviations from this
natural tendency.

Major Humanistic Psychologists :

Carl Rogers

Abraham Maslow

Rollo May

Methods in Psychology

Psychologists do more than just wonder about human behaviour: they conduct research to understand exactly why people think, feel, and behave the way
they do. Like other scientists, psychologists use the scientific method, a standardized way to conduct research. A scientific approach is used in order to avoid
bias or distortion of information. After collecting data, psychologists organize and analyze their observations, make inferences about the reliability and
significance of their data, and develop testable hypotheses and theories.

Psychological research has an enormous impact on all facets of our lives, from how parents choose to discipline their children to how companies package
and advertise their products to how governments choose to punish or rehabilitate criminals. Understanding how psychologists do research is vital to
understanding psychology itself.