AVIATION METEOROLOGY IC Joshi Group Captain (Reta Himalayan BooksAA Himalayan Books Presentation . Published in 2006 by Pawan Chowdhr and Bhupinder Chovedbe {for Himalayan Books, New Delhi 110013 Distibured by ‘The English Bool Store 17, Connasghe Circus, New Delhi 71000 “Tek 2341 7126,2341 503], 2341 7936 Fax: O9T-1125417931 Email info@engishbookstorein IC Joshi (Group Caprain Rex) First Published 2007 Second Ediion 2008 First Reprinc2009 Third Econ 2010 ‘ltighs reserved. No patrof his publication may be reprodaced ot form or by any means, electronic of mecha information storage and etievl ste, ‘Typeser by Mindways Design Princedand Bound ae ‘Thakur Enterpcises, Defi ISBN 81.7002.099.9 onaiitted in any nies, eluding phorocopy, ecording or any without the written permission ofthe publisher Dedicated to My parents, family members and specially to Mehak, Uday, Nitya and GauriCONTENTS Acknowledgements Preface 1. Atmosphere 2, Atmospheric Pressure 3. Temperarure 4 Air Density 5. Kumidicy 6 Winds 7. Visibility and Fog 8. Vertical Motion and Clouds H° Sability and Instability of Atmosphere 10., Cptical Phenomena W Precpication Te Ice Acceetion Pz Tndersorn 1 tir Masses Fronts and Western Disturbances Ife Jee Streams Ge Gear Aic Turbulence 17% Mountain Waves 18, Aiopical Systems 1%” Climatology of India 20,_General Cirewlation 2." Moterotogical Services for Aviation 22. Weather Radar and Met Satellites 23, Mec Insteumenss 24 Station Model xi sx 2 36 40 6 B 93 100 105 10 136 143 145 150 164 181 188 198 206,Continrs Aviation Weather Reports and Codes of Metar Speci and Trend Aviation Weather Forecasts (Codes of Aerodrome Forecast, Area Forecast and Route Forecast) 27. Radar Report, Sigmet Message ancl Satellite Bulletin 28. Plight Forecast (Tabular Fors) and Cross Section Forecast of Route Conditions (Samples) Re Appendix A Meteorological Charts Appendix B Satellite imageries Appendix C Synoptic Chart (Computer Plotted) Appendix D Clouds Appendix E Abbreviations in Weather Bulletins Rainfall Distribution and Intensicy Appendix F ICAO Abberviations Appendix G Plotted starion models for practice Appendix H-1 Mean Sea Level Pressure Analysis Appendix H-2 850 hPa Winds Appendix H-3 850 hPa Streamline Analysis Appendix H-4 500 hPa Contour Chart Appendix H-5 300 hPa Winds Appendix H-6 Prognostic Significant Weather Chace Appendix ‘Weather Associated With Fronts 17 BI 250 253 255, 237 258 260 266 268 270 mm mm 273 Contests Appendix J Synoptic Systems Appendix K Fajita Scale of Tornado, Saffir-Simpson Scale and T Chsification of CS Appendix 1 International Station Code Names “Appendix M Miscellaneous Terms Appendix N Meteorological Scales and Meteorological Divisions of India Index References 74 26 m7 278 279 281 286ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ‘My sincere thanks are due tothe trainees of Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Uran Akademi, Racbarali (UP) for inspiring me co compile this book. The add questions chey and other stidents used to ask from time to time, made me 10 refer to the available literature in Meteorotogy in vations libraries, websites and Publications of IMD, WMO and ICAO, ‘Thanks are due to my daughterin-laws Vibha and Abha for helping me in ccomputerizing the text, rables and diagrams, “Tomy wife Kamla and sons Jten and Pankaj for encouraging me to write this book. ‘Lasc but nor the lease to thanks to Mr B Chowdhry of English Book Stores for ‘motivation and valuable suggestions. AIC Joshi)PREFACE Meteorology is che science of atmosphere. All weather activities occur in the lowest portion cf the atmosphere, called che Troposphete, Inernational snd local flying activities are confined to chis vegion only. An aviator has, thezefore, 10 understand the weather phenomenon which occur in the region and influence Air Operations. This book dealsin brief with che various aspect of weather which are essential for anaviator, The Definitions, Terminology, Codes used in he book are based on the standacd publications of World Met Organisation, International Civil Aviation Orgnisation (Annex 3) and India Meteorological Deparment. ‘The chapters cover syllabus prescribed by the Director General of Civil Aviation (lndia) for Pilots and by she Chatrapati Sahu Ji Maharaj University, Kanpur for BSc (Aviation), Breqaently asked questions by the trainees and their answers have also been included. Important chapters like Met Services for Aviation and Aviation Codes are considered useful for che trainees to interpret Met information provided to them by the Met Oftces. ‘The compiler of this| book has experience in Aviation Meteorology, of about 34 years jn the Indian Aic Foree asa Forecaster and asa Met Instructor, He has served for seven years as Ground Instructor (Aviation Mer) and for one year as Chief Ground Jnstractorat India Gandhi Rashtriya Uran Akademi (GRUA),Fursergang, Racbareli ‘UB which isa premier and reputed Flying Akademi in India for imparting teaining to the Pilots and to the BSc (Aviation) students, The author has closely observed the weather fom the ground and equally from the at. Some of che material inthe book is his own experience and some from the interaction with the air crew and their debriefings,Presace {cis hoped chat the book will be of ave and guidance forthe aspiring plos, BSc Aviation) seudens, for those appearing in various examinations fo licenees, and for the Mer personnel. The contents of this book are intended to be of general guidance and are nar to be quoted as authority Readers are advised to cefer tothe original documents and standard books on metcorology and IMD web sites wwsimd.gov.in or \wwizmausam.gotin for detailed information, Suggestions for improvement ate welcome Encouraged by the response for the book from CPL/ATEL aspicens, Met pesonnel and aviators, the Third Edition, «revised and improved version, of the book is presented. ‘his Thitd Edition and one Reprint in three years period is elear indication of its Popularity and usefulness. tn facta personal copy of the book would be useful throughout the career of an Avincox (IC Joshi Group Caprain (Red) March, 2010 E-mail: icjoshi@yahoo,com 1 ——— ATMOSPHERE COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE ‘moves with the earth at th limits, However, a very la kilometers of the surface. Characteristies The atmosphere has weight and hence exerts \ Pressure. It is compressible and Expandable, It occupies space and has no defini shape. Ics mobi which \tansfer cf heat and moiscure occurs, Composition A Ait isa misceof ges. Forall practical purposes dey aria uniform mixture ofthe followings gases: Nicrogen 78.0896, Oxygen 20.95%, Argon 0.93% and Carbon dioxide 0.03536, Tiaces of. Neon, Helium, Methane, Krypton, Nirows Oxide, Hydrogen, Ozone (000000768) and Xenon,AVIATION MirtoRoloc? Narogen ancl Oxygen constinte almost 94 of test. Theis atiobypropotion Nitrogen: Oxygen Nitrogen: Oxyge 1 by Volume 3:1 by Weight Due co rapid reduction of gases with height, supplementary Oxygen is needed above 10,000 ft, ‘The atmosphere is generally well mixed. Iehasa neatly similar composition up to 3 height of about 80 km, dve to earth gravitation. The atmosphere up to 80 km 's called the Homosphere and above it the Hetcosphere. At about 20-25 kin, however, cere is high concentration of Ozone. Important Variable Gases. In addition to the above gases the armosphere also contains: Water Vapour, Carbon Mono Oride, Suiphor di Oxide, and Nitrogen di Oxide, These gases vary in amoune from place to place, being conceatrated more in industial areas, cites having heavy vehicular traffic, wacer bodies, et, than in open areas. Though very small in quantity, Water vapour, CO, and Ozone ace very significant for weather ard life, They cause green house effect which keeps the earth warm ‘These gases are also known as Green House gases. Ozone procect us from the ill effects (lke skin cancet) of Ulta Violet cadiation from the Sun Dry Air and Saturated Air Worer in the atmosphere can exist in shtee stares-solid (Snow, Ice, Hail), liquid (Drizzle, Rai, Shower) and gas Water Vapour). The concentration of water vapour Fapidly decrease with ligt The amoune of Water vapour that ait an coaiain largely depends on is temperature, Waemer aie can hold greater amouint of water vapour “The water vapout amount can be as much a 496 in the ttopics (region between 23 4 N co 23 9), and almost negligible in the Polar regions or higher altiudes above 30,000 fe, due co very low remperarutes ‘With 4% water vapour the air termed a5 Saturated Ais and has 100 9 Relative ‘Humidity (RH). When RH is < 1009 the aris Unsaturated and is called Dry Air. ATMOSPHERE Carbon Dioxide (CO,) GO, is produced by burning of fuel, wood etc. Its concentration i substantl in industa areas wheres in Polar regions andhighealttdesi ineligible. A large amount of CO, i dissolved inthe oceans. Plantsabsotb CO, use itscarbon as food and release 0, into the atmosphere, Ozone (0,) Ozone forms in the upper atmosphere, [c absorbs the Ulta Violet (UV) tadiation from the Sun, and raises temperacace. O, molecsles then become heavier and sink and accumulate in the lower levels. Appreciable ozone is found becween 10 and $0 4m, with maximum concenccation at 20 to 25 kn, Ozone Hole. In cecen times the O ayer has thinned and large holes have developed ‘nainly over tie Polar and other latimdes due to atmosphericpollation and exceesve itse of Chlorofluoro Catbons. Solid Particles Im addition othe above gases the atmosphere contains patieles such as sale from evaporating sea water, dust from arid regions, industrial and similar other Pattcles They obscure sola radiation an affect visibility and temperature. They alto actas nudei which promote condensation of water vapour, prematurely. In lager cts and industrial areas frequent fog and smog amisture of fog and smoke) is due to che high concentration of such particles. Green House Gases ‘ater vapour and CO, absorb certain wavelengehs of teresral (act) edition, and reradiare hem towards the cath. They cause gceen house effect, which Keeps the earth warmer chan it would have otherwise been, Water vapour, CO, Ozone and some other gases are called Green House gases. These are causing Global ‘Warming, which isa serious theeat to our life and needs to be mined. Vertical Distribution of Air Mass Dueto gravitaionlanraction, the approximate dstbusion of itmass with height: \ 2 of the ait mass is contained below 6 km, 3/4 below 10 km and 99 % below 35 km 3AWATION MeTEOROLOGr THERMAL STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE Solar rays eat he earth and the eatthin urn heats up the atmosphere by condition, The ha intion and tcleese of acon beat by condensrion of water vapour. ‘The flow of heat from the earth sucface to she atmosphere is due to: Sensible Heat (Conduction, Convection, Radiation) 23% Latent Heat (Evaporation, Condensation, Sublimation) 7% Due to absorption of solar radiation, ry bo x too fos Poe a 8 t 2 vf e ‘ & F 5 |] y & © 5 5 ’ & + 2 e ® F 14 00 hase 7 Temperatut lemperature gore 1.1. Thal Srretre of tospey 4 ATMosraie os: not coninue ithe ond of the atmospher. Ther arechangesin the temperature in vations Inyers of the atmosphere, Saelit¢ and Space flights have confiemed that based on temperature distribution, she atmosphere has ceasonably well defined horizontal ayers, as follows Troposphere unst,is “Toposthere isthe lowest portion ofthe amosplere, Itextends o 16-18 km over the Equi and 810 km over the Poles. l this layer the temperatures generally als with heighe, called lapse rate, ae about 6.5°C/km, However, in the nancy Btmospbere the lapse rate could he quite differnt I ‘may fall or rise wich height {inversion or remain he same (isothermal). Teoposphere generally unstable, Mose of che weather is coofined to this region and ss theAying. About 7096 of ce ‘atmosphere lies within troposphere, The Troposphers from surface o 2:1 km scaled Lower Teoposphere, 2.1 km to 7 km Mi Troposphere and 7.6 km to tropopause Upper Toposphere, The equator is much warmer than the poles, and tropopause is much higher at ‘avaror. Hence warmer the surface higher isthe height of the tropopause ‘Thesolarcadiation heat up che earth surface, which n urn eas the lower: atmosphere. Also the suface hot asses up and transfers heat che atmosphere by conduction convection, radiation and release of lateht heat due to condensation, The atmiosphere is thus heated from below and not from above, and temperature falls wath, bight. Zhe wor! tropos mesns tesing and the fequent overuring couses weather, "amely th gusts, bompines clouds chanderstorms rn, depressions eylomee ec ‘Tropopatse It isthe top of she troposphere and marks the boundary between ¥ropesphre and searosphere, At chs level the lapse rate eeduces to 1.2°Clkm ay teberarce stops falling wit eight. Above tropopause he temperate ae higher Sarthe oles than over the equator. Thus, thee is reversal of temperature ed density above 8 km. 7 Sometimiesthere ate tivo o¢ more tropopause, one overlapping the other. The height © of ttopopeuse varies season to season and also from one synoptic situation to the other. ~ There arebreaks in topopause,at differen levels, t about 10" stand Gd lat, where Jetstreans occur. These breaks broadly divide the ropapatse into tee sections, 5AYEATION METEOROLOGY Polar Tropopause. This occurs near 300 hPa level polewards of Lat, 45° to 60°. It may be noticed oceasonally over Scinagae Jammu and Rashmit) dusing winters when polar aie incursion takes place. The Polat Front Jor Stream is found at che southern end of this Tropopause, at the break, ~ ‘Tropical Tropopause, This s usually at 100 hPa level. [c extends from the equator to Lat. 35°-40°. Over India itis found ar about 16-16.5 km, Above this there is inversion Middle Tropopause, This occurs nest 200 hPa and is sandviched beoween the Polar and Tropical Tropopause. in India it occurs over the extreme N at about 11.5 km with temperature of bout 45°C. Iemay be noticed as south as 23°N in winters. The ‘Sub Tropical Je: Streams found at de break between Middle and Tropical Tropopause Stratosphere The layer above the cropopaus, up 1 50 km, isthe stratosphere Initially for 8-10 km the layesisisothermal. Above this height temperanire increase slowly and then sharply towards the cop cf the layer, The rie in temperature is due to the absorption (of UV tays by ozone and oxygen, Stratosphere isa very scable region with ow humidity and no weather. Nacreous Clouds or Mother of Pearl Clouds, ae seen infrequently in upper stratosphere in higher latnides in winters. They ae probably composed of ice crystals and wacer vapour. Stratopause. itis the upper boundary of the Scretosphere. Mesosphere It extends from Straropause to 80 km. Lack af absorption of solat radiation and weak vercical mixing causes temperaruce ro all with height inthis layer. On rare ‘occasions Noctilucent Clouds are seen inthe upper Mesosphere at about 80 km, inPolar regions. These clouds cate probably composed of ice rystals or supercooled ‘water droplets. ‘Mesopause The top of the mesosphere is mesopause. At this level temperatures stop falling, ‘The Lowest temperatures, about-90* C, inthe atmosphere occur at Mesopause, Araosoene Thermosphere ‘Thermospbereextend from Mesopause to the outermost fing of the atmosphere, imovhich temperatures increase with height, Icisalso called dhe Exhosphere. In thie layer the airs very thin and few molecules are present. These molecules may he very activeand have very high zemperanae, Bu since these ae few and are fa pit, ‘ety litle heats present in this layer. At 200 km temperature is about 600° C and uring sunspocmaxima about 2000° C. In ths layer UV and X rays cause ionisation ‘of gases, andthe portion above 60 kin called the Ionosphere, The density of fons increases with height, being maximum at 250-500 km, Tonospherc is important for radiowavepropagation by reflecting them back to the earch and propagating them hundreds of kilometers away from theic origin. Serious incerference in radio Prorogation occurs daring solar disturbances, during which ther. ofcadio waves, absorption (Note:The Tropopaus, Stratopause and Metopaase mee represent zones berveen the layers where vertical temperatutedistibusion changes. The above verical temperate distibntion 'sofan average mosphere. n day today stations canbe quite ferent due vo the systems Uke eyciones, sit pollution, clouds, thunderstorm, feos, dew, Volcanic Ath ete) International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) A standard average atmosphere has been specified for various purposes like che design and testing of aircraft, evaluation of aircraft performance, calibration of altimerers, tc. fis a hyporhetial atmosphere, which approximately corresponds to the average state of the atmosphere. The most widely used atmosphere i the one defined by the ICAO, known as the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA). Its specifications are: + Airis Dry * Temperature at Mean sea level 15°C (288.15 K) + Pressure at Mean sea level 1013.25 ha + Density at Mean Sea Level 1225 g/m? + Acceleration due to gravity 980,665 cms + Lapse rete up to 11 km 65°Ckm ‘Temperature is assumed constant =56.5°C from 11 km to 20 km. From 2¢ km to 30 km thereis a tise of temperature at the rate of 1°C/ km ‘with a temperature of 44.5°C ac 32 km ?AVIATION METEOROLOGY ISA Deviation: For evaluning srerat performance or making corrections to inseruments, the acwals are compaced with ISA values called ISA Deviation, Ifthe observed temperature is 08°C warmer than ISA, the deviation is + 08°C, (To find ISA Deviation subtract ISA value from Actual value) Jet Standard Atmosphere (JSA) ‘TheISA values ate quite satisfactory for areraft operating below 30,000 fy btr not ‘hove this level Fo spare lights and ver high ltude yingand engine mantacning actional specif values are requted. Tomeetthes requirements SA wasinroducee, as follows : + Mean sea level temperatuce 15°C (288.15°K) + Lapse Rae 2°C/ 1000 fe + There is no Tropopause QUESTIONS ON ATMOSPHERE QU. Lowese layer of stmospnere is (8) Troposphere —(b) Tropopanse (© Statosphece QL Height of Teopopause at equate is nnn (2) 10-42 kn ©} 1618 km. (9) 12.14 km Qi. Heighe of Tropopause at Poles is .. 4 (A) 1214 be (b) 12.13 lem {9.0810 km. QA. Higher the surface romperatute essonee Would be the tzopopause (a) Higher ©) Lower (0 Some QS. Height of tropopause... (2) Is constanz (0) Varies with alrde —@) Yaves with Laveude 6. Above 8 km che lower temperatures are OVEE nue @) Equator (0) Mid Lartudes ) Poles QF. Atmosphere is heated bY veces (©) Solar Radiation (b) Heat from earth surface (c) Froty above QB. Topas MEIN eens (9) Taroing (©) Under current (0) Convection Atwosriene @. CO, and H,O ate ako called {0} Green House Gases b) Rate Earth Gases QUO. Troposphere is general (A) Sable (6) Unsable te) Newt QU. Statsphere iso. (6) Unsable (6) Neural (0) Stable 12 Tropopause is discontinuous st abOWE seve. fa) 30" ©) 4tae 2 60" Q13. Most of armospherie mass is conned i seams (0) Toposphere, —_(b) Stratosphere (6) Hetcosphere QU. Scccosphere extends fom Tropopstse 10 sa (@) 50 kim (8) 60 km 6 40 km US. The nile srmosphere Iyer with temperaace version and sabi . (8) Tioposphere (8) Tropopase (0) Sratosphete QUE, Motter of Peat clouds o6C2" i sue (0) Mesosphere - (6) Thermospere 0) Seavosphere QU7. The temperamte ia ISA at 17 Kim is an 6) 565% ) 855°C (355°C U8. By weighs, approximate ratio of O, to N, in the atmosphere is. en 14 (ots 19. By velume, the approximate ratio of O, to N, in she atmosphete 6 oso \o 13 wi us 20. By velume, the proportion oF CO, in the stmosphete i ees... (3% (8) 0.3% {© 0.0389 Q21, in TSA, the mean sea level cempeasure iS occ, misc lec fo 25 Q22, Maximum concentration of ozone is at a . (2)10-15 km (by 20-28 km (©) 3035 km 23. Additinal oxygen is needed while fying above ‘Ga $000 fe (b) 7000 feAVIATION MetzonoiogY Q24. CO, and H,0 keep the amosphere (a) Wares (b) Cold (9 Have no effect Qa Bp Noctcen clouds ose in Aa # () Thermosphere —(b) Mesosphere {© Steaosphere Qu 226. Temperature at 2 km is OS°C wha i ISA deviation, Hine + (Aeral — ISA) Aa (@ -05°C 07 C lO) 03°C ax 27. Pestare st MSL is 1002.25 hPa Find che ISA deviation Hin + (Aaual = SA) Aa (0) -11 hPa (b) 10 Pa f) 12 hs (226: In actmal atmosphere temp. at 19 km is -6"C. Find the ISA deviation? fase } -05.5° ¢ 2 asc 29. Nacteous clouds occur in 7 (@) Thecssosphere —_(b) Mesosphere (2) Upper Sreatosphere (Q30, The atmosphere upto 80 kn has a weal sila composition and i called the Homosphere, is usiform composition is due «0 {) Pressure b) Grovitarion of earth (c) Mixing due to turbulence 51. Half of the atmospheric ait mass is conesied «.suw below 40) 20,000 ft & 15,000 fe (4 0,000 ft (32m jet standard atmosphere the Lapse Rate is (@) 25°C 1000 f(b) 2°C / ken (98°C J km 83. The rate of fa of emperacces with heighy, called (9) isorbermal rete (b) Inversion Rate 46) Lapse Rate Q34.In acral atmosphere the lapse rate could : 3). assame any vahie 6) fall up to 8 km ise up co 5 li)assume any vals ¢b) fall up to 8 ky (ise up 0 50 kn BS Topical Tropopaise extends fom the equator o Lat, 35-407. Over Inn itis fetid at about wasn ABOVE this there is inversion. (@) 20-21 bm (0) 215 km (9) 16-16.5 kmanswers 10 15 28 « 16 29 7 30 b 18 3t ATMOSPHERE ANSWERS 9 2 7 b 20 33 ry a 4 2 35 10 23 " 242 a ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE Static and Dynamic Pressure ‘The Air pressure changes cause cas to pop up when traveling over significantly “arring topography and ducing rapid descent of an arco Relationship beeween Pressure and Altitude Roughly hPa change in pressure is equivalene to: -aMSL 7H a 20,0008 sof at 2000 fr 30 ft at 40,000 fr 100 &. R ATMOSPHERIC Pressune Vertical Variation of Pressure 100 ken} inkm ékm Pressure-——————_. Figure 2.1 Variation of Pressure with Heighn ‘The presure decreases with height, ata decreasing rat, from sea lave to 600 m a #94 to 15 ke at 3% and up to 3 kin 2.564. Ac 6 km ie reduces co hal the walueatsea level. AC 100 km it is negligible and can be regarded a6 vacenn Fect per hia change of pressure = 96 T / p feet Using above equation, a pressure changes of 1 he at pressure 1000 hPa with temperature 300K, would be: 96*300/1000 = 28.8 fr ‘Variation of Pressure in Warm and Cold Air ‘arm alti les dense than the cold. The presue wil als faster pace over sand lum of sie than over a warm column oft, presse value sy 850 ‘ia, willbe ata higher heighe over a wasm column chan over a calf column, see Figure 22. Thesefore where upper ac mean temperstures ate higher upper at Dresuresare high and where mean temperatues ace lo, the upper aie prevores arelow, BAVIATION MetzoRoLogy coup | OR aso ane 5000 seta asst sso ne coun eto bes 1000 43 Con wan Isa, Isobarc Levels are at Lower Height over Cold Colin than over Warm Column Hence at higher Levels Low Over Cald Column aud High over Warm: Coburn Figire 2.2 Variation of Pressure in Wa and Cold Air Semi Diurnal Variation of Pressure ‘The atmospheric pressure follows a wavy pattern doting 24h, showing maximum 1000 he (primary) and 2200 he (secondary) and minimam at 0400 hr and 1600 hr local time, as shovn in Figure 2,3 The variation could be as much as 3-4 hPa between maximutn and minimum. Such variations ate very small at the Poles an) large at Equavot due to solar influence tis of ise importance in mid and high lnvitades, being overshadowed by the cravelling weatier systems. la low latitudes itassumes considerable importatice, ‘When the temperature is highest in the afternoon, the density of ait close to the round is lov. Hence he pressure slowest. Atabout sunrise when the temperature is lowes, the pressure is highest. Thece is however, a phase difference of about 3 hour berween the temperature and the pressure. A departure from these regular oscillations is often an indication of tte approaching bd weather! storm, Semi diurnal vaiation of presureis probably a nacualoscilaon of she atmosphere, having a period of almost 12, hours. Iris excited and maintained! by the temperature ‘Variation during 24 hr, As the air is continuous, ifthere is a high pressure on one Side ofthe globe, there should be alow on the other side. With the rotation ofthe ‘arth the pressaresleo rotate, Hence, two maxima and wo minima dng 24 he “4 ATMOSPHEUC PaissuRE ex max in esisuee we eee Local Time Figure 2.3 Semi-Diuena Variation of Pressure Measurement Pressures accurately measured by Mercury barometer in which atmospheric pressure is balanced by the height of the mercury column. Aneroid barometer is another instcoment which is used for measuring pressure, Although aneroid barometer is not as accurate as mercury barometer, but for its ease of handling and convenience, itis widely used, Altimeter is an aneroid barometer in which the scale is graduated ‘o cead altitude instead of pressure, Alimeter has.a subscale, which can be set co the desiced value of pressure, For continually recording the pressure a Barograph is used. It coald be a Daily Barograph or Weekly Barograph. Altimeter Correction (Alkicor/D Value) ‘The correction applied ro the indicated arisude to obtain the tee abide is called altitude correction/atrimecer correction or in short ALTICOR. This is frequently required during mountain fyng:and bombing operations. , Alcor = Indicated Alitude = True Alitude Negative of Alcor i rermed as D Value ie D Value = True Altitude ~ Indicated Altitude 1D value decreases when aircraft flies from High to Low 5AVIATION Mereonotocy Rough calculations of Altimeter Cortection {0} Duco Pesure difrencs fom I, Add 30 for evecy 1 hPa differance When MSL pressuce is higher than 1013.2 hPa and subtcact 30 ft whee lower than 1013.2 hPa, ©) Due to Temperature diffrence from ISA, Add 1% of indicated altitude for every difference of 3°C when actual temperature is at the Flight Level and subtract when lower than ISA, (©) Add these algebraically co gt the final correction, Contours and Thickness ‘The mean temperatures of vertical colusans of aie di Accordingly the height ofthe columns, of pressure vahe (ay 850 hs) weed ao differ The lines oining places of equal ieght are called Contour, Shane os Bean cempéranire corresponds to Law pressure at higher levels, the areas of low Se eel lobe areas of ow presse and vice versa The Contour lines my also be treated as isobars, Scopocental meter: 1 gpm = 9.8 juleg. The contour lines ate numbered in Seopotential decametreseg, 5280 gom is indicated as 528. Ifthe ‘gpm is 700, then anit paces located approximately 700 gm above ml, Centres of Low and High high thickness where mean temperarare ofthe layers higher. Thus the isopleths of thickness coincide with the isotherms of mean temperature of the layer. Pressure Gradient 16 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE Presse Tendency end Isallobars ‘he shane of pressure with imei aed pressure tendency in india peste tendency is worked out for the pas 24 hr and in che higher ltndes forthe past {nee hours of he curceneobsereation. The lns joining equal presure change ate called Ullobars, Aa glance he isalloars, indicat aeas of rsingot linge ‘These are used as forecasting aid for movement and intensification weakening of Tate ‘stem. The region of greatest fll enclosed by isallobat is termed as Isallobatic Low and the region of highest rie, che'Tsallobanie bigh, ALTIMETRY Definitions Altitude. It isthe vecticaldiszance from the mean sea level (MSL), Height. Is che vercialditance from a specific dacum (eg from the ground), Elevation. ris the vertical distance of a poiat or a level onthe surace ofthe earth from MSL, ‘Teansition Alvitude (TA). Thisis the highesc altinude beloxe which an aircraft will always fy on local QNH. At or below TA the vertical posiion of ae aircraft is controlled with reference ta height above the aerodrome. Teansition Level TL), Thelowest Flight Level above which an aircraft wll always fly on standard QNE 7013.2 hPa, Above TL the vertca! position of an aircraft is from danum 1013.2 hPa. TL is expressed in hundreds of feee Transition Layer, The airspace beeween T A and TL, Flight Level, ‘These aze levels of constant pressure at or above the TL separated by apresue interval corresponding to $000 fe th MSE presure LOLS cn (eg. FLSO = 5,000 ft, FL300 = 30,000 fr, FL200 = 20,000 fy. Pressure Akiade, When the altimeter sub-scales seco 1013.2 hPa the alimeter indicates Pressure Alicude. Using 1013,2 bPa sectng avoids she need to update QNE. Pressure lttude isexpresed as g, 3500, 19000, 40000, st, whereas the attude 'sexpresed (by avoiding ls 0 zeros) as FL 35, FLI9O, F400, 7