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FrankE.

Guthrie

Pesticidesand Humans

23.1. Introduction

The very fact that millions of pounds of toxic chenicals are apnlied directly for
control of noxious organisms, some of which have physiological ar-rdbiochemical
features not unlike those of humans, is sufficient reason for concern among
health authorities over possible acute and chronic effects of pesticides. The
recent trend toward greatly reducing the use of persistent, fat-soluble chemicals
and substituting morc transient ones has caused a drastic slrift in associated
health problems, although sizable quantities of toxaphene and endrin are still
used on agricultural crops and dieldrin-related compounds are used for termite
control. As chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides are beine replaced by organophosphate and carbamateinsecticides(cholinesteraseinhibitors), the problems of acute toxicitv have tended to increase as the problerns of chronic toxicity
decrea:c. This change in potentla.lhazards has not received aCequateconrnent
in recent environmental texts, which report the health problems associatedwith
chlorinated hydrocarbons as a current rather than a rapidlv declining problem.
Health problems may be due to acute effects (primarily accidents)and chronic
effects (long-term exposure to small quantities, with food residues the primary
concern) of pesticicles.One or more Poison Control Centers (associatedwith
hospitais) in each state, EPA Community Pesticicle Safetv Programs (and
successc)rprogranis), which are regional progranrs clirccted to rL-search,and
federal ancl state agricultural extension F,rogramshavc beerr established to trea,t
th e s ep ro b l e rn s .
Important legislation concerning pesticide safetv hi,rsbeen passed bl' federal
anc-lstate governments. These regulations lvili be onlr brieflr' r.nentionedin this
chapter .rs thev relate to specific problems. Chapter 35 is ccrncerneclwith legal
aspectsof environrnental contamination, and the interesteclstr-rdcntshould also
coirsult the appropriate referenceat the end of this chapter.

F. E. Guthrie

300

23.2. AcuteHealth Hazards


Despite carefully -arritten instructions on the label of every pesticide container,
some 50-60 persons are fatally poisoned by pesticides each year in the United
States, and there have been some poisoning episodes in other parts of the world
involving hundreds, and even thousands, of persons. It is an axiom among
public health pesticide safety specialists that for every reported nonfatal poisoning, there are some 10-15 not reported. Legislation may drastically reduce
accidents (particularly gross ones), but total avoidance seems impossible.
A very large segment of the population has access to potentially dangerous
chemicals for pest control even though recent legislation has imposed a number
of important restrictions on availability, especially in household situations.
The toxicities of pesticides vary tremendously; the LDro varies from a few
milligrams per kilogram to several grams per kilogram (Table 23.1). The
compounds that have been of most concern are a relatively small group of
organophosphate and carbamate insecticides, although pesticides in use before
L945 also contribute substantially to acute accidents. Some rather gross accidents
lnve resulted from the misuse of certain metal-containing fungicides. Most
deaths caused by herbicides (much less common than deaths caused by
insecticides) have resulted from accidental ingestion of paraquat or arseniccontaining compounds (Table 23.2). Misuse of insecticides is the major cause of

Table 23.1 RelativeAcute Toxicitiesof Pesticidesby Categoryof Use


Percent of compounds with oral LDro
(mgikg) for rat in the range
Pesticide
category
Herbicides
Organophosphates
Other insecticides
Fungicides

Total
N o.

c,50

70
56
49
22

52
24
5

51-250

251-1254

Jt

23
24
50

1J

13
9

Soure: Edst:n,E. F., et al. World Rev. PestControl 4:36,1965

Table23.2 PesticidePoisoningsby Maior Category


Pesticidecategory

No. of Poisonings

.).)
303s

Pesticide combinations
InsecticiCes
Rodenticides
Fungicides
Herbicides
Animal repellents
Insect repellents

1535
119
267
198
LCO

Soura; Data from National Clearinghouse for Poisons Control Centers Bulletin, Sept.-Oct., 1972
Nofe: Nearly 70% of poisonings

reported

occurred

in children

under

5 years of age..

>1250
55
2
34
36

Pesticidesand Humans

pesticide poisoning, and rodenticide poisonings, not surprisingly, run a close


second.
The hazards from acute toxici$ of pesticides differ greatly among the
hazards
occupational and nonoccupational groupr expcsed. The occupatiorlal
insecticides'
In the
today primarily are related to the use of organoph-osphate
to
is
unrelated
ingestion'
usually
,-,or-ro.c,rputionalgroups, accidental exposure,
importance'
use, and the other chemical classesare also of

23.2.L IndustrialWorkers
the protection
As the manufacture of pesticidesis controlled bv large industries,
as regulated
hygienists
industrial
bv
of workers is normally carefuily monitorecl
studies of
of
(osHA).
A
number
Act
by the occupational safety and Health
type,
(DDT,
dieldrin
insecticides
of
*lo.kers neavlty exposed to several groups
relatively
the
during
problems
any
reveal
to
u.,J o.gunophosphates) have failed
are carefully
short d5 years) iime period of those studies. Synthetic Processes
appreciable
against
guards
surveillance
health
controllei, and routinl safety and
is.enproblems
of
potential
detection
direct contact with pesticides. Prompt
workers
which
in
instances
rare
the
In
nature.
acute
sured, especially thoie of an
an element of
in controlled situations showecl adverse effects, there was usually
instructions'
adequate
had
received
carelessnessby a worker who
to
There have been some rather dramatic, although rare, exceptions
.this
poisonings
worker
50
nearly
of
case
well-authenticated
A
record in recent years.
insecticide,
in a poorly supervised factorv preparing a moderately toxic
of a
(15
workers)
episode
weli-documented
a
leis
and
chlordecone (Kepone),
(not
leptophos
more sophisticated plint operation invoiving the manufacture.of
cases,severe
In
both
reported.
been
have
ljnited
States)
in
the
fermitted for sale
were reporiect'
neurological symptoms occurred among workers, but no deaths
judge the record of safe
Despite"these"atypical episodes, one would have to
toxicity, especially in
manufacture of pesticid", u, u"ru goot-l in regard to acute
light of the potential hazards and the tollnage of chemical product.
"Th" probi"m of chronic toxicitv is not s6 well understood, although several
to both persistent
studies on the long-term health effects on persons exposed
results' Hownegativc
and nonpersistent insecticides har"e tvpicailf ieported
pesticidedirect
of
length
the
ever, the number of subjects in the siuclies and
to draw
sufficient
benot
may
associated work activity among these workers
in the
least
at
involved,
force
long-term conclusions.'the mJiiitY of the work
potential
this
of
examination
Crrit"a States, probably precludes an adequate
probably rely most heavily
chronic hazardund asslsi*ent ot this probiem will
on laboratory animal studies'

23.2.2.Formulators
A l th o u g h therew ereal argenunrber.ofsmal l formul ati ngpi antsft" :P .tl"q
majority of all finished
finished formulations durin[ the pc:iocl 1950-1965, the
industries'
large-formulating
few
a
bv
ur" ,-ro*, pro.1uce.1
festlciae concoctions
in eviprecautions
few
safety
relaiivelv
were
b.rri.,g the early period, there
to.appreciable.expodence, and in some cases these workers were subjected
defunct chlorinated
now
to
ihe
exposure
irom
sures. The possible chronic effects

F. E. Guthrie

302

hydrocarbons by that highty exposed, casually monitored worker class must be


viewed with some concern. A few accidents in formulating plants were rePorted
each year throughout the United States during this improperly supervised era,
but the total numbers were surprisingly low when one recalls the often complete
disregard for toxicity of these compounds during formulation- The amount of
DDT components in body fat of high-exposure gIouPS was determined to be
35-600 ppm (1100 ppm in one individuai; in contrast to 12 ppm found in the
general-population during that period. In more recent years, in the more
Iarefully regulated large formulating plants (subject to OSHA regulations), the
risk to workers has been reduced by a considerable degree.

23.2.3.Applicators
It is in this group of 5 x 106 plus individuals that the greatest acute hazards
exist, and the problem is primarily that of dermal toxicity. The education and
farmers, commercial
training of the members of this group-housewives,
applica-tors,regulatory workers, scientists, etc.-differ enormously. Recent EPA
regulation hal attempted to ban the more dangerous pesticides (category I
pe*sticides)from availability to some members of the group (particularly housewives and home owners), but there has been no workable solution to the
potential hazards manifest in applications of hrghly toxic compounds by many
poorly educated farm workers, even though they may be "certified applicators."
in or.ler to perrnit the farm workers to use the pesticides necessary to their
business enterprise, some method of registration was necessary, and, as many
of these persons have minimal formal education, certification procedures were
greatly simplified in many instances. A combination of extensive educational
prog.utnr and availability of less hazardous formulations is expected to reduce
icciilents in the coming years, but the potential is evicient. A recent study has
shorvn that nearly 3000 farmers and agricultural workers are hospitalized from
pesticide poisoning each year, orimarily due to organophosphate insecticides.
The study further showed that the incidence of hospitalized pesticide poisonings
in this group increased trom6.711.00,000in 197'1,to9.3in7972, and to 11.4 in
1973, probably a reflection of the shift from chlorinated hl,ilocarbon to organoohosohate insecticides.
The majority of agricultural lands are treated by aerial applicators, whose
level of education and training should make them a less accident-prone group'
Studies in past years showed that an alarming number of aerial applicators have
reduced cholinesterase levels (from exposure to organophosphate and carbamate insecticides) thai might preclude normal functioning during flying.
Strenuous legislation, especially by state governments, has reduced this potential prcblem. The workers loading the planes are exposed to high concentrations
of sbme very toxic insecticioes (particularly with low-volume applications), and
accidentsare not infrequent among this group.
t)ne large group of applicators that has been closely monitored over the past
30 years is the World Health Organizaiion (WHC) crews involved i;r sprai'ing
insecticides to reduce the incidence of insect-borne disease. Through careful
cholinesterase monitoring procedures, large-scale studies have distinguished
those compounds that can be safely applied and those that have tended to
reduce
Ievels; the latter are no longer used. During their earlier use of
"t'tiy*"

Pesticides and Humans

303

chlorinated hydrocarbons this group also received careful supervision; it was the
most closely monitored large applicator group in high contact with these
compounds with questionable chronic effects. Thus, through a large-scale
program supervised by adequate technology, this interuational group of
applicators experienced minimal deleterious effects from the use of insecticides.
Studies with these high-exposure groups are especially important in detecting
any adverse effects, as they would first be found in such groups. Using this as a
"sensor" population, possible adverse effects on the total population should be
quickly detected. Experience with this highly exposed grouP is a major reason
the official WHO policy has not favored the ban of chlorinated h;'drcqtt6..
insecticides.

23.2.4.NonapplicatorAgricuituralWorkers
Much concern has been expressed in recent years regarding worker exposure to
previously treated foliage during crop harvest or other work activities not
directly related to application per se. As a result of certain well-publicized
accidents on the west coast of the United States, the establishment of reentry
periods has been offered as a solution to the problem. Following apphcation, a
minimum number of days must pass before workers are permitted to enter fields
to harvest and perform other activities" Federal standards were established at 48
hr as the minimum period for the most toxic insecticides, and less dangerous
compounds have a 24-hr reentry intervai. However, in California (where over
90oh of the accidents have been reported) the reentry periods are much longer,
over 3 weeks in some instances. Worker activities that are most suspect when
pesticides are applied during critical cropping periods include citrus fruit, glaPe,
tobacco, and sweet corn harvesting, peach thinning, and professional scouting
in pest management programs. Although over 500 poisoning cases have beer-r
reported in the United Sta.tessince 1960, only 1 death has been reported. In this
case, reentry periods for parathion were ignored, and a grower permitted
tobacco harvesters to enter a fielc'l treated less than 24 hr before. The reentry
restrictions have been directed to cholinesterase-inhibiting insecticides only;
worker activity in the chlorir-iated hvdrocarbon era was never regulated by such
standards, although several monitoring stutlies were conducted (see Section

23.3.3.).
23.2.5. Accidental Poisonings
In a complex socie[,', a nurnber of poisons may become available to individuals
and groups who themselves are not actuaily involved in using the chemical.
Pesticidepoisoning acciclentsare somen,hat more common than food poisonings
i n th c U n i ted S tates.Th,,' scacci dt' rrtsrange from acci dentali ngesti on, spillage,
suicide attempts, anc-la varietv of cither exposure situations. Although srricide
attempts in the Uniter-i States represetlt Iess than 10o/oof fatal poisonings
(primirily in Florida), world r,vitlethere were 500 suicides involving parathion
annually during 1955-1960: this rate is now much reduced due to stringent
legislation. The number of poisonings with pesticides world wide was recentlv
estimated to be 500,000h,ear,ancl slightlv over 1% were believed to be fatal. This
estimate is not derived from verified records in most countries and can onl-v be

304

F. E. Guthrie

considered tentative. Although U.S. records of pesticide poisonings are better


than those of most countries, it is not mandatory to report poisonings in most
states(Caiifornia's excelient reporting system is an cxceptionl, and estinaies are
primarily based on reports to Poison Control Centers. Although the number
varies each year, there are approximately 6,000-10,000 reported pesticide
poisonings each year. The yearly mortality rate has decreased markedly over the
past 10 years-from over 150 to 50 or less. (The ratio of nonfatal to fatal cases is
slightly less than 100:1). The u.s. nrortality rate from pesticide poisonings is
about 0.25lm x 106, which is 100-400 times less than that in underdeveloped
countries but slightly higher than that in Europe.
Nearlv one-half of the pesticide poisonings in the United states involve
children under 5 years of age. Although many strch accidents involve careless
storage of synthetic insecticides, a number of accidents are attributable to
exposure to inorganic insecticides (materials available before 1945). In ghetto
areas esPecially, a frequent method of pest control involves arsenical baits,
which are at least as attractive to infants as thev are to the pests. In the past 5
years the iatal accident rate has dropped signifiiantly due to greater restrictions
on the purchase of pesticides and their application. Recently there has been a
trend toward decreased accidental poisoning in large cities (reflecting inaccessibility of most dangerous insecticides in urban areas) and an increased incidence
of poisoning in cities of less than 2500 (where conventional channels are in more
common use).
Many episodes of poisonirrg have occurred rn areas outside the United States
where pesticides were accidentally incorporated into foods (Table 23.3). In
Mexico,16 persorls were kilied and more than 500 made ill when parathion was
mistaken for flour, and similar accidents have been reported with endrin (690 ili
in Qatar) and other pesticicies.The rvidesprea.i poisoning episode (450 killed
and at least 6500 made ill) resulting from the use of mercury-contaminated seed
grains in Iraq illustrates the attributes of such episodes. After the seeds of wheat

rypidemicsofAccidentalPoisoningsbyPesticides,1g4v1g75
Compound
Methylmercurl'
En d r in
Pa r a th io n
Parathioh
Pa r a th io n
Ethylmercun'
Sodium fluoride
Pa r a th io n
En d r in
Endrirr

Pe sticid e
cl:ss
F u n g icicle
In se cticid e
lrrsecticide
In se cticid e
ln secticide
F u n g icid e
In se cticid e
ln se cticid e
In stcticid e
I rrsecticide

Cause
Mixed with food"
Mlred with food
Mixed with food
lJncertain
Uncertain
Mixeci with food
Eeting formulation
Mixed with food
iVfixeci with food
Mixed with foodb

Total
poisonings

D eaths

vear

6530
697
600
559
350
327
260
200
183
159

459
24
88
16
102
35
17
8
2
0

Iraq,7973
Qatar,1970
Colornbia,1967
Mexico,1968
India,1958
lraq, i961
U.S A., 1943
Egvpt,1958
SaudiArabia,l9b7
Wales.1956

Location and

Soure: Data from lJaves,W. J. Toricology of Pesticides.@ 1975,The Williams & Wilkins Co.. Baltimore.Used with pemission.
"Seed grain (labeled "POISON") sold for consumption.
bFlour shipped
in railroarl cars contaminatecl 2 months eariier by insecticicle spill.

Pesticides and Humans

305

were treated with an organic mercury fungicide for control of soil diseases of
newly planted grain, they were sent to Mexico. The bags were clearly marked as
unfit for human consumption and bore the familiar skull and crossbtnes Doiso.r
designation. A number of bags entered iirternational tracie and were eventually
sold for human consumption in lraq. The final purchaser was unable to read the
warning labels, and the skull and crossbones were not a warning signal in that
culture.
It is predicted that pesticide use will increase appreciably with attempts to feed
a bwgeoning world population. This increase will undoubtedly result in
increased accidents, especially where populations are relatively ignorant of tne
hazard. There are areas of the world, Central America among ihe most studied
recently, where wealthy planters apply large quantities of toxic insecticides
within the immediate vicinitv of native premises. Thus, the problem appears to
be both ignorance on the part of the applicators and peasants, and apathy on the
part of those who should act more responsibly. For example, well-authenticated
statistics show that in El Salvador (a country of 4 x 106 people) the rate of
poisoning (Table 23.4) is over five times that in the United States, and
organophosphate insecticides are the primary offenders.

23.3. ChronicHealth Hazards


'

After application, a pesticide may remain in or on a surface for varying lengths of


time depending upon the opportunity for metabolism, photochemical degradation, weathering, or substraie binding. These residues present a possible.h.orlr.
(rarely acute) hazard to animals consuming treated parts, to invertebrates and
vertebrates living in treated areas, or, in the case of certain residual herbicides, to
sensitive plants introduced into the soil rnany months after trealment. Other
chapters are devoted to the effects on insects, birds, fish, and mammals; thrs
discussion is limited to the effects on humans. We must recognize that overuse
of chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides has resulted in a residue problem of
such magnitude that essentiallv everv living creature on the planetias detectable quantities of DDT or other chlorinated products, even in areas ser,eral
thousands of miles from sites of application. Detectable amounts of such
residues are expected to remain ir.il'.umans for one or lnore decades.
Legislation directed to controiling the problem of synthetic pesticide residues
on food was enacted in the United States and many other countries early in the

Table 23.4 Pesticide-CausedPoisoninss in El Salvador


Year

1,963
7964
1968
1969
1970
797r
7972

N onfatal cases

1104
965
938
5U3
141

586
2787

Fatalc as es
ll

7
I
7
7
10
5

Sourct: Daies, J. Proceedings of the 10th Inter-American Meeting on Foot and Mouth Diseases and Zymoses
Control. Pan American Health Orsanization Sci. Publ. 3::8, pp.79-t!6,7978

F. E. Guthrie

306

1900sand has been quite rigorous since 1960. The major international otganizations, FAO and wHO, have also been active in circumventing a possible
pesticide residue problem by providing guidelines and expertise to underdeveloped countries.
Although a sizable number of peopie are exposed to pesticides by virtue of
their wori activity, the vast majority-of the population will not be exposed to
(Table
appreciable q.runiiti"r of pesticides unless they consume treated food
ZS.S).It is very important to ensure that residues in food are in quantities known
to be safe. Titis discussion will be concerned with U.S. legislation, which is
similar to that of other developed countries. However, it must be recognized that
at least 50% (and more likely zso/o)of the world population is not protected by
such legal regulation. It is fortunate that many of these countries use little
insecticide bul unfortunate that some do use sizable quantitites of insecticides
without adequate governmental supervision.

23.3.L. PesticideResidueTolerances
In the United States, several federal agencies cooperate in establishing pesticide
these
residue tolerances on food (the EPA has final authority). Establishment of
are
tolerances is a very time-consuming and expensive task; specific details
the
available in the literature listed at the end of the chapter. Simply stated,
experigovernment permits a residue estimated to be safe, based on scientific
a
contain
tolerances
ir,rents, for consumption over a lifetime. Most residue
differanimal
and
f0O-foid (or greaterj safety factor to account for individual
ences. Contrary to the belief held by several well-meaning, but sometimes
a
cmotional, environmental groups, the steps leading to the granting of
background
of
years
5
at
least
tolerance are very carefully controlled and require
data. Tolerances are transiated for the farmei, who reads on the pesticide label
-fhus, the potentially
that he must wait a certain number of days before harvest.
by the time of
levels
to
nontoxic
toxic residue must dissipate after application
(Figure
23.1).
curve
harvest, as illustrated by the residue disappearance
The FDA enforces this legislation by periodically sampling a portion of food
Although most states also have residue laws,
shippecl in interstate .o-ttt"t.e.

Table 23.5

Sources of DDT Intake in North America

Source
Fooci
lr4iscellaneous (house dust,
co sm e tics,e tc.)
Atr

\{atcr
T o ta l
Acce p ta b leve a r ly
in ta ke ( F AO/WF iO) for 70-kg man

jj
l

D D T i ntake
(mg/year)

30
5
003
0.01
35
255

Source:Kraybill, H.F. Significance of pesticide residues in fmds in relation to total environmental stress. Originally
putlished in Can. Mcd. Assoc. J. 1'ffi:2M,Jantary25,1969.

r'
j

307

Pesticides and Humans

pplicotion

lf ioleronce

lo

2 ppm,

t h e g r o w e r m u s i d el o y

s o p p e or o n c e
for pesticide

horvesi for 5 doys

R E SID U E

f o l l o w i n g o p p l i c o l i on

O N C R OP

l o m e e t t o l e r on c e
requirements.

(p p m)
5

lo

ll

D A Y S A FTE R TR E A TME N T
Figure 23.1 Translaiio;-rof pesticidedisappearancecun/e to han'est waiting period to
peimit growersto comply with federalpesticideresiduetolerances.

they are not as rigorously enforced, and food in intrastate commerce is less well
monitored.

23.3.2. Monitoring Programs


There are a number of monitoring programs in the United Statesdirected toward
dctccting pesticide residues in nonhuman populations (especiall','fish, birds,
and certain mammals), in water and air (these programs have shown that
current pestici.-lelevels do not present a health hazard), in food, ancl in hurnans.
The most important human studies have been concerned with monitoring
residues in the food, the fat, and the serum of the human population. Several
heavily populated countties in other parts of the world have similar Programs._
In the United States, two food sampling procedures are primarilv usec'l.Il-rthe
market basket method, a typical family's weekly supply of foocl is anal','zedfor
pesticide contenl. In the second method, a ineal purchased at a restaurant ls
inalyzed. Table 23.6 presents some of the data and includes tvpical intakes anc-l
amounts designateclacceptabledaily intakes by FAO/WHO.
The conclusion one mr-istdraw is that nearly all food consumed irr the United
Stateswas contaminated with one or more chlorinated hydrocarbons before the
drastic curtailment of their use. However, the vast maiority of the pesticide
residues in food were well within the acceptable limits established by FAO/
WHO. It shoulc'l be noted, however, that some food residues (dieldrin, for

F. E. Guthrie

308
Table 23.5

Comparison of Daily Intake of Selected Pesticides in the United States with


FAO/WHO Acceptable Intakes
Intake (mg/man/da.')

Pesticide

1965

Arsenlc
Br o m id e s
L in cla n e
DDT a n d DDE
Die ld r in
Carbarvl
Dia zin o n
Malathion
Parathion
2 ,1 - D
Dithiocarbamates

0.069
27
0.004
0.049
0.005
0.150

0.005
0.026

7966

0.005
15
0.004
0.069
0.007
0.026
0.001
0.009
<0.001
0.002

1968
0.03
20
0.005
0.043
0.004
0.007
<0.001
0.010
0.001
0.001
0.005

0.14
28
0.003
0 034
0.004
<0.001
0 003
<0.001
0.001
0 003

FAO/VVHO
1969

0.075
0.057
17
16
0.00
0.001
0.027
0.025
0.00s
0.005
0.003
<0.001
0.001
0.012
0.013
<0.001
0.001
<0.001 <0.001
<0.001

Source: Hayes, W. J. Toxicology of Pesticides. @ 1975, The Williams & Wilkins Co., Baltinore.
"ND:

1970

acceptable intake
(mg/70-kg marVday)
NDO

70
0.88
0.35
0.007
0.7
0.74
1.40
0.35
ND
7.75

Used with pemission

not determined.

example) were uncomfortably close to accepted standards. Since the use of


chlorinated hydrocarbons has been greatly restricted, the residue levels in food
have dramatically decreased. The residue s of insecticides that ha';e replaced the
chlorinated hydrocarbons (organophosphates and carbamates) have been consistently low-at least an crder of magnitude below acceptable daily intakes. In
many casesthey are below detectable levels.
A second major area of study has been the qtrantities of insecticides found in
fat samples procured from selected populations. The resrrlts presented in Figure
23.2 f or DDT components in body fat of the U. S. population and in Table 23 .7 for
levels of other chlorinated hydrocarbons in hunran body fat in many countries
show that these levels did not reach alarming proportions. As would be
xpected, residues of organophosphates and carbamates have not been detected
in fat tissue. This is a reflection of the rapid dissipation and lack of propensity for
fat storage of the heavill' used organophosphate and carbamate insecticides.
Potentially "tissue storable" pesticides containing lead, mercury, and other
elements have not been found in significant anrounts because they are not
applied to crops in direct consumption.
It is interesting to note that average levels in the U.S. population had reached
approximately 12.5 ppm DDT components (and smaller amounts of other
chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides) in the 1960s, but levels have declined in
recent years. Highly exposed groups har-].about three times the average level of
DDT in their fat, and one apparently healthy formulator had over 1100ppm. As
these fat-soluble, persistent compouncis are not readily subject to metabolism, it
is expected that DDT components will not decline to levels lower than 0.5 ppm
until 1985(Figure 23.2).
The data for DDT components can be somewhat misleading without an
explanation of the contribution by DDE. This compound represents about 75%
of the DDT components in human fat. It arises primarily as a contaminant in
technical DDT, thus its most irrrportant route of entry is consumption of
DDT-contaminated food. It is also a minor component of DDT metabolism.

309

Pesticides and Humans

E
o
r
ul
2

z
F
E
r

s*{i,3,xig,"

t!,
(J

z
()

| 970

YEAR
in body fatof general
of concentration of DDT-derived materials
t*ieure 23.2 Trend
',i;'u;il;
DDT and DDE at no

;";i"fi"

.f

s;i";

of
and proiecteddisappearance

ir,take level.

if dietary intake were


Although most DDT would be eli:ninatedin 1-2 decades
50 years'
over
require
eliminaied,eliminaticn of DDE would probably

23.3.3.EpidemiologicalStudies

of grea_tpesticide use have been


studies on sizable populations living in areas
the existence of long-term
denv'
or
conducted to obtain evidence to support'
concerns the so-called
stuciv
known
best
health effects of pesticides. Perhaps the
20 or more pesticide
arba,
study
large
very
Mississippi Delta population. In that
now their substiniatotuttois.
applications p", y"ui (first the chlorinated
i"9
close proximity
in
is
which
of
much
land'
tutes) are commonprace on ug'ic"ltural
population have
this
of
segments
of
Studies
to residences u.,a poprrtui"d"ut"ur.
school
ricords' leave ibt"ttt"t'
included medical examinations, employment
h-aye
actions that may
!e9n
records, and a battery of questions direcied to subtle
that the health of the
concluded
far
thus
have
caused by pesticidesl the stuaies
population has not been affected'
-1600persons in an agricultural
I. a differen, ,yp" oiri"dy, a group of nearlr,
if enz'me levels in farm families
area of California was studied to determine
families (potential
(potential direct exposure) differed from those in ironfarm
clifferer-rcein cholinesterase
indirect erposure). A very small, but significant
be considered unimportant by
levels was noted; this difference would pr:oUuUtu
the enzyme decline in the farm
the majority of informed scientists.Nonetheless,
that the physiology of the grouP
io*ify g.o.rp was significant, which suggests
exposure was manifest' The
was altered despite" the fact that onljr" casual

310

F. E. Guthrie

Table23.7

Representative Concentrations of Chlorinated Hydrocarbons in Bodv Fat of


General Populations of Various Countries
Level in body

Country
North America
Canada
U,S.A.

South America
Argentina
Venezuela
Europe
Denmark
England
France
West Germany
Italy
Netherlands
Middle East
Israel
Asia
India
Japan
Oceania
Australia
New Zealand

Year

BHC
isomers

7966
7962
1964
7967
7970

0.07
0.57
0.60

Dieldrin

Heptachlor
epoxide

0.14

0.10

0.22
0.11
0.29
0.27
0.18

1967
1.964

2.44
0.16

0.38
0.60

019

1965
1964
7969
1967
1970
7966
7967

0.02
0.29
1.79
0.45
0.08
0.11

0.68
0.20

c.47

0.72

<0 u001

1964
1972

7.43
0.72-1.28

0.04
0.13

0.02

1966
7966

0.68

0.67

002

'1968

0.20
0.21
0.16

0.21
0.08

;
0.03

;
0.01

0.3s

Source:Hayes, W. j. Toxicolc6;- of Pesticicies.@1975, The Williams & Wilkins Co., Baltimore. Used with permission

significanceof these small changes is controversial, but the data shoulci not
be
ignored.

23.3.4.Concernsfor the Future


The evidence that pesticiciescan have severe detrimental effects on humans
is
undeniable. The lack of education concerning the safe handling of pesticides,
especiall)' the lower socioeconomic group in the united states, ii a
major
problem that must be corrected. Moreover, if sizable quantities of pesticicles
ire
to be manufacturecl or purchaseci by underveloped countries, the necessary
educational programs rnust be ir-rstitutedbefore widespread applicatiol of toxic
materials is unde rtaken. Even in developed countiies, ur",^uttit,-r.le persists
among too manv individuals that one can take some risks. Thus, ii
seems
debatable whether governmental regulation in the United States will
enable
much further reduction of tire llumber of accidental deaths, a remarkably
low
number (50iyear) at present (Figure 23.3). "No risk,, legislation seems
to be
nearly impossible, but hazards that can be controlled must be.

Pesticides and Humans

TLl

lrl
F
Jl
trl

c
I

UJ
ol

9Y
oZ
HH
L

g.

ul
(D
f

z
1960

t965

t970

t975

YEAR
Figure 23.3
1950-1974.

'

Trend of mortality

due to pesticide poisoning

in the United

States

The problem of chronic toxicity of pesticides on food would appear to have


been largely circumvented b1, the substitution of degradable, nonpersistent
conrpounds tor those now considered to have been potentially hazardous. This
does not erase the problem of a very sizable poprrlation that had extensive
exposure to chlorinated pesticides for a period of 15-20 years. Latent action from
these compounds, if it exists, will probably persist for another decade. A
consicierable body of evidence from experimental animals suggests that such
actions are unlikely. A recent report of the National Cancer Institute suggests
that DDT is not a carcinogen, refuting some earlier studies. The proposed
increases in pesticide use as a maior tool for increased food production must,
and undoubtedly will, be closely monitored, and the fact that individual
pesticiCes, or groups of pesticicles, may have effects not yet detected will
continue to warrant ccnsideration bv toxicologistsand governments.
Although this chapter has been concerned with hazards of pesticides, the
benefits from pesticides regardir-rghuman health should not be overlooked. The
ability to control vector-borne diseases bv pesticides (a recent development) has
saved hundreds of thousanclsof lives and hundreds of millions of illnessesfrom
malaria alone since 1945, ancl similar contributions have been made toward
controiling other diseases. A significant contribution to the world population
problem has resulteclfrom this area of r.liseasecontrol.

SuggestedReading
Da vie s, J. E., Ed mundson, W. F. E pi cl enri ol ogr.'ofD D T. Mount K i sco, N .Y .: Futura, 1972.
Ed wa r d s, C.A. P ersi stent P esti ci des i rr the E rrvi ronmerrt, second edi ti on. C l evel and:C R C P res s ,
7974.
Environmental Protection Ageno'. Pesticrtles: A Legal Cornpilation, Vols. 1-4 plus supplements
Wa sh in g to n ,D .C .,7973 (and other vears).

F. E. Guthrie

Hayes, W. J. Toxicology of Pesticides.Baltimore:Williams& Wilkins, 1925.


Jager,K.W. Aldrin, Dieldrin, Fndrin and Telodrin: An Epidemiolcgicaland Toxicologicalgtudy of
Long-TermExposure.Amsterdam;Elsevier,1970.
Milby, T. H. (Ed.). OccupationalExposureto Pesticides,Report to the FederalWorking Group on
Pest Managementfrom the Task Group on OccupationalExposureto Pesticides.Washington,
D.C.,1974.
Morgan, D. 8., Roan,C. C. The metabolismof DDT in man. EssaysToxicol.5:39-97,7974.
U. S. Public Health Service.Vital Statisticsof the United States.Washington,D.C.(seeappr:opriate
vear).
Worta HeattnOrganization.SafeUse of Pesticides.20th Reportof the tV.H.O. ExpertCommitteeon
Insecticides.w.H-o. TechnicalReportSeriesNo. 513,Geneva,switzerland,1973.
World Health Organization. Information circularson the toxicity of pesticidesto man. Geneva,
Switzerland(many circularsavailablefrom \tsC/TOX series).

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