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Biotechnology

Biotechnology refers to the use of living organisms

or their products to modify human health and the
human environment.
The Office of Technology Assessment of the United
States Congress defines biotechnology as any
technique that uses living organisms, to make or
modify a product, to improve plants or animals, or
to develop microorganisms for specific uses.

Biotechnology is Multidisciplinary
Biotechnology is a multidisciplinary subject which
integrates fields of knowledge and applications of
completely different scientific special fields such as:
Genetics
Microbiology
Technical biochemistry
Technical chemistry (Organic, Analytical, Physical)
Process engineering
Cellular and molecular biology

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Timeline of Biotechnology

1869 - Friedrich Miescher, identified Nuclein from

pus cells.
1927-28 - Feulgan, demonstrated two types of
Nucleic acids, i.e. DNA and RNA.
1928 - Frederick Grifith, demonstrated genetic
transformation principle.
1940 -Erwin Chargaff, showed quantitative
equivalence of total purine to total pyrimidines, i.e.
A=T, G=C and A+T = G+C,

Timeline of Biotechnology

1952-53 - James Watson and Francis Crick, a

crowning achievement in proposing a 3-D model of
DNA, a double helix.
1958 - Frederick Sanger, in chemistry for his work
on primary structure of proteins; amino acid
sequence of Insulin.
1962 - Werner Arber, showed evidence for
restriction enzymes; Nathan and H.Smith showed
that restriction enzymes cut DNA in sequence
specific manner; Nobel Prize in chemistry.

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Timeline of Biotechnology

1966 - Marshal Nierenberg, et al. elucidated

genetic code;
1967- Esther Gillert discovered DNA ligase.
1970 - Luis F. Leloir awarded Nobel Prize in
Chemistry, for his work on the role of nucleotides in
carbohydrate synthesis.
1971- Earl Sutherland, Nobel Prize in Medicine
and physiology for their work on the mechanism of
hormone action and cyclic AMP.

Timeline of Biotechnology

1972 - Gerald Edelman, Rodney R.

Porterawarded Nobel Prize in medicine for their
work on the structure of Immunoglobulins.
1972 The DNA composition of chimpanzees and
gorillas is discovered to be 99% similar to that of
humans.
1975 Edward Southern developed Southern
blotting technique.

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Timeline of Biotechnology

1975-75 - Sanger & Barrel, and Maxam &

Walter Gilbert, devised techniques for DNA
sequencing.
1977-78 - Herb Boyer, Stanley Cohen and Paul
Berg, conducted DNA cloning experiments.
1980 Modern biotech is characterized by
recombinant DNA technology. The prokaryote
model, E. coli, is used to produce insulin and other
medicine, in human form. (About 5% of diabetics
are allergic to animal insulins available before).

Timeline of Biotechnology

A viable brewing yeast strain, Saccharomyces

cerevisiae 1026, acts as a modifier of the microflora in
the rumen of cows and digestive tract of horses).
The United States Supreme Court rules in favor of
microbiologist Ananda CHakrabarty in the case of a
USPTO request for a first patent granted to a
genetically modified living organism (GMO) in history.
1985 - Kary Mullis et. al, conducted the first PCR
experiments.

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Timeline of Biotechnology

1994 - U.S. FDA approves of the first GM food: the "Flavr

Savr" tomato.
1995 - Edward B. Lewis, Christiane Nusslein-Volhard and
Eric Wieschaus, Nobel Prize in Medicine and Physiology for
their work on genetic control of embryonic development.
1997 - Rolf M. Zinkernagel and Peter C. Doherty Nobel
Prize for their work on recognition of viral infected cell by
immune system.
1997 British scientists, led by Ian Wilmut reported cloning
a sheep called Dolly using DNA from two adult sheep cells.

Timeline of Biotechnology

2000 Completion of a, "rough draft," of the human

genome in the Human Genome Project.
2002 Researchers sequence the DNA of rice, the
main food source for two-thirds of the world's
population. Rice is the first crop to have its genome
decoded.
2003 GloFish, the first biotech pet, hits the North
American market. Specially bred to detect water
pollutants, the fish glows red under black light thanks to
the addition of a natural bioluminescence gene.

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REVIEW OF ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS

Prof. UREAH THEA A. SEVILLA

ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Organic compounds are the molecules of life
containing the element carbon and at least one
hydrogen atom.
HYDROCARBONS
-are organic compounds consisting of only hydrogen
atoms covalently bonded to carbon.

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HYDROCARBONS
General types of Hydrocarbons
ALKANES are hydrocarbons that contain only single bonds.
Because alkanes contain the largest possible number of
hydrogen atoms per carbon atom, they are called saturated
hydrocarbons.
ALKENES are hydrocarbons that contain a C=C double
bond.
ALKYNES are hydrocarbons that contain a CC triple
bond.
AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS are compounds where the
carbon atoms are connected in a planar ring structure,
joined by both and bonds between carbon atoms.

ALKANES general equation: CnH2n+2

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CYCLOALKANES - General equation: CnH2n

Cycloalkanes are cyclic or ring forms of alkanes.
Example:

C3H6 Cyclopropane
C4H8 Cyclobutane
C5H10 Cyclopentane

ALKENES general equation: CnH2n

Examples: C2H4
C3H6
C4H8
C5H10

Ethene*
Propene
Butene
Pentene

*Ethene or ethylene is a plant hormone which plays

an important role in seed germination and fruit
ripening.

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CYCLOALKENES - General equation: CnH2n-2

Cycloalkenes are cyclic or ring forms of alkenes.
Example:
C3H4 Cyclopropene
C4H6 Cyclobutene
C5H8 Cyclopentene

ALKYNES general equation: CnH2n-2

Examples:
C2H2 Ethyne*
C3H4 Propyne
C4H6 Butyne
C5H8 Pentyne
*Ethyne or acetylene is a highly reactive molecule that
when it is burned with a stream of oxygen, the flame
reaches about 3200K. (oxyacetylene torch used in
welding)

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CYCLOALKYNES - General equation: CnH2n-4

Cycloalkynes are cyclic or ring forms of alkynes.
Example:
C3H2 Cyclopropyne
C4H4 Cyclobutyne
C5H6 Cyclopentyne

AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS
AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS
are members of a large and important class of
hydrocarbons.
The simplest member of the series is BENZENE (C6H6)
Benzene is obtained from the
distillation of fossil fuels and is a
carcinogen (intercalating agent)
which interferes during
replication stage.

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Review of Nomenclature for Organic

Compounds
CH3

CH3

HC
C

H3C

CH3

CH3
CH3

Substituent Groups

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Functional Groups
Some examples of functional groups:

HYDROCARBON DERIVATIVES
HYDROCARBON DERIVATIVES
are derived from hydrocarbons with the replacement of
hydrogen atom with other elements (functional groups).
ALCOHOLS OH hydroxyl group
examples:
CH3OH
methanol
CH3CH2OH ethanol
CH3CH2OH n-propanol
Isopropanol
OH
H3C

CH

suffix: ol

CH3

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HYDROCARBON DERIVATIVES

HYDROCARBON DERIVATIVES

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HYDROCARBON DERIVATIVES

HYDROCARBON DERIVATIVES

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ISOMERISM

Structural Isomers

Structural Isomers compounds with the same

molecular formula but have different bonding
arrangement of atoms.
Chain

differences in bonding arrangement of atoms;

exhibited by alkanes
Example: C5H12

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Structural Isomers

Position differences in position of multiple bonds;

exhibited by alkenes and alkynes
Example: C6H12

Functional differences in functional group

Example: C3H8O

Stereoiomers
Stereoisomers compounds having the same molecular
formula and bonding arrangement but differs in spatial
arrangements of atoms.

Conformational exhibited by alkanes

In aliphatic alkanes because of the allowed rotation
between single bonded carbons, three conformers are
obtained

Can be represented using the Newman

Projection Formula
Example: C4H10

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Newman Projection
Newman Projection Formula of C4H10

Conformational Stereoisomers
In cyclic alkanes because of stability, structure tends to
shift to the nonplanar conformation

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Geometric Stereoisomers
Geometric exhibited by alkenes and cycloalkanes.
Because of the rigidity between doubly bonded
carbon atoms, two configurations are obtained, the
cis- and transCis- or Zusammen (Z) when like atoms (or priority
groups) are on the same side of the plane
Trans- or Entgegen (E) - when like atoms (or priority
groups) are on the opposite side of the plane

Geometric Stereoisomers

Example: C4H8

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Optical Stereoisomers
Optical isomers are pair of molecules having the same
molecular formula and physical properties but differ
on their effect on plane-polarized light.
Optically active compounds:
1. Chirality

Optical Stereoisomers
2. Asymmetry

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Types of Optical Isomers

Enantiomers are pair of optically active

molecules that are mirror-images of each other
and are nonsuperimposable.
Dextrorotatory,

D when plane-polarized light

rotates the molecule in a clockwise direction, (+)
rotation
Levorotatory, L when plane-polarized light
rotates the molecule in a counter-clockwise
direction, () rotation

Enantiomers

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Optical Isomerism

Optical Isomerism
Diastereomers are pair of optically active molecules
that are not mirror-images of each other and are
nonsuperimposable.
CH3

CH3

OH

OH

HO

OH

OH
H
OH
H

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Optical Isomerism

*Mesocompounds are pairs of molecules that have chirality but

because of symmetry, they are considered as optically inactive
and are considered as same molecule.

Optical Isomerism

*Racemic Mixtures when an equimolar mixture of D and

L stereoisomers are present, optical activity is lost.
Example:
50% D-2-butanol and 50% L-2-butanol

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References:

Brown, LeMay and Bursten (2003). Chemistry: The

Central Science, 9th edition, Prentice Hall, Pearson
Education, Inc., New Jersey.
Mortimer, Charles (1986). Chemistry, 6th edition,
Wadsworth, Inc., California
Lehninger, Nelson and Cox (1993). Principles of
Biochemistry, 2nd edition, Worth Publishers, New
York

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