Homogenous: Units of both sides of

equation balances out.

Q aX bY
Q
X
Y
Q

Systematic Error: Results that differ from the true

values by a fixed amount.
Random Error: Results that scatter around a mean
value.

Q aX bY

Q X m Y n

Precision: Agreement with each other.

Accuracy: Closeness with actual value.

Absolute error is in 1 sf
Qty is in same dp as absolute error

v u at

Fractional Error

Fd v

v 2 u 2 2as
s 1 2 (u v)t

Fd v 2

% Error

Q
Q
Q
100%
Q

Thermal Equilibrium: Rate of heat gain = Rate of heat loss

flow of heat

No net

s ut 1 2 at 2

0th law: If A and B are separately in thermal eqm with C, then A and B
U Q W
are in thermal eqm with each other.
1st law: Internal Energy of a system is dependant only on its state. An
increase in the U of a system is the sum of work done on the
Absolute Zero: Minimum Internal Energy at 0K.
system and the heat supplied to the system.
Specific Heat Capacity: The qty of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1kg of the material by
1K.
Specific Latent Heat of Fusion: The heat energy required to
change the state of 1kg of the
material from solid to liquid
without a change in
temperature.
where k is Boltzmann constant
pV NkT

pV
3

kT

Internal Energy: The sum of all microscopic KE

and PE of molecules in the object.
Temperature: A measure of the average KE.

W Fx

Isothermal: No T; pV nRT p 1V
Isovolumetric: No V
Isobaric: No p
Adiabatic: No Q; switches between isotherms

Nm c 2

m c2

Mean KE of molecule

d (mv)
ma
dt
p mv

Impulse

Ft p

Law of Conservation of Linear Momentum:

When bodies in a system interact, the total
momentum remains constant, provided no net
external force acts on the system.

Inertia: A bodys reluctance to change its state of

rest/motion.
Mass: A measure of a bodys inertia.

1st law: A body continues its state of rest of motion or rest unless a
resultant external force acts on it [Inertia].
2nd law: Rate of change of momentum is proportional to resultant force
and acts in the direction of the force [F=ma].
3rd law: If body A exerts a force on body B, then body B exerts an equal
but opposite force on body A [action-reaction pair].

m1u1 m2 u 2 m1v1 m2 v2

For elastic collisions,

u1 u 2 v2 v1
S

Effective weight:
Total force tt obj exerts on a spring
scale.

W pV

Where W = weight
W = effective weight
S = W (action-reaction)
S W = ma

Hookes Law: The extension of a spring is proportional to

the load if the limit of proportionality is not exceeded.

F kx

Work Done
in extending
spring

Fl

kx2

k ( x 2 x1 ) 2

k ( x 2 x1 )( x 2 x1 )

F2

kx2
1

Translation Eqm: Resultant force is zero.

Rotational Eqm: Resultant torque about any axis
is zero.
F

Fx

Couple: Pair of equal and opposite parallel forces

whose line of action do not coincide.

kx1

2 ( x 2 x1 )( F2 F1 )

F1

F
A
p hg
p

x2

x1

( hg) A

hgA
V g

Resultant
Upthrust

N
W

mg
.: Upthrust = weight of fluid displaced
.: Resultant force = W - U

Scalar qty

W Fs cos

Energy: The capacity to do work.

KE: E possessed by virtue of its motion.
PE: E possessed by virtue of its position.
Work-Energy
Theorem

mr 2 G

mv 2 1 2 mu 2

d ( Fs )
Fv
dt

Mm
r2

Mm
2
mr
G 2
r
T
2

Keplers T 2 4 r 3
Third Law
GM
where r = radius of circular motion
M=center of mass of circular motion
2

GPE

GMm
r

Since PE at is zero, and work is done by

gravity to bring an object from to a pt,
hence, GPE is negative [still scalar]
Escape Velocity => GPE + KE 0

If

mv 2
N W
r
mv 2
mg , water will stay in bucket
r
mv 2
N
W 0
r

s r
Rate of of
v r angular
2 displacement
T

Centripetal force:
A force that acts perpendicular to
the direction of motion and
directed towards the center of the
circular path.

v v
v2
a

v
t
t
r

m1 m2
r2
Gravitational Field Strength:
GM
d
g 2
Gravitational force per unit
dr
r
mass
2
h 1 2 g (t )
F G

Geostationary satellite:
Rotates at the same angular velocity as
the Earth, located above the Equator
Gravitational Potential:
The work done per unit mass by an external agent in
bringing a small mass from infinity to that point.

GM
r

x x 0 sin t

a 2 x

2 x0

x x 0 cos t
Vmax x0

x
0

v
x0

2 x0

x
x0

The negative sign shows tt a and x are

always opposite and directed towards
equilibrium.

v x0 x 2
2

x0

SHM is the motion of a body, whose

acceleration directly proportional to
displacement and directed towards a fixed
point.

Displacement

x0

Light: Oscillation decays exponentially.

Critical: Returns to equilibrium v.quickly.
Heavy: No oscillation; returns to
equilibrium v.slowly.

Energy
Total Energy

Ek
Ep

2
1

mvmax

m x0 x
2

m x
2

PE

KE
displacement

x0
Amplitude

Resonance

Total
PE

No
Damping

KE

e
x

mg k (e x) ma
mg ke kx ma
kx ma
k
xa
2x a
m
k
2
m

t
Transverse: Particles of the medium move in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of wave travel.

v f
x

Longitudinal: parallel
A series of high and low pressure regions called
compressions and rarefactions.

P
P
I

Area 4r 2
I kA2 where A is amplitude
>0.1m
0.1m 0.1mm
0.1mm - 700nm
700nm 400nm
400nm 1nm
1nm 10pm
<10pm

wavelength

Radio waves
Microwaves
Infra-red
Visible light
UV
X-rays
Gamma rays

EM waves:
oscillating electric and magnetic fields which are
perpendicular to each other and the dir of wave
propagation.
Polarised: particles vibrate in the same plane.
Stationary wave: Amplitude same.
Frequency same.
Wavelength same.
Direction different.

Principle of SuperPosition:
When 2 or more waves arrive at the same pt at the same
time, the resultant displacement is equal to the vector
sum of the individual displacements due to each wave.
Wave is confined in a given space; no propagation of
energy.
Fundamental Mode = 1st Harmonic [c=v/2L]
Overtone = 2nd ++ harmonic
Stationary waves are formed for which
wavelength:string length = a simple ratio (eg. 3:1)
L

QQ
F 1 22
4 0 r

dV
E
dr
V
E
d
-

e-

P IV

Electric field strength:

point.

Diffraction
Grating

d sin n n

Q It

Ohmic

2L

Current: Rate of flow of charge.

Coulomb: Qty of charge that passes a pt in

a circuit in 1s when there is 1A.

W
Q

Pd: Amt of E energy converted to other

forms when a unit charge passes from one
pt to another. [EMF is reverse]
Volt: Pd between 2pts in which 1J is
converted when 1C passes thru.

V
R
I
R

l
A

Resistance: Ratio of the pd to the current.

Ohm: Resistance of a conductor in which
1A passes thru when pd is 1V.
I

Charge: A fundamental property of matter

tt is ve or +ve and gives rise to E force.

R1
V
V
R

R
2
1

End Correction:
Air molecules are slightly attracted to pipe material,
thus antinode is located slightly beyond the open end.

Electric Potential:
Work done by external force in
moving a unit positive charge from
infinity to the point.
q can be ve or +ve
V = Vfinal - Vinitial

Max Power when

external R = internal R.

Where x is fringe width; dist

between adjacent bright/dark
fringes

Youngs
double slit

V
R
I 2R

Interference:
Superposition of coherent waves from identical
sources to form an observable pattern.
>Same amplitude
>Polarised in the same plane
>Coherent (in phase/constant phase diff)

4L

F
Q
Force per unit charge acting on a
E
2 small positive charge placed at that
q 4 0 r
U q V
Q
V
4 0 r

Diffraction: Bending of waves around the sides of an

aperture. (aperture size should be
comparable to wavelength of wave)

0
Filament

0
Diode

B
B

0 I
2r
0 NI

Flux density from an

infinitely long wire
At the centre of a circular
wire

2r
B 0 nI
B

Unit is
Tesla

F BQv sin

Inside of a solenoid

0 nI

At the end of a solenoid

Faradays Law
Lenzs Law:
The induced current always flows in a direction
to oppose the change that produces it.

[AC Generator]

Weber (Wb)
1

d sin
dt
NBA cos t

2
Br 2
T
BAf sin
1

Velocity Selector
where E is E-field
strength NOT Emf.

d ( BA sin )
dt
d ( Bls sin )

dt
Blv sin [Moving Rod]

I rms

Irms:
The value of the steady current which would dissipate heat at the
same rate in a given resistance as the AC.

I2

I
I02

For sinusoidal only:

Acceleration thru
an electric field

[Rotating Disc]

V V0 sin t

I0

2QV
m
E
BQv QE v
B

mv 2 QV v

sin

I I 0 sin t

I rms

r
2

r
Br
sin
2
1 2 Br 2 sin

Flemings RIGHT HAND to

predict induced Emf.

The product of the area and magnetic flux

d
dt

E Blv sin

d
dt

NBA sin density that passes through it perpendicularly.

NBA

Flemings LEFT HAND to

predict magnetic force.

F BIl sin

Vrms

V0
2

P0
2

I rms R
2

I02/2
I0

When AC flows thru primary, it sets up a varying

0
mag field in core which links primary to
secondary. With Faradays, varying mag field
induces AC EMF across the wire in secondary.
-I0

Vs I p N s

Vp I s N p

Heating effect of
current

Wires of low resistance

Heating effect of eddy

currents

Laminated iron core, cutting

across eddy currents

Heat loss from

magnetizing / reversing
the magnetic poles

Soft, easily magnetized iron

Plost

across cables

P
Rcable
V

Rectification:
Process of changing AC to DC.

mvmax eV s
2

Vs

Photoelectric emission is the

emission of e- from a metal
surface when exposed to EM
waves of sufficiently high
frequency.

Obj B
0

intensity

E hf
hf KE max Work function is the
h

Emission Spectra:
Gas is heated/bombarded with e-. e- are excited,
before emitting a photon. Diffraction Grating is
used to study line spectra.

Relative Intensity

Ka

xp
p

p
xk x

x large
k small

sinusoidal

exponentially
decreasing
region

x
Et

The more localized the wave packet (), the

larger the range of wavelengths (k) needed.

Absorption Spectra:
When white light passes through cool gas, characteristic
frequencies of photons are absorbed. When these excited
atoms return to a lower state, the emitted photons are
scattered in all directions.
.:Dark lines.

Wavelength

X-rays are produced when the incident e- had been accelerated by a high
voltage.
Not all e- are stopped in a single collision => Continuous broad spectrum
Sharp intense lines when e- are knocked out of the n=1 shell.
K-alpha for n=2 to n=1.
K-beta for n=3 to n=1.

Kb

x small
k large

-Vs

Maxwellian model:
There should be measurable time lag between emission and
irradiation.
The max KE of photoelectron should depend on intensity, not
frequency.
Photoelectric emission should occur for all wavelengths since
energy is transmitted in a continuous manner.

min energy to liberate

an e- from its surface

eV s

Obj A

Heisenburgs uncertainty principle

Uncertainty in e- momentum is as large as
momentum of incoming photon
Smallest dist that produces separate image

Energy-time uncertainty

T exp( 2kL), k
Non-zero amplitude
indicates probable
transmission

2m(U E )

R T 1

A microscope is limited in its resolution by the

wavelength of the waves used for the image.
An electron microscope is limited by the low
wavelength, high momentum of Debroglie
.: pentration of the material surface.
STMs limitation is the conductivity of the sample.

Isotopes: Nuclei that have the same proton number but different number
of neutrons.

Laser (read the notes)

Coherent: In phase
Collimated: Same dir
Monochromatic: 1 wavelength

u: atomic mass unit; 1/12th of the mass of a 12C atom.

Mass Defect m: The difference between the sum of the masses of the
nucleon and the mass of the actual nucleus.

m ( Zm p Nmn ) m nucleus

BE mc 2

( Zm p Nmn ) (m A Zme )
ZmH Nmn m A
BE per nucleon

Fe

Conservation of
Charge
Momentum
Mass-Energy
Mass number

Coulomb repulsion > nuclear force

U

Fusion

Fission

H
Radioactivity is the random and
spontaneous decay of an unstable nucleus
to a more stable one by emission of
particles and/or radiation.
Random: Dont know which and
when a nucleus will decay
Spontaneous: Not affected by other
environmental factors

Mass no, A

particles

Helium-4 nuclei
High Ionising Power

Background radiation is systematic

error.

dN
N
dt
N N 0 e t
A
t 12

Air range of 3 - 4cm

Stopped by paper
Low hazard unless ingested
Moderate Ionising Power
Stopped by 5mm of Al
High speeds (0.5c)
Stopped by surface tissues
Produced when excited nuclei
Stopped by few cm of lead
returns to ground state
Main radiation hazard due to
Weak Ionising Power
deep penetration
Cancer, leukemia, cataracts,
hereditary defects
Store in lead containers when not in use.
Handle with a pair of tongs.

Decay Constant is the probability of decay of a nucleus per unit

time.
Where N is the no. of undecayed nuclei.
N

dN
N A0 e t Activity A, is the rate of decay. (Bq)
Where A0 is the activity at t = 0.
dt
ln 2
Half-life is the time it takes for half of

N 1

N0 2

Constant
half-life

a given no. of nuclei to decay.

n

Where n is the number of half-lives.